A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities

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Title: A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
Author: Smith, William
Language: English
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ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ***

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
placed at the end of the relevant entry. Footnotes for Tables I-XVI
have been kept at the bottom of each relevant Table.

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SMALLER DICTIONARY

Greek and Roman Antiquities.

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SMALLER DICTIONARY

Greek and Roman Antiquities.

BY WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.,
EDITOR OF THE ‘CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIONARIES,’ ETC.

[Illustration]

ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY.

_TWELFTH EDITION._

ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED WOODCUTS.

LONDON:
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1884.

_The right of Translation is reserved._

DR. WM. SMITH’S DICTIONARIES.

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SMALLER DICTIONARY

GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

ĂBĂCUS (ἄβαξ), denoted primarily a square tablet of any description,
and was hence employed in the following significations:--(1) A table,
or side-board, chiefly used for the display of gold and silver
cups, and other kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. The use
of abaci was first introduced at Rome from Asia Minor after the
victories of Cn. Manlius Vulso, B.C. 187, and their introduction was
regarded as one of the marks of the growing luxury of the age.--(2)
A draught-board or chess-board.--(3) A board used by mathematicians
for drawing diagrams, and by arithmeticians for the purposes of
calculation.--(4) A painted panel, coffer, or square compartment in
the wall or ceiling of a chamber.--(5) In architecture, the flat
square stone which constituted the highest member of a column, being
placed immediately under the architrave.

[Illustration: Abacus.]

ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, and thus opposed to the
toga, the garb of peace. [TOGA.] The abolla was used by the lower
classes at Rome, and consequently by the philosophers who affected
severity of manners and life. Hence the expression of Juvenal,
_facinus majoris abollae_,--“a crime committed by a very deep
philosopher.”

[Illustration: Abolla. (Bellori, Arc. Triumph., pl. 11, 12.)]

ABRŎGĀTĬO. [LEX.]

ABSŎLŪTĬO. [JUDEX.]

ĂCAENA (ἀκαίνη, ἄκαινα, or in later Greek ἄκενα, in one place
ἄκαινον), a measuring rod of the length of ten Greek feet. It was
used in measuring land, and thus resembles the Roman decempeda.

ĂCATĬUM (ἀκάτιον, a diminutive of ἄκατος), a small vessel or boat
used by the Greeks, which appears to have been the same as the Roman
_scapha_. The _Acatia_ were also sails adapted for fast sailing.

ACCENSUS. (1) A public officer, who attended on several of the Roman
magistrates. The Accensi summoned the people to the assemblies,
and those who had law-suits to court; they preserved order in the
courts, and proclaimed the time of the day when it was the third
hour, the sixth hour, and the ninth hour. An accensus anciently
preceded the consul who had not the fasces, which custom, after being
long disused, was restored by Julius Cæsar in his first consulship.
Accensi also attended on the governors of provinces.--(2) The accensi
were also a class of soldiers in the Roman army, who were enlisted
after the full number of the legion had been completed, in order to
supply any vacancies that might occur in the legion. They were taken,
according to the census of Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of
citizens, and were placed in battle in the rear of the army, behind
the triarii.

ACCLĀMĀTĬO, was the public expression of approbation or
disapprobation, pleasure or displeasure, by loud acclamations.
On many occasions, there appear to have been certain forms of
acclamations always used by the Romans; as, for instance, at
marriages, _Io Hymen_, _Hymenaee_, or _Talassio_; at triumphs,
_Io Triumphe_; at the conclusion of plays, the last actor called
out _Plaudite_ to the spectators; orators were usually praised by
such expressions as _Bene et praeclare_, _Belle et festive_, _Non
potest melius_, &c. Under the empire the name of _acclamationes_ was
given to the praises and flatteries bestowed by the senate upon the
reigning emperor and his family.

ACCŬBĀTĬO, the act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were
accustomed, in later times, to recline at their meals; but this
practice could not have been of great antiquity in Greece, since
Homer always describes persons as sitting at their meals; and Isidore
of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attributes the same custom
to the ancient Romans. Even in the time of the early Roman emperors,
children in families of the highest rank used to sit together, while
their fathers and elders reclined on couches at the upper part of the
room. Roman ladies continued the practice of sitting at table, even
after the recumbent position had become common with the other sex.
It appears to have been considered more decent, and more agreeable
to the severity and purity of ancient manners, for women to sit,
more especially if many persons were present. But, on the other
hand, we find cases of women reclining, where there was conceived
to be nothing bold or indelicate in their posture. Such is the case
in the preceding woodcut, which seems intended to represent a scene
of matrimonial felicity. For an account of the disposition of the
couches, and of the place which each guest occupied in a Greek and
Roman entertainment, see SYMPOSIUM and TRICLINIUM.

[Illustration: Accubatio. Act of Reclining. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp.,
Suppl., iii. 60.)]

ACCŪSĀTOR, ACCŪSĀTIO. [JUDEX.]

ĂCERRA (θυμιατήριον, λιβανωτρίς), the incense-box or censer used
in sacrifices. The acerra was also a small moveable altar placed
before the dead, on which perfumes were burnt. The use of acerrae
at funerals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as an
unnecessary expense.

[Illustration: Acerra. (From a Frieze in the Museum Capitolinum.)]

ĂCĒTABŬLUM (ὀξίς, ὀξύβαφον, ὀξυβάφιον). (1) A vinegar-cup, wide and
open above, as we see in the annexed cut. The name was also given to
all cups resembling it in size and form, to whatever use they might
be applied.--(2) A Roman measure of capacity, fluid and dry. It was
one-fourth of the hemian, and therefore one-eighth of the sextarius.

[Illustration: Acetabulum. (Dennis, Etruria, p. xcvi.)]

ĂCHĀĬCUM FOEDUS. The Achaean league is divided into two periods.
1. _The earlier period._--When the Heracleidae took possession
of Peloponnesus, which had until then been chiefly inhabited
by Achaeans, a portion of the latter, under Tisamenus, turned
northwards and occupied the north coast of Peloponnesus. The country
thus occupied derived from them its name of Achaia, and contained
twelve confederate towns, which were governed by the descendants
of Tisamenus, till at length they abolished the kingly rule after
the death of Ogyges, and established a democracy. In the time of
Herodotus the twelve towns of which the league consisted were:
Pellene, Aegeira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes (Rhypae),
Patreis (ae), Phareis (ae), Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaeeis (Tritaea).
After the time of Herodotus, Rhypes and Aegae disappeared from the
number, and Ceryneia and Leontium stepped into their place. The bond
which united the towns of the league was not so much a political
as a religious one, as is shown by the common sacrifice offered
at Helice to Poseidon, and after the destruction of that town, at
Aegium to Zeus, surnamed Homagyrius, and to Demeter Panachaea. The
confederation exercised no great influence in the affairs of Greece
down to the time when it was broken up by the Macedonians. 2. _The
later period._--When Antigonus in B.C. 281 made the unsuccessful
attempt to deprive Ptolemaeus Ceraunus of the Macedonian throne,
the Achaeans availed themselves of the opportunity of shaking off
the Macedonian yoke, and renewing their ancient confederation. The
grand object however now was no longer a common worship, but a
real political union among the confederates. The fundamental laws
were, that henceforth the confederacy should form one inseparable
state, that each town, which should join it, should have equal
rights with the others, and that all members, in regard to foreign
countries, should be considered as dependent, and bound to obey in
every respect the federal government, and those officers who were
entrusted with the executive. Aegium was the seat of the government,
and it was there that the citizens of the various towns met at
regular and stated times, to deliberate upon the common affairs of
the league, and if it was thought necessary, upon those of separate
towns, and even of individuals, and to elect the officers of the
league. The league acquired its great strength in B.C. 251, when
Aratus united Sicyon, his native place, with it, and some years
later gained Corinth also for it. Megara, Troezene, and Epidaurus
soon followed their example. Afterwards Aratus persuaded all the
more important towns of Peloponnesus to join the confederacy, and
thus Megalopolis, Argos, Hermione, Phlius, and others were added to
it. In a short period the league reached the height of its power,
for it embraced Athens, Megara, Aegina, Salamis, and the whole of
Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Elis, Tegea, Orchomenos,
and Mantineia. The common affairs of the confederate towns were
regulated at general meetings attended by the citizens of all the
towns, and held regularly twice every year, in the spring and in
the autumn. These meetings, which lasted three days, were held in a
grove of Zeus Homagyrius in the neighbourhood of Aegium, and near a
sanctuary of Demeter Panachaea. Every citizen, both rich and poor,
who had attained the age of thirty, might attend the assemblies,
to which they were invited by a public herald, and might speak and
propose any measure. The subjects which were to be brought before
the assembly were prepared by a council (βουλή), which seems to have
been permanent. The principal officers of the confederacy were:
1. At first two strategi (στρατηγοί), but after the year B.C. 255
there was only one, who in conjunction with an hipparchus (ἴππαρχος)
or commander of the cavalry and an under-strategus (ὑποστρατηγός)
commanded the army furnished by the confederacy, and was entrusted
with the whole conduct of war; 2. A public secretary (γραμματεύς);
and, 3. Ten demiurgi (δημιουργοί). All the officers of the league
were elected in the assembly held in the spring, at the rising of
the Pleiades, and legally they were invested with their several
offices only for one year, though it frequently happened that men of
great merit and distinction were re-elected for several successive
years. If one of the officers died during the period of his office,
his place was filled by his predecessor, until the time for the
new elections arrived. The perpetual discord of the members of the
league, the hostility of Sparta, the intrigues of the Romans, and the
folly and rashness of the later strategi, brought about not only the
destruction and dissolution of the confederacy, but of the freedom of
all Greece, which after the fall of Corinth, in B.C. 146, became a
Roman province under the name of Achaia.

ĂCĬES. [EXERCITUS.]

ĂCĪNĂCĒS (ἀκινάκης), a Persian sword, whence Horace speaks of the
_Medus acinaces_. The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, and
thus differed from the Roman _sica_, which was curved. It was worn on
the right side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans usually had
their swords suspended on the left side. The form of the acinaces,
with the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the following
Persepolitan figures.

[Illustration: Acinaces, Persian Sword. (From bas-reliefs at
Persepolis.)]

ACISCŬLUS. [ASCIA.]

ĀCLIS, a kind of dart with a leathern thong attached to it. [AMENTUM.]

ACROĀMA (ἀκρόαμα), which properly means any thing heard, was the name
given to a concert of players on different musical instruments, and
also to an interlude performed during the exhibition of the public
games. The word is also applied to the actors and musicians who were
employed to amuse guests during an entertainment, and is sometimes
used to designate the anagnostae. [ANAGNOSTES.]

ACRŎLĬTHI (ἀκρόλιθοι), statues, of which the extremities only were
of marble, and the remaining part of the body of wood either gilt or
covered with drapery.

ACRŎPŎLIS (ἀκρόπολις). In almost all Greek states, which were
usually built upon a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there
was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the highest part of the rock
or hill, to which the name of _Acropolis_, higher or upper city,
was given. Thus we read of an acropolis at Athens, Corinth, Argos,
Messene, and many other places. The Capitolium at Rome answered the
same purpose as the Acropolis in the Greek cities; and of the same
kind were the tower of Agathocles at Utica, and that of Antonia at
Jerusalem.

ACROSTŎLĬUM. [NAVIS.]

ACRŎTĒRĬUM (ἀκρωτήριον), signifies the extremity of any thing, and
was applied by the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of a vessel
(ἀκροστόλιον), which were usually taken from a conquered vessel as
a mark of victory: the act of doing so was called ἀκρωτηριάζειν. In
architecture it signifies, 1. The sloping roof of a building. 2. The
pediment. 3. The pedestals for statues placed on the summit of a
pediment. In sculpture it signifies the extremities of a statue, as
wings, feet, hands, &c.

ACTA. (1) The public acts and orders of a Roman magistrate, which
after the expiration of his office were submitted to the senate for
approval or rejection. Under the empire, all the magistrates when
entering upon their office on the 1st of January swore approval of
the acts of the reigning emperor.--(2) ACTA FORENSIA were of two
kinds: first, those relating to the government, as leges, plebiscita,
edicta, the names of all the magistrates, &c., which formed part of
the _tabulae publicae_; and secondly, those connected with the courts
of law.--(3) ACTA MILITARIA, contained an account of the duties,
numbers, and expenses of each legion, and were probably preserved
in the military treasury founded by Augustus.--(4) ACTA SENATUS,
called also COMMENTARII SENATUS and ACTA PATRUM, contained an account
of the various matters brought before the senate, the opinions of
the chief speakers, and the decision of the house. By command of
Julius Caesar they were published regularly every day as part of
the government gazette. Augustus forbade the publication of the
proceedings of the senate, but they still continued to be preserved,
and one of the most distinguished senators was chosen by the emperor
to compile the account.--(5) ACTA DIURNA, a gazette published daily
at Rome by the authority of the government, during the later times
of the republic and under the empire, corresponding in some measure
to our newspapers. They were also called _Acta Publica_, _Acta
Urbana_, _Acta Rerum Urbanarum_, _Acta Populi_, and sometimes simply
_Acta_ or _Diurna_. They contained, 1. A list of births and deaths
in the city, an account of the money paid into the treasury from
the provinces, and every thing relating to the supply of corn. 2.
Extracts from the Acta Forensia. 3. Extracts from the Acta Senatus.
4. A court circular, containing an account of the births, deaths,
festivals, and movements of the imperial family. 5. An account of
such public affairs and foreign wars as the government thought proper
to publish. 6. Curious and interesting occurrences, such as prodigies
and miracles, the erection of new edifices, the conflagration of
buildings, funerals, sacrifices, a list of the various games, and
especially curious tales and adventures, with the names of the
parties.

ACTĬA (ἄκτια), a festival celebrated every four years at Actium in
Epirus, with wrestling, horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour of
Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of Apollo at Actium. After
the defeat of Antony off Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple, and
instituted games to be celebrated every five years in commemoration
of his victory.

ACTĬO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be the right of pursuing by
judicial means what is a man’s due. The old actions of the Roman
law were called _legis actiones_ or _legitimae_, either because
they were expressly provided for by the laws of the Twelve Tables,
or because they were strictly adapted to the words of the laws, and
therefore could not be varied. But these forms of action gradually
fell into disuse, in consequence of the excessive nicety required,
and the failure consequent on the slightest error in the pleadings,
and they were eventually abolished by the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges
Juliae, except in a few cases. In the old Roman constitution, the
knowledge of the law was most closely connected with the institutes
and ceremonial of religion, and was accordingly in the hands of
the patricians alone, whose aid their clients were obliged to ask
in all their legal disputes. App. Claudius Caecus, perhaps one of
the earliest writers on law, drew up the various forms of actions,
probably for his own use and that of his friends: the manuscript was
stolen or copied by his scribe Cn. Flavius, who made it public; and
thus, according to the story, the plebeians became acquainted with
those legal forms which hitherto had been the exclusive property of
the patricians. After the abolition of the old legal actions, a suit
was prosecuted in the following manner:--An action was commenced by
the plaintiff summoning the defendant to appear before the praetor
or other magistrate who had _jurisdictio_; this process was called
_in jus vocatio_; and, according to the laws of the Twelve Tables,
was in effect a dragging of the defendant before the praetor, if
he refused to go quietly; and although this rude proceeding was
somewhat modified in later times, we find in the time of Horace
that if the defendant would not go quietly, the plaintiff called on
any bystander to witness, and dragged the defendant into court. The
parties might settle their dispute on their way to the court, or
the defendant might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex must not be
confounded with the vades. This settlement of disputes on the way
was called _transactio in via_, and serves to explain a passage in
St. Matthew, v. 25. When before the praetor, the parties were said
_jure agere_. The plaintiff then prayed for an action, and if the
praetor allowed it (_dabat actionem_), he then declared what action
he intended to bring against the defendant, which he called _edere
actionem_. This might be done in writing, or orally, or by the
plaintiff taking the defendant to the _album_ [ALBUM], and showing
him which action he intended to rely on. As the _formulae_ on the
album comprehended, or were supposed to comprehend, every possible
form of action that could be required by a plaintiff, it was presumed
that he could find among all the formulae some one which was adapted
to his case; and he was, accordingly, supposed to be without excuse
if he did not take pains to select the proper formula. If he took
the wrong one, or if he claimed more than his due, he lost his cause
(_causa cadebat_); but the praetor sometimes gave him leave to amend
his claim or _intentio_. It will be observed, that as the formulae
were so numerous and comprehensive, the plaintiff had only to select
the formula which he supposed to be suitable to his case, and it
would require no further variation than the insertion of the names
of the parties and of the thing claimed, or the subject-matter of
the suit, with the amount of damages, &c., as the case might be.
When the praetor had granted an action, the plaintiff required the
defendant to give security for his appearance before the praetor
(_in jure_) on a day named, commonly the day but one after the _in
jus vocatio_, unless the matter in dispute was settled at once. The
defendant, on finding a surety, was said _vades dare_, _vadimonium
promittere_, or _facere_; the surety, _vas_, was said _spondere_;
the plaintiff, when satisfied with the surety, was said _vadari
reum_, to let him go on his sureties, or to have sureties from him.
When the defendant promised to appear _in jure_ on the day named,
without giving any surety, this was called _vadimonium purum_. In
some cases, _recuperatores_ [JUDEX] were named, who, in case of the
defendant making default, condemned him in the sum of money named in
the _vadimonium_. If the defendant appeared on the day appointed,
he was said _vadimonium sistere_; if he did not appear, he was said
_vadimonium deseruisse_; and the praetor gave to the plaintiff
the _bonorum possessio_. Both parties, on the day appointed, were
summoned by a crier (_praeco_), when the plaintiff made his claim
or demand, which was very briefly expressed, and may be considered
as corresponding to our declaration at law. The defendant might
either deny the plaintiff’s claim, or he might reply to it by a
plea, _exceptio_. If he simply denied the plaintiff’s claim, the
cause was at issue, and a judex might be demanded. The forms of the
_exceptio_, also, were contained in the praetor’s edict, or, upon
hearing the facts, the praetor adapted the plea to the case. The
plaintiff might reply to the defendant’s _exceptio_. The plaintiff’s
answer was called _replicatio_. If the defendant answered the
_replicatio_, his answer was called _duplicatio_; and the parties
might go on to the _triplicatio_ and _quadruplicatio_, and even
further, if the matters in question were such that they could not
otherwise be brought to an issue. A person might maintain or defend
an action by his _cognitor_ or _procurator_, or, as we should say,
by his attorney. The plaintiff and defendant used a certain form
of words in appointing a cognitor, and it would appear that the
appointment was made in the presence of both parties. The cognitor
needed not to be present, and his appointment was complete when by
his acts he had signified his assent. When the cause was brought to
an issue, a judex or judices might be demanded of the praetor, who
named or appointed a judex, and delivered to him the formula, which
contained his instructions. The judices were said _dari_ or _addici_.
So far the proceedings were said to be _in jure_: the prosecution of
the actio before the judex requires a separate discussion. [JUDEX.]

ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In a civil or private action,
the plaintiff was often called _petitor_; in a public action (_causa
publica_), he was called _accusator_. The defendant was called
_reus_, both in private and public causes: this term, however,
according to Cicero, might signify either party, as indeed we might
conclude from the word itself. In a private action the defendant
was often called _adversarius_, but either party might be called
_adversarius_ with respect to the other. Wards brought their actions
by their guardian or tutor. _Peregrini_, or aliens, originally
brought their action through their patronus; but afterwards in their
own name, by a fiction of law, that they were Roman citizens. A Roman
citizen might also generally bring his action by means of a cognitor
or procurator. [ACTIO.] Actor has also the sense of an agent or
manager of another’s business generally. The _actor publicus_ was an
officer who had the superintendence or care of slaves and property
belonging to the state.

ACTŬĀRĬAE NĀVES, transport-vessels, seem to have been built in a
lighter style than the ordinary ships of burden, from which they also
differed in being always furnished with oars, whereas the others were
chiefly propelled by sails.

ACTŬĀRĬI, short-hand writers, who took down the speeches in the
senate and the public assemblies. In the debate in the Roman senate
upon the punishment of those who had been concerned in the conspiracy
of Catiline, we find the first mention of short-hand writers, who
were employed by Cicero to take down the speech of Cato.

ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also called _actus quadratus_, was
equal to half a jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The _actus
minimus_, or _simplex_, was 120 feet long, and four broad, and
therefore equal to 480 square Roman feet. Actus was also used to
signify a bridle-way.

ĂCUS (βελόνη, βελονίς, ῥαφίς), a needle, a pin. Pins were made not
only of metal, but also of wood, bone, and ivory. They were used for
the same purposes as with us, and also in dressing the hair. The mode
of platting the hair, and then fastening it with a pin or needle, is
shown in the annexed figure of a female head. This fashion has been
continued to our own times by the females of Italy.

[Illustration: Acus. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., Suppl., iii. 8.)]

ADDICTI. [NEXI.]

ADFĪNES. [AFFINES.]

ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons under the empire who were admitted
to the privileges and honours of the praetorship, quaestorship,
aedileship, and other public offices, without having any duties to
perform. The senators called _adlecti_ seem to have been the same as
the conscripti.

ADLŎCŪTĬO. [ALLOCUTIO.]

ADMISSĬŌNĀLES, chamberlains at the imperial court, who introduced
persons into the presence of the emperor. They were divided into
four classes; the chief officer of each class was called _proximus
admissionum_; and the proximi were under the _magister admissionum_.
Their duty was called _officium admissionis_. They were usually
freedmen.

ĂDŎLESCENS, was applied in the Roman law to a person from the end of
his twelfth or fourteenth to the end of his twenty-fifth year, during
which period a person was also called _adultus_. The word adolescens,
however, is frequently used in a less strict sense in the Latin
writers in referring to a person much older than the above-mentioned
age.

ĂDŌNĬA (ἀδώνια), a festival celebrated in honour of Aphrodite and
Adonis in most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, and was
celebrated by women exclusively. On the first day they brought into
the streets statues of Adonis, which were laid out as corpses; and
they observed all the rites customary at funerals, beating themselves
and uttering lamentations. The second day was spent in merriment and
feasting; because Adonis was allowed to return to life, and spend
half the year with Aphrodite.

ĂDOPTĬO, adoption. (1) GREEK.--Adoption was called by the Athenians
εἰσποίησις, or sometimes simply ποίησις, or θέσις. The adoptive
father was said ποιεῖσθαι, εἰσποιεῖσθαι, or sometimes ποιεῖν: and
the father or mother (for a mother after the death of her husband
could consent to her son being adopted) was said ἐκποιεῖν: the son
was said ἐκποιεῖσθαι with reference to the family which he left;
and εἰσποιεῖσθαι with reference to the family into which he was
received. The son, when adopted, was called ποιητός, εἰσποιητός, or
θετός, in opposition to the legitimate son born of the body of the
father, who was called γνήσιος. A man might adopt a son either in
his lifetime or by his testament, provided he had no male offspring,
and was of sound mind. He might also, by testament, name a person
to take his property, in case his son or sons should die under
age. Only Athenian citizens could be adopted; but females could be
adopted (by testament at least) as well as males. The adopted child
was transferred from his own family and demus into those of the
adoptive father; he inherited his property, and maintained the sacra
of his adoptive father. It was not necessary for him to take his
new father’s name, but he was registered as his son in the register
of his phratria (φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον). Subsequently to this, it
was necessary to enter him in the register of the adoptive father’s
demus (ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον), without which registration it
appears that he did not possess the full rights of citizenship as a
member of his new demus.--(2) ROMAN.--The Roman relation of parent
and child arose either from a lawful marriage or from adoption.
_Adoptio_ was the general name which comprehended the two species,
_adoptio_ and _adrogatio_; and as the adopted person passed from
his own familia into that of the person adopting, _adoptio_ caused
a _capitis diminutio_, and the lowest of the three kinds. [CAPUT.]
Adoption, in its specific sense, was the ceremony by which a person
who was in the power of his parent (_in potestate parentum_),
whether child or grandchild, male or female, was transferred to the
power of the person adopting him. It was effected under the authority
of a magistrate (_magistratus_), the praetor, for instance, at
Rome, or a governor (_praeses_) in the provinces. The person to be
adopted was emancipated [MANCIPATIO] by his natural father before
the competent authority, and surrendered to the adoptive father by
the legal form called _in jure cessio_. When a person was not in
the power of his parent (_sui juris_), the ceremony of adoption was
called _adrogatio_. Originally, it could only be effected at Rome,
and only by a vote of the populus (_populi auctoritate_) in the
comitia curiata (_lege curiata_); the reason of this being that the
caput or status of a Roman citizen could not, according to the laws
of the Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote of the populus
in the comitia curiata. Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was adrogated
into a plebeian family, in order to qualify himself to be elected
a tribune of the plebs. Females could not be adopted by adrogatio.
Under the emperors it became the practice to effect the adrogatio by
an imperial rescript. The effect of adoption was to create the legal
relation of father and son, just as if the adopted son were born of
the blood of the adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adopted
child was intitled to the name and sacra privata of the adopting
parent. A person, on passing from one gens into another, and taking
the name of his new familia, generally retained the name of his old
gens also, with the addition to it of the termination _anus_. Thus
Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, upon being adopted by P.
Cornelius Scipio, assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus,
and C. Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus, upon being adopted
by the testament of his great-uncle the dictator, assumed the name of
C. Julius Caesar Octavianus.

ĂDŌRĀTĬO (προσκύνησις), adoration, was paid to the gods in the
following manner:--The individual stretched out his right hand to the
statue of the god whom he wished to honour, then kissed his hand,
and waved it to the statue. The adoratio differed from the _oratio_
or prayers, which were offered with the hands folded together and
stretched out to the gods. The adoration paid to the Roman emperors
was borrowed from the Eastern mode, and consisted in prostration on
the ground, and kissing the feet and knees of the emperor.

ADRŎGĀTĬO. [ADOPTIO, (ROMAN).]

ĂDULTĔRĬUM, adultery. (1) GREEK.--Among the Athenians, if a man
caught another man in the act of criminal intercourse (μοιχεία)
with his wife, he might kill him with impunity; and the law was
also the same with respect to a concubine (παλλακή). He might also
inflict other punishment on the offender. It appears that there was
no adultery, unless a married woman was concerned. The husband might,
if he pleased, take a sum of money from the adulterer, by way of
compensation, and detain him till he found sureties for the payment.
The husband might also prosecute the adulterer in the action called
μοιχείας γραφή. If the act of adultery was proved, the husband could
no longer cohabit with his wife, under pain of losing his privileges
of a citizen (ἀτιμία). The adulteress was excluded even from those
temples which foreign women and slaves were allowed to enter; and if
she was seen there, any one might treat her as he pleased, provided
he did not kill her or mutilate her.--(2) ROMAN.--The word adulterium
properly signifies, in the Roman law, the offence committed by a
man’s having sexual intercourse with another man’s wife. _Stuprum_
(called by the Greeks φθορά) signifies the like offence with a widow
or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was enacted (probably about
B.C. 17), entitled _Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis_, which seems
to have contained special penal provisions against adultery; and
it is also not improbable that, by the old law or custom, if the
adulterer was caught in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured
husband, and that the husband might punish with death his adulterous
wife. By the Julian law, a woman convicted of adultery was mulcted
in half of her dowry (_dos_) and the third part of her property
(_bona_), and banished (_relegata_) to some miserable island, such
as Seriphos, for instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half his
property, and banished in like manner. This law did not inflict the
punishment of death on either party; and in those instances under
the emperors in which death was inflicted, it must be considered as
an extraordinary punishment, and beyond the provisions of the Julian
law. The Julian law permitted the father (both adoptive and natural)
to kill the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases, as to which
there were several nice distinctions established by the law. If the
wife was divorced for adultery, the husband was entitled to retain
part of the dowry. By a constitution of the Emperor Constantine, the
offence in the adulterer was made capital.

ADVERSĀRĬA, a note-book, memorandum-book, posting-book, in which
the Romans entered memoranda of any importance, especially of money
received and expended, which were afterwards transcribed, usually
every month, into a kind of ledger. (_Tabulae justae, codex accepti
et expensi._)

ADVERSĀRĬUS. [ACTOR.]

ĂDŬNĂTI (ἀδύνατοι), were persons supported by the Athenian state,
who, on account of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to obtain
a livelihood. The sum which they received from the state appears to
have varied at different times. In the time of Lysias and Aristotle,
one obolus a day was given; but it appears to have been afterwards
increased to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to persons whose
property was under three minae; and the examination of those who
were entitled to it belonged to the senate of the Five Hundred.
Peisistratus is said to have been the first to introduce a law for
the maintenance of those persons who had been mutilated in war.

ADVOCATUS, seems originally to have signified any person who gave
another his aid in any affair or business, as a witness for instance;
or for the purpose of aiding and protecting him in taking possession
of a piece of property. It was also used to express a person who
in any way gave his advice and aid to another in the management
of a cause; but, in the time of Cicero, the word did not signify
the orator or patronus who made the speech. Under the emperors it
signified a person who in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause,
and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The advocate’s fee was then
called _Honorarium_.

ĂDỸTUM. [TEMPLUM.]

AEDES. [DOMUS; TEMPLUM.]

AEDĪLES (ἀγορανόμοι). The name of these functionaries is said to be
derived from their having the care of the temple (_aedes_) of Ceres.
The aediles were originally two in number: they were elected from the
plebs, and the institution of the office dates from the same time as
that of the tribunes of the plebs, B.C. 494. Their duties at first
seem to have been merely ministerial; they were the assistants of the
tribunes in such matters as the tribunes entrusted to them, among
which are enumerated the hearing of causes of smaller importance.
At an early period after their institution (B.C. 446), we find them
appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, which the consuls
had hitherto arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were also the
keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions were gradually entrusted
to them, and it is not always easy to distinguish their duties from
some of those which belong to the censors. They had the general
superintendence of buildings, both sacred and private; under this
power they provided for the support and repair of temples, curiae,
&c., and took care that private buildings which were in a ruinous
state were repaired by the owners or pulled down. The care of the
supply and distribution of water, of the streets and pavements, with
the cleansing and draining of the city, belonged to the aediles;
and, of course, the care of the cloacae. They had the office of
distributing corn among the plebs, but this distribution of corn at
Rome must not be confounded with the duty of purchasing or procuring
it from foreign parts, which was performed by the consuls, quaestors,
and praetors, and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, as the
praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see that the public lands
were not improperly used, and that the pasture grounds of the state
were not trespassed on; and they had power to punish by fine any
unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superintendence over
buying and selling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the
markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights
and measures; from this part of their duty is derived the name under
which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers (ἀγορανόμοι).
It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites
were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of
religious ceremonies, and the celebrations of the ancient feasts
and festivals. The general superintendence of police comprehended
the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection
of the baths and houses of entertainment. The aediles had various
officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and viatores. The AEDILES
CURULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only
from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and
the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule
aediles was instituted B.C. 365, and, according to Livy, on the
occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the
Ludi Maximi for the space of four days instead of three; upon which a
senatus-consultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen
from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and
two curule, were annually elected. The distinctive honours of the
curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is
derived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speaking in the senate,
and the jus imaginum. Only the curule aediles had the jus edicendi,
or the right of promulgating edicta; but the rules comprised in their
edicta served for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the
curule aediles were founded on their authority as superintendents
of the markets, and of buying and selling in general. Accordingly,
their edicts had mainly, or perhaps solely, reference to the rules
as to buying and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The
persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti. It
seems that after the appointment of the curule aediles, the functions
formerly exercised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some
few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within five days
after being elected, or entering on office, they were required to
determine by lot, or by agreement among themselves, what parts of
the city each should take under his superintendence; and each aedile
alone had the care of looking after the paving and cleansing of the
streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local
character within his district. The other duties of the office seem
to have been exercised by them jointly. In the superintendence of
the public festivals or solemnities, there was a further distinction
between the two sets of aediles. Many of these festivals, such as
those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended by either set of aediles
indifferently; but the plebeian games were under the superintendence
of the plebeian aediles, who had an allowance of money for that
purpose; and the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to
have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The
celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or
dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially
to the curule aediles, and it was on such occasions that they often
incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people,
and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant
expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic
war, and increased with the opportunities which individuals had of
enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece,
Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors hardly
surpassed that of individual curule aediles under the republic; such
as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther,
and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not
limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as
the reparation of walls, dock-yards, ports, and aquaeducts. In B.C.
45, Julius Caesar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles
to be elected; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of
aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The
two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was
to look after the supply of corn. Though their office may not have
been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus
annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several
centuries, and at least as late as the time of the emperor Gordian.
The aediles belonged to the class of the minores magistratus. The
plebeian aediles were originally chosen at the comitia centuriata,
but afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which comitia the curule
aediles also were chosen. It appears that until the lex annalis
was passed (B.C. 180) a Roman citizen might be a candidate for any
office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the
age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the
age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-six. The aediles existed
under the emperors; but their powers were gradually diminished, and
their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors.
After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi,
who exercised the general police, which had formerly been one of
the duties of the aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, or
exercised himself, the office of superintending the religious rites,
and the banishing from the city of all foreign ceremonials; he also
assumed the superintendence of the temples, and thus may be said
to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving it of its old and
original function. The last recorded instance of the splendours of
the aedileship is the administration of Agrippa, who volunteered to
take the office, and repaired all the public buildings and all the
roads at his own expense, without drawing anything from the treasury.
The aedileship had, however, lost its true character before this
time. Agrippa had already been consul before he accepted the office
of aedile, and his munificent expenditure in this nominal office was
the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed
the curule aediles specially to the office of putting out fires,
and placed a body of 600 slaves at their command; but the praefecti
vigilum afterwards performed this duty. They retained, under the
early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open
licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, and the municipia of the
later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and functions
varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers
and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen
annually.

AEDĬTŬI, AEDĬTŬMI, AEDĬTĬMI (called by the Greeks νεωκόροι, ζάκοροι,
and ὑποζάκοροι), were persons who took care of the temples, attended
to the cleaning of them, &c. They appear to have lived in the
temples, or near them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those persons
who wished to see them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the menial
services connected with this office were left to slaves, and the
persons called _neocori_ became priestly officers of high rank, who
had the chief superintendence of temples, their treasures, and the
sacred rites observed in them.

[Illustration: Aegis worn by Athena.

From Torso at Dresden. From Ancient Statues.]

AEGIS (αἰγίς) signifies, literally, a goat-skin. According to ancient
mythology, the aegis worn by Zeus was the hide of the goat Amaltheia,
which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as
part of the armour of Zeus, whom on this account he distinguishes by
the epithet _aegis-bearing_ (αἰγίοχος). He, however, asserts, that
it was borrowed on different occasions both by Apollo and Athena.
The aegis was connected with the shield of Zeus, either serving as
a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the
right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only
the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to
which it belonged. The aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to
the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it
was fixed the appalling Gorgon’s head, and its border was surrounded
with golden tassels (θύσανοι), each of which was worth a hecatomb.
The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Athena, in which it is
a sort of scarf falling obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to
pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon’s
head are transferred to the border of the skin. (See the left-hand
figure in the cut.) The later poets and artists represent the aegis
as a breast-plate covered with metal in the form of scales. (See the
right-hand figure.)

AENĔĀTŌRES, were those who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman
army; namely, the _buccinatores_, _cornicines_, and _tubicines_. They
were also employed in the public games.

AENIGMA (αἴνιγμα), a riddle. It was an ancient custom among the
Greeks to amuse themselves by proposing riddles at their symposia, or
drinking parties. Those who were successful in solving them, received
a prize, which usually consisted of wreaths, cakes, &c., while those
who were unsuccessful were condemned to drink in one breath a certain
quantity of wine, sometimes mixed with salt water. Those riddles
which have come down to us are mostly in hexameter verse. The Romans
seem to have been too serious to find any great amusement in riddles.

AENUM, or ĂHĒNUM (sc. _vas_), a brazen vessel, used for boiling.
The word is also frequently used in the sense of a dyer’s copper;
and, as purple was the most celebrated dye of antiquity, we find the
expressions _Sidonium aënum_, _Tyrium aënum_, &c.

AEŌRA, or ĔŌRA (αἰώρα, ἐώρα), a festival at Athens, accompanied with
sacrifices and banquets, whence it is sometimes called εὔδειπνος. It
was probably instituted in honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigone.

AERA. [CHRONOLOGIA.]

AERĀRĬI, a class of Roman citizens, who were not included in the
thirty tribes instituted by Servius Tullius. Although citizens, they
did not possess the suffragium, or right of voting in the comitia.
They were _cives sine suffragio_. They also paid the tribute in a
different manner from the other citizens. The Aerarians were chiefly
artisans and freedmen. The Caerites, or inhabitants of the Etruscan
town of Caere, who obtained the franchise in early times, but without
the suffragium, were probably the first body of aerarians. Any
Roman citizen guilty of a crime punishable by the censors, might
be degraded to the rank of an aerarian; so that his civic rights
were suspended, at least for the time that he was an aerarian. All
citizens so degraded were classed among the Caerites; whence we find
the expressions _aerarium facere_ and _in tabulas Caeritum referre_
used as synonymous. Persons who were made _infames_ likewise became
aerarians, for they lost the jus honorum and the suffragium. The
aerarians had to pay a tributum pro capite which was considerably
higher than that paid by the other citizens. They were not allowed to
serve in the legions.

AERĀRĬI TRĬBŪNI. [AES EQUESTRE.]

AERĀRĬUM (τὸ δημόσιον), the public treasury at Rome, and hence the
public money itself. After the banishment of the kings the temple
of Saturn was employed as the place for keeping the public money,
and it continued to be so used till the later times of the empire.
Besides the public money and the accounts connected with it, various
other things were preserved in the treasury; of these the most
important were:--1. The standards of the legions. 2. The various
laws passed from time to time, engraven on brazen tables. 3. The
decrees of the senate, which were entered there in books kept for the
purpose, though the original documents were preserved in the temple
of Ceres under the custody of the aediles. 4. Various other public
documents, the reports and despatches of all generals and governors
of provinces, the names of all foreign ambassadors that came to Rome,
&c. Under the republic the aerarium was divided into two parts: the
_common_ treasury, in which were deposited the regular taxes, and
from which were taken the sums of money needed for the ordinary
expenditure of the state; and the _sacred_ treasury (_aerarium
sanctum_ or _sanctius_), which was never touched except in cases of
extreme peril. Both of these treasuries were in the temple of Saturn,
but in distinct parts of the temple. The produce of a tax of five
per cent. (_vicesima_) upon the value of every manumitted slave,
called _aurum vicesimarium_, was paid into the sacred treasury, as
well as a portion of the immense wealth obtained by the Romans in
their conquests in the East. Under Augustus the provinces and the
administration of the government were divided between the senate,
as the representative of the old Roman people, and the Caesar: all
the property of the former continued to be called _aerarium_, and
that of the latter received the name of _fiscus_. Augustus also
established a third treasury, to provide for the pay and support of
the army, and this received the name of _aerarium militare_. He also
imposed several new taxes to be paid into this aerarium. In the time
of the republic, the entire management of the revenues of the state
belonged to the senate; and under the superintendence and control of
the senate the quaestors had the charge of the aerarium. In B.C. 28,
Augustus deprived the quaestors of the charge of the treasury and
gave it to two praefects, whom he allowed the senate to choose from
among the praetors at the end of their year of office. Various other
changes were made with respect to the charge of the aerarium, but it
was eventually entrusted, in the reign of Trajan, to praefects, who
appear to have held their office for two years.

AES (χαλκός), properly signifies a compound of copper and tin,
corresponding to what we call _bronze_. It is incorrect to translate
it _brass_, which is a combination of copper and zinc, since all the
specimens of ancient objects, formed of the material called aes,
are found upon analysis to contain no zinc. The employment of aes
was very general among the ancients; money, vases, and utensils of
all sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient coins in Rome and
the old Italian states were made of aes, and hence money in general
was called by this name. For the same reason we have _aes alienum_,
meaning debt, and _aera_ in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The
Romans had no other coinage except bronze or copper (_aes_), till
B.C. 269, five years before the first Punic war, when silver was
first coined; gold was not coined till sixty-two years after silver.
The first coinage of aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius,
who is said to have stamped the money with the image of cattle
(_pecus_), whence it is called _pecunia_. According to some accounts,
it was coined from the commencement of the city, and we know that
the old Italian states possessed a bronze or copper coinage from the
earliest times. The first coinage was the _as_ [AS], which originally
was a pound weight; but as in course of time the weight of the _as_
was reduced not only in Rome, but in the other Italian states, and
this reduction in weight was not uniform in the different states,
it became usual in all bargains to pay the asses according to their
weight, and not according to their nominal value. The _aes grave_ was
not the old heavy coins as distinguished from the lighter modern; but
it signified any number of copper coins reckoned according to the old
style, by weight. There was, therefore, no occasion for the state
to suppress the circulation of the old copper coins, since in all
bargains the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by weight.--Bronze
or copper (χαλκός) was very little used by the Greeks for money in
early times. Silver was originally the universal currency, and copper
appears to have been seldom coined till after the time of Alexander
the Great. The copper coin was called _Chalcous_ (χαλκούς). The
smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous
was the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the
obol was coined of copper as well as silver.

AES CIRCUMFORĀNĔUM, money borrowed from the Roman bankers
(_argentarii_), who had shops in porticoes round the forum.

AES ĔQUESTRE, AES HORDĔĀRĬUM, and AES MĪLĬTĀRE, were the ancient
terms for the pay of the Roman soldiers, before the regular
_stipendium_ was introduced. The _aes equestre_ was the sum of
money given for the purchase of the horse of an eques; the _aes
hordearium_, the sum paid yearly for its keep, in other words the
pay of an eques; and the _aes militare_, the pay of a foot soldier.
None of this money seems to have been taken from the public treasury,
but to have been paid by certain private persons, to whom this duty
was assigned by the state. The _aes hordearium_, which amounted to
2000 asses, had to be paid by single women (_viduae_, i.e. both
maidens and widows) and orphans (_orbi_), provided they possessed a
certain amount of property. The _aes equestre_, which amounted to
10,000 asses, was probably also paid by the same class of persons.
The _aes militare_, the amount of which is not expressly mentioned,
had to be paid by the _tribuni aerarii_, and if not paid, the foot
soldiers had a right of distress against them. It is generally
assumed that these _tribuni aerarii_ were magistrates connected with
the treasury, and that they were the assistants of the quaestors;
but there are good reasons for believing that the _tribuni aerarii_
were private persons, who were liable to the payment of the _aes
militare_, and upon whose property a distress might be levied, if
the money were not paid. They were probably persons whose property
was rated at a certain sum in the census, and we may conjecture that
they obtained the name of _tribuni aerarii_ because they levied the
_tributum_, which was imposed for the purpose of paying the army,
and then paid it to the soldiers. These _tribuni aerarii_ were no
longer needed when the state took into its own hands the payment of
the troops; but they were revived in B.C. 70, as a distinct class in
the commonwealth, by the Lex Aurelia, which gave the judicia to the
senators, equites and tribuni aerarii.

AES UXŌRĬUM, was a tax paid by men who reached old age without having
married. It was first imposed by the censors in B.C. 403. [LEX JULIA
ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]

AESYMNĒTES (αἰσυμνήτης), a person who was sometimes invested with
unlimited power in the Greek states. His power partook in some degree
of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority; since he was
appointed legally, and did not usurp the government, but at the same
time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The
office was not hereditary, nor was it held for life; but it only
continued for a limited time, or till some object was accomplished.
Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed Pittacus
aesymnetes, in order to prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other
exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship of Rome. In some
states, such as Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne by the
regular magistrates.

AETAS. [INFANS; IMPUBES.]

AETŌLĬCUM FOEDUS (κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων), the Aetolian league, appears
as a powerful political body soon after the death of Alexander
the Great, viz. during the Lamian war against Antipater. The
characteristic difference between the Aetolian and Achaean leagues
was that the former originally consisted of a confederacy of nations
or tribes, while the latter was a confederacy of towns. The sovereign
power of the confederacy was vested in the general assemblies of
all the confederates (κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων, _concilium Aetolorum_),
and this assembly had the right to discuss all questions respecting
peace and war, and to elect the great civil or military officers
of the league. The ordinary place of meeting was Thermon, but on
extraordinary occasions assemblies were also held in other towns
belonging to the league, though they were not situated in the country
of Aetolia Proper. The questions which were to be brought before
the assembly were sometimes discussed previously by a committee,
selected from the great mass, and called Apocleti (ἀπόκλητοι). The
general assembly usually met in the autumn, when the officers of the
league were elected. The highest among them, as among those of the
Achaean league, bore the title of _Strategus_ (στρατηγός), whose
office lasted only for one year. The strategus had the right to
convoke the assembly; he presided in it, introduced the subjects for
deliberation, and levied the troops. The officers next in rank to the
strategus were the hipparchus and the public scribe. The political
existence of the league was destroyed in B.C. 189 by the treaty
with Rome, and the treachery of the Roman party among the Aetolians
themselves caused in B.C. 167 five hundred and fifty of the leading
patriots to be put to death, and those who survived the massacre were
carried to Rome as prisoners.

ĀĔTŌMA (ἀέτωμα). [FASTIGIUM.]

AFFĪNES, AFFĪNĬTAS, or ADFĪNES, ADFĪNĬTAS. Affines are the _cognati_
[COGNATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the husband becoming
the affines of the wife, and the cognati of the wife the affines
of the husband. The father of a husband is the _socer_ of the
husband’s wife, and the father of a wife is the _socer_ of the wife’s
husband. The term _socrus_ expresses the same affinity with respect
to the husband’s and wife’s mothers. A son’s wife is _nurus_, or
daughter-in-law to the son’s parents; a wife’s husband is _gener_, or
son-in-law to the wife’s parents. Thus the _avus_, _avia_--_pater_,
_mater_--of the wife became by the marriage respectively the _socer
magnus_, _prosocrus_, or _socrus magna_--_socer_, _socrus_--of the
husband, who becomes with respect to them severally _progener_ and
_gener_. In like manner the corresponding ancestors of the husband
respectively assume the same names with respect to the son’s wife,
who becomes with respect to them _pronurus_ and _nurus_. The son and
daughter of a husband or wife born of a prior marriage are called
_privignus_ and _privigna_, with respect to their step-father or
step-mother; and with respect to such children, the step-father
and step-mother are severally called _vitricus_ and _noverca_. The
husband’s brother becomes _levir_ with respect to the wife, and his
sister becomes _glos_ (the Greek γάλως). Marriage was unlawful among
persons who had become such affines as above mentioned.

ĂGALMA (ἄγαλμα) is a general name for a statue or image to represent
a god.

ĂGĀSO, a groom, whose business it was to take care of the horses. The
word is also used for a driver of beasts of burden, and is sometimes
applied to a slave who had to perform the lowest menial duties.

ĂGĂTHŎERGI (ἀγαθοεργοί). In time of war the kings of Sparta had a
body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths
(ἱππεῖς), of whom the five eldest retired every year, and were
employed for one year under the name of _Agathoergi_, in missions to
foreign states.

ĂGĔLA (ἀγέλη), an assembly of young men in Crete, who lived together
from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. An
_agela_ always consisted of the sons of the most noble citizens, and
the members of it were obliged to marry at the same time.

ĂGĒMA (ἄγημα from ἄγω), the name of a chosen body of troops in the
Macedonian army, usually consisting of horsemen.

ĂGER PUBLĬCUS, the public land, was the land belonging to the Roman
state. It was a recognised principle among the Italian nations that
the territory of a conquered people belonged to the conquerors.
Accordingly, the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh territory
by the conquest of the surrounding people. The land thus acquired
was usually disposed of in the following way. 1. The land which was
under cultivation was either distributed among colonists, who were
sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to farm. 2. The
land which was then out of cultivation, and which, owing to war,
was by far the greater part, might be occupied by any of the Roman
citizens on the payment of a portion of the yearly produce; a tenth
of the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the produce of the
land planted with the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees. 3.
The land which had previously served as the common pasture land of
the conquered state, or was suitable for the purpose, continued to
be used as pasture land by the Roman citizens, who had, however, to
pay a certain sum of money for the cattle which they turned upon it.
The occupation of the public land spoken of above under the second
head was always expressed by the words _possessio_ and _possidere_,
and the occupier of the land was called the _possessor_. The land
continued to be the property of the state; and accordingly we must
distinguish between the terms _possessio_, which merely indicated
the use or enjoyment of the land, and _dominium_, which expressed
ownership, and was applied to private land, of which a man had the
absolute ownership. The right of occupying the public land belonged
only to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians originally,
as they were the state. The plebeians were only subjects, and
consequently had no right to the property of the state; but it is
probable that they were permitted to feed their cattle on the public
pasture lands. Even when the plebeians became a separate estate by
the constitution of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right to
share in the possession of the public land, which continued to be the
exclusive privilege of the patricians; but as a compensation, each
individual plebeian received an assignment of a certain quantity of
the public land as his own property. Henceforth the possession of the
public land was the privilege of the patricians, and an assignment
of a portion of it the privilege of the plebeians. As the state
acquired new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought to have received
assignments of part of them, but since the patricians were the
governing body, they generally refused to make any such assignment,
and continued to keep the whole as part of the ager publicus, whereby
the enjoyment of it belonged to them alone. Hence, we constantly
read of the plebeians claiming, and sometimes enforcing, a division
of such land. With the extension of the conquests of Rome, the ager
publicus constantly increased, and thus a large portion of Italy fell
into the hands of the patricians, who frequently withheld from the
state the annual payments of a tenth and a fifth, which they were
bound to pay for the possession of the land, and thus deprived the
state of a fund for the expenses of the war. In addition to which
they used slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since freemen were
liable to be drawn off from field-labour to military service, and
slave-labour was consequently far cheaper. In this way the number
of free labourers was diminished, and that of slaves augmented.
To remedy this state of things several laws were from time to time
proposed and carried, which were most violently opposed by the
patricians. All laws which related to the _public_ land are called
by the general title of _Leges Agrariae_, and accordingly all the
early laws relating to the possession of the public land by the
patricians, and to the assignment of portions of it to the plebeians,
were strictly agrarian laws; but the first law to which this name
is usually applied was proposed soon after the establishment of the
republic by the consul, Sp. Cassius, in B.C. 486. Its object was to
set apart the portion of the public land which the patricians were to
possess, to divide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the payment
due for the possession, and to apply it to paying the army. The first
law, however, which really deprived the patricians of the advantages
they had previously enjoyed in the occupation of the public land was
the agrarian law of C. Licinius Stolo (B.C. 366), which limited each
individual’s possession of public land to 500 jugera, and declared
that no individual should have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle
on the public pastures: it further enacted that the surplus land was
to be divided among the plebeians. As this law, however, was soon
disregarded, it was revived again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B.C.
133), with some alterations and additions. The details of the other
agrarian laws mentioned in Roman history are given under the name of
the lex by which they are called. [LEX.]

AGGER (χῶμα), from _ad_ and _gero_, was used in general for a heap
or mound of any kind. It was more particularly applied:--(1) To a
mound, usually composed of earth, which was raised round a besieged
town, and which was gradually increased in breadth and height, till
it equalled or overtopped the walls. The agger was sometimes made,
not only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c.; whence we read of the
agger being set on fire.--(2) To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman
encampment, composed of the earth dug from the ditch (_fossa_), which
was usually 9 feet broad and 7 feet deep; but if any attack was
apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 feet and the breadth to 13
feet. Sharp stakes, &c., were usually fixed upon the agger, which was
then called _vallum_. When both words are used, the agger means the
mound of earth, and the vallum the stakes, &c., which were fixed upon
the agger.

ĂGITĀTŌRES. [CIRCUS.]

AGMEN. [EXERCITUS.]

AGNĀTI. [COGNATI.]

AGNŌMEN [NOMEN.]

ĂGŌNĀLĬA or ĂGŌNĬA, one of the most ancient festivals at Rome, its
institution being attributed to Numa Pompilius. It was celebrated on
the 9th of January, the 21st of May, and the 11th of December; to
which we should probably add the 17th of March, the day on which the
Liberalia was celebrated, since this festival is also called _Agonia_
or _Agonium Martiale_. The object of this festival was a disputed
point among the ancients themselves. The victim which was offered
was a ram; the person who offered it was the rex sacrificulus; and
the place where it was offered was the regia. Now the ram was the
usual victim presented to the guardian gods of the state, and the
rex sacrificulus and the regia could be employed only for such
ceremonies as were connected with the highest gods and affected the
weal of the whole state. Regarding the sacrifice in this light, we
see a reason for its being offered several times in the year. The
etymology of the name was also a subject of much dispute among the
ancients; and the various etymologies that were proposed are given
at length by Ovid (_Fast._ i. 319-332). None of these, however, are
at all satisfactory; and we would therefore suggest that it may have
received its name from the sacrifice having been offered on the
Quirinal hill, which was originally called _Agonus_.

ĂGŌNES (ἀγῶνες), the general term among the Greeks for the contests
at their great national games. The word also signified law-suits, and
was especially employed in the phrase ἀγῶνες τιμητοί and ἀτίμητοι.
[TIMEMA.]

ĂGONŎTHĔTAE (ἀγωνοθέται), persons in the Grecian games who decided
disputes, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Originally, the
person who instituted the contest and offered the prize was the
_Agonothetes_, and this continued to be the practice in those games
which were instituted by kings or private persons. But in the great
public games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the _Agonothetae_
were either the representatives of different states, as the
Amphictyons at the Pythian games, or were chosen from the people in
whose country the games were celebrated. During the flourishing times
of the Grecian republics the Eleans were the _Agonothetae_ in the
Olympic games, the Corinthians in the Isthmian games, the Amphictyons
in the Pythian games, and the Corinthians, Argives, and inhabitants
of Cleonae in the Nemaean games. The _Agonothetae_ were also called
_Aesymnetae_ (αἰσυμνῆται), _Agonarchae_ (ἀγωνάρχαι), _Agonodicae_
(ἀγωνοδίκαι), _Athlothetae_ (ἀθλοθέται), _Rhabduchi_ (ῥαβδοῦχοι),
or _Rhabdonomi_ (ῥαβδονόμοι, from the staff which they carried as
an emblem of authority), _Brabeis_ (βραβεῖς), and _Brabeutae_
(βραβευταί).

ĂGŎRA (ἀγορά) properly means an assembly of any kind, and is usually
employed by Homer to designate the general assembly of the people.
The Agora seems to have been considered an essential part of the
constitution of the early Grecian states. It was usually convoked
by the king, but occasionally by some distinguished chieftain,
as, for example, by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied the
most important seat in these assemblies, and near him sat the
nobles, while the people stood or sat in a circle around them. The
people appear to have had no right of speaking or voting in these
assemblies, but merely to have been called together to hear what
had been already agreed upon in the council of the nobles, and to
express their feelings as a body. The council of the nobles is called
_Boulé_ (βουλή) and _Thoöcus_ (θόωκος), and sometimes even _Agora_.
Among the Athenians, the proper name for the assembly of the people
was _Ecclesia_ (ἐκκλησία), and among the Dorians _Halia_ (ἁλία). The
term Agora was confined at Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and
demi. The name Agora was early transferred from the assembly itself
to the place in which it was held; and thus it came to be used for
the market-place, where goods of all descriptions were bought and
sold. Hence it answers to the Roman _forum_.

ĂGŎRĀNŎMI (ἀγορανόμοι), public functionaries in most of the Grecian
states, whose duties corresponded in many respects with those of the
Roman aediles. At Athens their number was ten, five for the city, and
five for the Peiraeus, and they were chosen by lot. The principal
duty of the Agoranomi was, as their name imports, to inspect the
market, and to see that all the laws respecting its regulation were
properly observed. They had the inspection of all things that were
sold in the market, with the exception of corn, which was subject
to the jurisdiction of special officers, called _Sitophylaces_
(σιτοφύλακες). They regulated the price and quantity of articles
exposed for sale, and punished all persons convicted of cheating,
especially by means of false weights and measures. They had the power
of fining all citizens who infringed upon the rules of the market,
and of whipping all slaves and foreigners guilty of a like offence.
They also collected the market dues, and had the care of all the
temples and fountains in the market place.

AGRĀRĬAE LĒGES. [AGER PUBLICUS; LEX.]

AGRAULĬA (ἀγραύλια) was a festival celebrated by the Athenians
in honour of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps
connected with the solemn oath, which all Athenians, when they
arrived at manhood (ἔφηβοι), were obliged to take in the temple of
Agraulos, that they would fight for their country, and always observe
its laws.

AGRĪMENSŌRES, or “land surveyors,” a college established under the
Roman emperors. Like the jurisconsults, they had regular schools,
and were paid handsome salaries by the state. Their business was
to measure unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary lands for
the proprietors, and to fix and maintain boundaries. Their writings
on the subject of their art were very numerous; and we have still
scientific treatises on the law of boundaries, such as those by
Frontinus and Hyginus.

AGRIŌNĬA (ἀγριώνια), a festival which was celebrated at Orchomenus,
in Boeotia, in honour of Dionysus, surnamed Agrionius. A human being
used originally to be sacrificed at this festival, but this sacrifice
seems to have been avoided in later times. One instance, however,
occurred in the days of Plutarch.

AGRONŎMI (ἀγρονόμοι), the country-police, probably in Attica, whose
duties corresponded in most respects to those of the astynomi in the
city, and who appear to have performed nearly the same duties as the
hylori (ὑλωροί).

AGRŎTĔRAS THŬSIA (ἀγροτέρας θυσία), a festival celebrated every year
at Athens in honour of Artemis, surnamed Agrotera (from ἄγρα, the
chase). It was solemnized on the sixth of the month of Boëdromion,
and consisted of a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued to be
offered in the time of Xenophon. Its origin is thus related:--When
the Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made a vow to sacrifice
to Artemis Agrotera as many goats as there should be enemies slain
at Marathon. But as the number of enemies slain was so great that
an equal number of goats could not be found at once, the Athenians
decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year.

AGYRTAE (ἀγύρται), mendicant priests, who were accustomed to travel
through the different towns of Greece, soliciting alms for the gods
whom they served, and whose images they carried, either on their
shoulders or on beasts of burthen. They were, generally speaking,
persons of the lowest and most abandoned character.

ĂHĒNUM. [AENUM.]

AIKIAS DĬKĒ (αἰκίας δίκη), an action brought at Athens, before the
court of the Forty (οἱ τετταράκοντα), against any individual who
had struck a citizen. Any citizen who had been thus insulted might
proceed against the offending party, either by the αἰκίας δίκη,
which was a private action, or by the ὕβρεως γραφή, which was looked
upon in the light of a public prosecution.

AITHOUSA (αἴθουσα), a word only used by Homer, is probably for
αἴθουσα στοά, a portico exposed to the sun. From the passages in
which it occurs, it seems to denote a covered portico, opening on to
the court of the house, αὐλή, in front of the vestibule, πρόθυρον.

ĀLA, part of a Roman house. [DOMUS.]

ĀLA, ĀLĀRES, ĀLĀRĬI. _Ala_, which literally means _a wing_, was from
the earliest epochs employed to denote the wing of an army, but in
process of time was frequently used in a restricted sense.--(1) When
a Roman army was composed of Roman citizens exclusively, the flanks
of the infantry when drawn up in battle array were covered on the
right and left by the cavalry; and hence _Ala_ denoted the body of
horse which was attached to and served along with the foot-soldiers
of the legion.--(2) When, at a later date, the Roman armies were
composed partly of Roman citizens and partly of _Socii_, either
_Latini_ or _Italici_, it became the practice to marshal the Roman
troops in the centre of the battle line and the Socii upon the wings.
Hence _ala_ and _alarii_ denoted the contingent furnished by the
allies, both horse and foot, and the two divisions were distinguished
as _dextera ala_ and _sinistra ala_.--(3) When the whole of the
inhabitants of Italy had been admitted to the privileges of Roman
citizens the terms _alarii_, _cohortes alariae_ were transferred
to the _foreign_ troops serving along with the Roman armies.--(4)
Lastly, under the empire, the term _ala_ was applied to regiments
of horse, raised it would seem with very few exceptions in the
provinces, serving apart from the legions and the cavalry of the
legions.

ĂLĂBARCHĒS (ἀλαβάρχης), the chief magistrate of the Jews at
Alexandria, whose duties, as far as the government was concerned,
chiefly consisted in raising and paying the taxes.

ĂLĂBASTER or ĂLĂBASTRUM, a vessel or pot used for containing
perfumes, or rather ointments, made of that species of marble which
mineralogists call _gypsum_, and which is usually designated by the
name of _alabaster_. When varieties of colour occur in the same
stone, and are disposed in bands or horizontal strata, it is often
called onyx alabaster; and when dispersed irregularly, as if in
clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster. The term seems to
have been employed to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, even
when they were not made of the material from which it is supposed
they originally received their name. Thus Theocritus speaks of
golden alabastra. These vessels were of a tapering shape, and very
often had a long narrow neck, which was sealed; so that when Mary,
the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. Mark to break the alabaster
box of ointment for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it appears
probable that she only broke the extremity of the neck, which was
thus closed.

ĀLĀRĬI. [ALA.]

ĂLAUDA, a Gaulish word, the prototype of the modern French
_Alouette_, denoting a small crested bird of the lark kind. The name
alauda was bestowed by Julius Caesar on a legion of picked men, which
he raised at his own expense among the inhabitants of Transalpine
Gaul, about the year B.C. 55, which he equipped and disciplined after
the Roman fashion, and on which he at a subsequent period bestowed
the freedom of the state. The designation was, in all probability,
applied from a plume upon the helmet, resembling the “apex” of the
bird in question, or from the general shape and appearance of the
head-piece.

ALBŎGĂLĒRUS. [APEX.]

ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which the praetor’s edicts, and
the rules relating to actions and interdicts, were written. The
tablet was put up in a public place, in order that all the world
might have notice of its contents. According to some authorities,
the album was so called because it was either a white material or a
material whitened, and of course the writing would be of a different
colour. According to other authorities, it was so called because the
writing was in white letters. Probably the word album originally
meant any tablet containing anything of a public nature. We know that
it was, in course of time, used to signify a list of any public body;
thus we find _album judicum_, or the body out of which judices were
to be chosen [JUDEX], and _album senatorium_, or list of senators.

ĀLĔA, gaming, or playing at a game of chance of any kind: hence
_aleo_, _aleator_, a gamester, a gambler. Playing with _tali_, or
_tesserae_, was generally understood, because this was by far the
most common game of chance among the Romans. Gaming was forbidden
by the Roman laws, both during the times of the republic and under
the emperors, but was tolerated in the month of December at the
Saturnalia, which was a period of general relaxation; and old men
were allowed to amuse themselves in this manner at all times.

ĂLĬCŬLA (ἄλλιξ or ἄλληξ), an upper dress, in all probability
identical with the chlamys.

ĂLIMENTĀRII PŬĔRI ET PŬELLAE. In the Roman republic the poorer
citizens were assisted by public distributions of corn, oil, and
money, which were called _congiaria_. [CONGIARIUM.] The Emperor Nerva
was the first who extended them to children, and Trajan appointed
them to be made every month, both to orphans and to the children of
poor parents. The children who received them were called _pueri et
puellae alimentarii_, and also (from the emperor) _pueri puellaeque
Ulpiani_.

ĀLĬPĬLUS, a slave, who attended on bathers to remove the superfluous
hair from their bodies.

ĂLIPTAE (ἀλείπται), among the Greeks, were persons who anointed the
bodies of the athletae preparatory to their entering the palaestra.
The chief object of this anointing was to close the pores of the
body, in order to prevent much perspiration, and the weakness
consequent thereon. The athleta was again anointed after the contest,
in order to restore the tone of the strained muscles. He then bathed,
and had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off his body, by means
of an instrument similar to the strigil of the Romans, and called
_stlengis_ (στλεγγίς), and afterwards _xystra_ (ξύστρα). The aliptae
took advantage of the knowledge they necessarily acquired of the
state of the muscles of the athletae, and their general strength or
weakness of body, to advise them as to their exercises and mode of
life. They were thus a kind of medical trainers. Among the Romans the
aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed their masters in the
baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae, appear to have attended to
their masters’ constitution and mode of life. They were also called
_unctores_. They used in their operations a kind of scraper called
strigil, towels (_lintea_), a cruise of oil (_guttus_), which was
usually of horn, a bottle (_ampulla_), and a small vessel called
_lenticula_.

[Illustration: Allocutio (Coin of Nero.)]

ALLŎCŪTĬO, an harangue made by a Roman imperator to his soldiers,
to encourage them before battle, or on other occasions. On coins
we frequently find a figure of an imperator standing on a platform
and addressing the soldiers below him. Such coins bear the epigraph
ADLOCUTIO.

[Illustration: Allocutio. (Coin of Galba.)]

ALŌA or HALŌA (ἀλῶα, ἁλῶα), an Attic festival, but celebrated
principally at Eleusis, in honour of Demeter and Dionysus, the
inventors of the plough and protectors of the fruits of the earth.

ALTĀRE. [ARA.]

ĂLŪTA. [CALCEUS.]

ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται), persons whose business it was to keep order in
the public games. They received their orders from an _alytarches_
(ἀλυτάρχης), who was himself under the direction of the agonothetae,
or hellenodicae.

ĀMĂNŬENSIS, or AD MĂNUM SERVUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it
was to write letters and other things under his master’s direction.
The amanuenses must not be confounded with another sort of slaves,
also called _ad manum servi_, who were always kept ready to be
employed in any business.

ĂMĂRYNTHĬA, or ĂMĂRYSĬA (ἀμαρύνθια or ἀμαρύσια), a festival of
Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia, celebrated, as it seems, originally
at Amarynthus in Euboea, with extraordinary splendour, but also
solemnised in several places in Attica, such as Athmone.

AMBARVĀLIĂ. [ARVALES FRATRES.]

AMBĬTUS, which literally signifies “a going about,” cannot, perhaps,
be more nearly expressed than by our word _canvassing_. After the
plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, and when the whole body
of the citizens had become very greatly increased, we frequently
read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts which it was
necessary for candidates to make in order to secure the votes of the
citizens. At Rome, as in every community into which the element of
popular election enters, solicitation of votes, and open or secret
influence and bribery, were among the means by which a candidate
secured his election to the offices of state. The following are the
principal terms occurring in the Roman writers in relation to the
canvassing for the public offices:--A candidate was called _petitor_;
and his opponent with reference to him _competitor_. A candidate
(_candidatus_) was so called from his appearing in the public places,
such as the fora and Campus Martius, before his fellow-citizens,
in a whitened toga. On such occasions the candidate was attended
by his friends (_deductores_), or followed by the poorer citizens
(_sectatores_), who could in no other manner show their good will
or give their assistance. The word _assiduitas_ expressed both
the continual presence of the candidate at Rome and his continual
solicitations. The candidate, in going his rounds or taking his
walk, was accompanied by a _nomenclator_, who gave him the names
of such persons as he might meet; the candidate was thus enabled
to address them by their name, an indirect compliment, which could
not fail to be generally gratifying to the electors. The candidate
accompanied his address with a shake of the hand (_prensatio_). The
term _benignitas_ comprehended generally any kind of treating, as
shows, feasts, &c. The _ambitus_, which was the object of several
penal enactments, taken as a generic term, comprehended the two
species--_ambitus_ and _largitiones_ (bribery). _Liberalitas_ and
_benignitas_ are opposed by Cicero, as things allowable, to _ambitus_
and _largitio_, as things illegal. Money was paid for votes; and,
in order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, persons called
_interpretes_ were employed to make the bargain, _sequestres_ to hold
the money till it was to be paid, and _divisores_ to distribute it.
The offence of ambitus was a matter which belonged to the judicia
publica, and the enactments against it were numerous. One of the
earliest, though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cornelia Baebia
(B.C. 181) was specially directed against _largitiones_. Those
convicted under it were incapacitated from being candidates for
ten years. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B.C. 159) punished the offence
with exile. The Lex Acilia Calpurnia (B.C. 67) imposed a fine on
the offending party, with exclusion from the senate and all public
offices. The Lex Tullia (B.C. 63), passed in the consulship of
Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted
ten years’ exsilium on the offender; and, among other things,
forbade a person to exhibit gladiatorial shows (_gladiatores dare_)
within any two years in which he was a candidate, unless he was
required to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator’s will. Two years
afterwards the Lex Aufidia was proposed, but not passed; by which,
among other things, it was provided that, if a candidate promised
(_pronuntiavit_) money to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should
be unpunished; but, if he did pay the money, he should further pay
to each tribe (annually?) 3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This
absurd proposal occasioned the witticism of Cicero, who said that
Clodius observed the law by anticipation; for he promised, but did
not pay. The Lex Licinia (B.C. 55) was specially directed against the
offence of _sodalitium_, or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by gifts
and treating; and another lex, passed (B.C. 52) when Pompey was sole
consul, had for its object the establishment of a speedier course
of proceeding on trials for ambitus. All these enactments failed
in completely accomplishing their object. That which no law could
suppress, so long as the old popular forms retained any of their
pristine vigour, was accomplished by the imperial usurpation. Caesar,
when dictator, nominated some of the candidates for public offices:
as to the consulship, he managed the appointments to that office just
as he pleased. The popular forms of election were observed during the
time of Augustus. Tiberius transferred the elections from the comitia
to the senate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense,
entirely disappeared. The trials for ambitus were numerous in the
time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena,
who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius,
who was charged with _sodalitium_, are both extant.

AMBRŎSĬA (ἀμβροσία), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them
eternal youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons.
It was also used by the gods for anointing their body and hair;
whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter.

AMBŪBAIAE (probably from the Syriac _abub aubub_, a pipe), Eastern
dancing girls, who frequented chiefly the Circus at Rome, and
obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances.

AMBURBĬUM, a sacrifice which was performed at Rome for the
purification of the city.

AMENTUM. [HASTA.]

ĂMICTŌRĬUM. [STROPHIUM.]

ĂMICTUS. The verb _amicire_ is commonly opposed to _induere_,
the former being applied to the putting on of the outer garment,
the pallium, laena, or toga (ἱμάτιον, φᾶρος); the latter, to the
putting on of the inner garment, the tunic (χιτών). In consequence
of this distinction, the verbal nouns _amictus_ and _indutus_, even
without any further denomination of the dress being added, indicate
respectively the outer and inner clothing. In Greek _amicire_ is
expressed by ἀμφιέννυσθαι, ἀμπέχεσθαι, ἐπιβάλλεσθαι, περιβάλλεσθαι:
and _induere_ by ἐνδύνειν. Hence came ἀμπεχόνη, ἐπίβλημα, and
ἐπιβόλαιον, περίβλημα, and περιβόλαιον, an outer garment, a cloak, a
shawl; and ἔνδυμα, an inner garment, a tunic, a shirt.

AMPHICTỸŎNES (ἀμφικτύονες). Institutions called amphictyonic appear
to have existed in Greece from time immemorial. They seem to have
been originally associations of neighbouring tribes, formed for the
regulation of mutual intercourse and the protection of a common
temple or sanctuary, at which the representatives of the different
members met, both to transact business and to celebrate religious
rites and games. One of these associations was of much greater
importance than all the rest, and was called, by way of eminence,
the _Amphictyonic League_ or _Council_ (ἀμφικτυονία). It differed
from other similar associations in having two places of meeting, the
sanctuaries of two divinities; which were the temple of Demeter, in
the village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where the deputies met
in autumn; and that of Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in
spring. Its connexion with the latter place not only contributed
to its dignity, but also to its permanence. Its early history is
involved in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose it to have
been founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from
whom they imagined that it derived its name: but this opinion is
destitute of all foundation, and arose from the ancients assigning
the establishment of their institutions to some mythical hero. There
can be little doubt as to the true etymology of the word. It was
originally written ἀμφικτίονες, and consequently signified those that
dwelt around some particular locality. Its institution, however, is
clearly of remote antiquity. It was originally composed of twelve
_tribes_ (not cities or states, it must be observed), each of which
tribes contained various independent cities or states. We learn
from Aeschines, that in B.C. 343, eleven of these tribes were as
follows:--The Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only), Dorians,
Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians,
Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians; other lists
leave us in doubt whether the remaining tribe were the Dolopes or
Delphians; but as the Delphians could hardly be called a distinct
tribe, their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, it seems probable
that the Dolopes were originally members, and afterwards supplanted
by the Delphians. All the states belonging to each of these tribes
were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no
advantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris: and
Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Eretria in Euboea, and
Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic cities. The ordinary council
was called _Pylaea_ (πυλαία), from its meeting in the neighbourhood
of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the name was given to the session at
Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae. The council was composed of
two classes of representatives, one called _Pylagorae_ (Πυλαγόραι),
and the other _Hieromnemones_ (Ἱερομνήμονες). Athens sent three
Pylagorae and one Hieromnemon; of whom the former were elected
apparently for each session, and the latter by lot, probably for a
longer period. Respecting the relative duties of the Pylagorae and
Hieromnemones we have little information: the name of the latter
implies that they had a more immediate connection with the temple. We
are equally in the dark respecting the numbers who sat in the council
and its mode of proceeding. It would seem that all the deputies had
seats in the council, and took part in its deliberations; but if it
be true, as appears from Aeschines, that each of the tribes had only
two votes, it is clear that all the deputies could not have voted. In
addition to the ordinary council, there was an _ecclesia_ (ἐκκλησία),
or general assembly, including not only the classes above mentioned,
but also those who had joined in the sacrifices, and were consulting
the god. It was convened on extraordinary occasions by the chairman
of the council. Of the duties of the Amphictyons nothing will give us
a clearer view than the oath they took, which was as follows:--“They
would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off their streams
in war or peace; and if any should do so, they would march against
him, and destroy his cities; and should any pillage the property of
the god, or be privy to or plan anything against what was in his
temple (at Delphi), they would take vengeance on him with hand and
foot, and voice, and all their might.” From this oath we see that
the main duty of the deputies was the preservation of the rights and
dignity of the temple of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was
burnt down (B.C. 548), they contracted with the Alcmaeonidae for its
rebuilding. History, moreover, teaches that if the council produced
any palpable effects, it was from their interest in Delphi; and
though they kept up a standing record of what ought to have been the
international law of Greece, they sometimes acquiesced in, and at
other times were parties to, the most iniquitous acts. Of this the
case of Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of Corinth,
near Delphi, and was much frequented by pilgrims from the West. The
Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions from
these strangers. The council declared war against them, as guilty
of a wrong against the god. The war lasted ten years, till, at the
suggestion of Solon, the waters of the Pleistus were turned off,
then poisoned, and turned again into the city. The besieged drank
their fill, and Crissa was soon razed to the ground; and thus, if it
were an Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly violated. Its
territory--the rich Cirrhaean plain--was consecrated to the god,
and curses imprecated upon whomsoever should till or dwell in it.
Thus ended the First Sacred War (B.C. 585), in which the Athenians
were the instruments of Delphian vengeance. The second or Phocian
war (B.C. 350) was the most important in which the Amphictyons were
concerned; and in this the Thebans availed themselves of the sanction
of the council to take vengeance on their enemies, the Phocians. To
do this, however, it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who
readily proclaimed himself the champion of Apollo, as it opened a
pathway to his own ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B.C. 346),
and the council decreed that all their cities, except Abae, should
be razed, and the inhabitants dispersed in villages not containing
more than fifty persons. Their two votes were given to Philip, who
thereby gained a pretext for interfering with the affairs of Greece;
and also obtained the recognition of his subjects as Hellenes. The
Third Sacred War arose from the Amphissians tilling the devoted
Cirrhaean plain. The Amphictyons called in the assistance of Philip,
who soon reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their submission
was immediately followed by the battle of Chaeroneia (B.C. 338),
and the extinction of the independence of Greece. In the following
year, a congress of the Amphictyonic states was held, in which war
was declared as if by united Greece against Persia, and Philip
elected commander-in-chief. On this occasion the Amphictyons assumed
the character of national representatives as of old, when they set
a price upon the head of Ephialtes, for his treason to Greece at
Thermopylae. It has been sufficiently shown that the Amphictyons
themselves did not observe the oaths they took; and that they did not
much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what they had sworn
to do, is proved by many instances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was
destroyed by Argos (B.C. 535), Thespiae and Plataeae by Thebes,
and Thebes herself swept from the face of the earth by Alexander,
without the Amphictyons raising one word in opposition. Indeed, a
few years before the Peloponnesian war, the council was a passive
spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sacred War (ὁ ἱερὸς πόλεμος),
when the Lacedaemonians made an expedition to Delphi, and put the
temple into the hands of the Delphians, the Athenians, after their
departure, restoring it to the Phocians. The council is rarely
mentioned after the time of Philip. We are told that Augustus wished
his new city, Nicopolis (A.D. 31), to be enrolled among the members.
Pausanias, in the second century of our era, mentions it as still
existing, but deprived of all power and influence.

AMPHĬDRŎMĬA (ἀμφιδρόμια or δρομιάμφιον ἧμαρ), a family festival of
the Athenians, at which the newly-born child was introduced into
the family, and received its name. The friends and relations of the
parents were invited to the festival of the amphidromia, which was
held in the evening, and they generally appeared with presents. The
house was decorated on the outside with olive branches when the child
was a boy, or with garlands of wool when the child was a girl; and a
repast was prepared for the guests. The child was carried round the
fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented to the gods of the
house and to the family, and at the same time received its name, to
which the guests were witnesses. The carrying of the child round the
hearth was the principal part of the solemnity, from which its name
was derived.

[Illustration: Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre.]

[Illustration: Elevation of one side of the preceding Section.

EXPLANATION.

A, The arena.

_p_, The wall or podium inclosing it.

P, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for the
senators, &c.

M′, The first maenianum, or slope of benches, for the equestrian
order.

M″, The second maenianum.

M‴, The third maenianum, elevated considerably above the preceding
one, and appropriated to the pullati.

W, The colonnade, or gallery, which contained seats for women.

E, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior, for the
attendants who worked the velarium.

_pr_, _pr_, The præcinctiones, or landings, at the top of the
first and second maenianum; in the pavement of which were grated
apertures, at intervals, to admit light into the vomitoria beneath
them.

V V V V, Vomitoria.

G G G, The three external galleries through the circumference of
the building, open to the arcades of the exterior.

_g g_, Inner gallery.

The situation and arrangement of the staircases, &c., are not
expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible without plans
at various levels of the building.]

AMPHĬTHĔĀTRUM, an amphitheatre, was a place for the exhibition of
public shows of combatants, wild beasts, and naval engagements, and
was entirely surrounded with seats for the spectators; whereas,
in those for dramatic performances, the seats were arranged in a
semicircle facing the stage. An amphitheatre is therefore frequently
described as a double theatre, consisting of two such semicircles,
or halves, joined together, the spaces allotted to their orchestras
becoming the inner inclosure, or area, termed the _arena_. The
form, however, of the ancient amphitheatres was not a circle, but
invariably an ellipse. Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild beasts
(_venationes_) were first exhibited in the forum and the circus; and
it appears that the ancient custom was still preserved till the time
of Julius Caesar. The first building in the form of an amphitheatre
is said to have been erected by C. Scribonius Curio, one of Caesar’s
partisans; but the account which is given of this building sounds
rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted of two wooden theatres,
made to revolve on pivots, in such a manner that they could, by
means of windlasses and machinery, be turned round face to face, so
as to form one building. Soon after Caesar himself erected, in the
Campus Martius, a stationary amphitheatre, made of wood; to which
building the name of _amphitheatrum_ was for the first time given.
The first stone amphitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, in the
Campus Martius, at the desire of Augustus. This was the only stone
amphitheatre at Rome till the time of Vespasian. One was commenced by
Caligula, but was not continued by Claudius. The one erected by Nero
in the Campus Martius was only a temporary building, made of wood.
The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was burnt in the fire of Rome
in the time of Nero; and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespasian
commenced the celebrated _Amphitheatrum Flavium_ in the middle of
the city, in the valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline, and the
Velia, on the spot originally occupied by the lake or large pond
attached to Nero’s palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. It
was dedicated by Titus in A.D. 80, but was not completely finished,
till the reign of Domitian. This immense edifice, which is even
yet comparatively entire, covered nearly six acres of ground, and
was capable of containing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at
the present day the _Colosseum_ or _Colisaeum_. The interior of an
amphitheatre was divided into three parts, the _arena_, _podium_, and
_gradus_. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was
called the _arena_, because it was covered with sand, or sawdust,
to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood.
The size of the arena was not always the same in proportion to the
size of the amphitheatre, but its average proportion was one-third
of the shorter diameter of the building. The arena was surrounded
by a wall distinguished by the name of _podium_; although such
appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to merely the upper part of
it, forming the parapet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost
seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, therefore, was no more than
an open oval court, surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high;
a height considered necessary, in order to render the spectators
perfectly secure from the attacks of wild beasts. There were four
principal entrances leading into the arena; two at the ends of each
axis or diameter of it, to which as many passages led directly from
the exterior of the building; besides secondary ones, intervening
between them, and communicating with the corridors beneath the seats
on the podium. The wall or enclosure of the arena is supposed to
have been faced with marble, more or less sumptuous; besides which,
there appears to have been, in some instances at least, a sort of
net-work affixed to the top of the podium, consisting of railing, or
rather open trellis-work of metal. As a further defence, ditches,
called _euripi_, sometimes surrounded the arena. The term podium was
also applied to the terrace, or gallery itself, immediately above
the arena, which was no wider than to be capable of containing two,
or at the most, three ranges of moveable seats, or chairs. This, as
being by far the best situation for distinctly viewing the sports
in the arena, and also more commodiously accessible than the seats
higher up, was the place set apart for senators and other persons
of distinction, such as foreign ambassadors; and it was here, also,
that the emperor himself used to sit, in an elevated place, called
_suggestus_ or _cubiculum_, and likewise the person who exhibited
the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (_editoris
tribunal_). Above the podium were the _gradus_, or seats of the other
spectators, which were divided into _maeniana_, or stories. The first
_maenianum_, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats,
was appropriated to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated
to the senators and equites were covered with cushions, which were
first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval or space,
termed a _praecinctio_, and forming a continued landing-place from
the several staircases in it, succeeded the second maenianum, where
were the seats called _popularia_, for the third class of spectators,
or the populus. Behind this was the second praecinctio, bounded
by a rather high wall; above which was the third maenianum, where
there were only wooden benches for the _pullati_, or common people.
The next and last division, namely, that in the highest part of the
building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery, where females were
allowed to witness the spectacles of the amphitheatre, but some parts
of it were also occupied by the pullati. Each maenianum was not
only divided from the other by the praecinctio, but was intersected
at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called
_scalae_, or _scalaria_; and the portion between two such passages
was called _cuneus_, because the space gradually widened like a
wedge, from the podium to the top of the building. The entrances to
the seats from the outer porticoes were called _vomitoria_. At the
very summit was the narrow platform for the men who had to attend
to the _velarium_, or awning, by which the building was covered as
a defence against the sun and rain. The velarium appears usually to
have been made of wool, but more costly materials were sometimes
employed. The first of the preceding cuts represents a longitudinal
section of the Flavian amphitheatre, and the second, which is on a
larger scale, a part of the above section, including the exterior
wall, and the seats included between that and the arena. It will
serve to convey an idea of the leading form and general disposition
of the interior. For an account of the gladiatorial contests, and the
shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre, see GLADIATORES,
NAUMACHIA, and VENATIO.

[Illustration: Amphorae. (British Museum.)]

AMPHŎRA (ἀμφορεύς), a vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey,
&c. The following cut represents amphorae in the British Museum.
They are of various forms and sizes; in general they are tall and
narrow, with a small neck, and a handle on each side of the neck
(whence the name, from ἀμφί, _on both sides_, and φέρω, to carry),
and terminating at the bottom in a point, which was let into a stand
or stuck in the ground, so that the vessel stood upright: several
amphorae have been found in this position in the cellars at Pompeii.
Amphorae were commonly made of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae
of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had them of brass; glass vessels
of this form have been found at Pompeii. The most common use of the
amphora, both among the Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping wine.
The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romans)
on the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the
vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office; or,
when the jars were of glass, little tickets (_pittoria_, _tesserae_)
were suspended from them, indicating these particulars.--The Greek
amphoreus and the Roman amphora were also names of fixed measures.
The amphoreus, which was also called _metretes_ (μετρητής) and
_cadus_ (κάδος), was equal to three Roman urnae = 8 gallons, 7·365
pints, imperial measure. The Roman amphora was two-thirds of the
amphoreus, and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7·577
pints; its solid content was exactly a Roman cubic foot.

AMPLĬĀTĬO, an adjournment of a trial, which took place when the
judices after hearing the evidence of the advocates were unable to
come to a satisfactory conclusion. This they expressed by giving in
the tablets, on which were the letters N. L. (_non liquet_), and the
praetor, by pronouncing the word _amplius_, thereupon adjourned the
trial to any day he chose. The defendant and the cause were then said
_ampliari_.

[Illustration: Ampulla. (Sketched by G. Scharf from a relief at
Athens, discovered in 1840.)]

AMPULLA (λήκυθος, βομβύλιος), a bottle, usually made among the Romans
either of glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable materials.
Ampullae were more or less globular. From their round and swollen
shape, the word was used by Horace to indicate grand and turgid but
empty language. (“Projicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba,” _Ar.
Poet._ 97.) Ampullae are frequently mentioned in connection with the
bath, since every Roman took with him to the bath a bottle of oil for
anointing the body after bathing. The dealer in bottles was called
_ampullarius_.

[Illustration: Ampulla. (From a tomb at Myra in Lycia.)]

AMPYX (ἄμπυξ, ἀμπυκτήρ, Lat. _frontale_), a frontal, a broad band
or plate of metal, which ladies of rank wore above the forehead as
part of the head-dress. The frontal of a horse was called by the same
name. The annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, in
contrast with the corresponding ornament as shown on the heads of two
females.

[Illustration: Ampyces, Frontlets. (From Paintings on Vases.)]

ĂMŬLĒTUM (περίαπτον, περίαμμα, φυλακτήριον), an amulet. This word in
Arabic (hamalet) means _that which is suspended_. It was probably
brought into Europe by Arabian merchants, together with the articles
to which it was applied. An amulet was any object,--a stone, a plant,
an artificial production, or a piece of writing,--which was suspended
from the neck, or tied to any part of the body, for the purpose of
warding off calamities and securing advantages of any kind. Faith in
the virtues of amulets was almost universal in the ancient world, so
that the art of medicine consisted in a very considerable degree of
directions for their application.

ĂMUSSIS or ĂMUSSĬUM, a carpenter’s and mason’s instrument, the use of
which was to obtain a true plane surface.

ĂNĂCEIA (ἀνάκεια, or ἀνάκειον), a festival of the Dioscuri or Anactes
(Ἄνακτες), as they were called at Athens. These heroes, however,
received the most distinguished honours in the Dorian and Achaean
states, where it may be supposed that every town celebrated a
festival in their honour, though not under the name of Anaceia.

ĂNACRĬSIS (ἀνάκρισις), an examination, was used to signify the
pleadings preparatory to a trial at Athens, the object of which was
to determine, generally, if the action would lie. The magistrates
were said ἀνακρίνειν τὴν δίκην or τοὺς ἀντιδίκους, and the parties
ἀνακρίνεσθαι. The process consisted in the production of proofs, of
which there were five kinds:--1. The laws; 2. Written documents;
3. Testimonies of witnesses present (μαρτυρίαι), or affidavits of
absent witnesses (ἐκμαρτυρίαι); 4. Depositions of slaves extorted
by the rack; 5. The oath of the parties. All these proofs were
committed to writing, and placed in a box secured by a seal (ἐχῖνος)
till they were produced at the trial. If the evidence produced at
the anacrisis was so clear and convincing that there could not
remain any doubt, the magistrate could decide the question without
sending the cause to be tried before the dicasts: this was called
_diamartyria_ (διαμαρτυρία). The archons were the proper officers
for holding the anacrisis; they are represented by Athena (Minerva),
in the _Eumenides_ of Aeschylus, where there is a poetical sketch of
the process in the law courts. For an account of the _anacrisis_ or
examination, which each archon underwent previously to entering on
office, see ARCHON.

ĂNĂGLỸPHA or ĂNĂGLYPTA (ἀνάγλυφα, ἀνάγλυπτα), chased or embossed
vessels made of bronze or of the precious metals, which derived their
name from the work on them being in relief, and not engraved.

ĂNĂGNOSTĒS, a slave, whose duty it was to read or repeat passages
from books during an entertainment, and also at other times.

ĂNĂGŌGĬA (ἀναγώγια), a festival celebrated at Eryx, in Sicily, in
honour of Aphrodite. The inhabitants of the place believed that,
during this festival, the goddess went over into Africa.

ĂNĂTŎCISMUS. [FENUS.]

ANCĪLE. [SALII.]

ANCŎRA. [NAVIS.]

ANDĂBĂTA. [GLADIATOR.]

ANDRŎGĔŌNIA (ἀνδρογεώνια), a festival with games, held every year in
the Cerameicus at Athens, in honour of the hero Androgeus, son of
Minos, who had overcome all his adversaries in the festive games of
the Panathenaea, and was afterwards killed by his jealous rivals.

ANDRŎLEPSĬA (ἀνδροληψία or ἀνδρολήψιον), a legal means by which the
Athenians were enabled to take vengeance upon a community in which an
Athenian citizen had been murdered, by seizing three individuals of
that state or city, as hostages, until satisfaction was given.

ANDRŌNĪTIS. [DOMUS, GREEK.]

ANGĂRĪA (ἀγγαρεία, Hdt. ἀγγαρήϊον), a word borrowed from the
Persians, signifying a system of posting by relays of horses, which
was used among that people, and which, according to Xenophon, was
established by Cyrus. The term was adopted by the Romans under the
empire to signify compulsory service in forwarding the messages of
the state. The Roman _angaria_, also called _angariarum exhibitio_
or _praestatio_, included the maintenance and supply, not only of
horses, but of ships and messengers, in forwarding both letters and
burdens; it is defined as a _personale munus_; and there was no
ground of exemption from it allowed, except by the favour of the
emperor.

ANGĬPORTUS, or ANGĬPORTUM, a narrow lane between two rows of houses,
which might either be what the French call a _cul-de-sac_, or it
might terminate at both ends in some public street.

ANGUSTICLĀVĬI. [CLAVUS.]

ANNĀLES MAXĬMI. [PONTIFEX.]

ANNŌNA (from _annus_, like _pomona_ from _pomum_).--(1) The produce
of the year in corn, fruit, wine, &c., and hence,--(2) provisions
in general, especially the corn, which, in the later years of the
republic, was collected in the storehouses of the state, and sold to
the poor at a cheap rate in times of scarcity; and which, under the
emperors, was distributed to the people gratuitously, or given as pay
and rewards;--(3) the price of provisions;--(4) a soldier’s allowance
of provisions for a certain time. The word is used also in the
plural for yearly or monthly distributions of pay in corn, &c.

ANNŬLUS (δακτύλιος), a ring. It is probable that the custom of
wearing rings was very early introduced into Greece from Asia, where
it appears to have been almost universal. They were worn not merely
as ornaments, but as articles for use, as the ring always served as a
seal. A seal was called _sphragis_ (σφραγίς), and hence this name was
given to the ring itself, and also to the gem or stone for a ring in
which figures were engraved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn on the
fourth finger (παράμεσος). At Rome, the custom of wearing rings was
believed to have been introduced by the Sabines, who were described
in the early legends as wearing golden rings with precious stones of
great beauty. But, whenever introduced at Rome, it is certain that
they were at first always of iron; that they were destined for the
same purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as seals; and that
every free Roman had a right to use such a ring. This iron ring was
worn down to the last period of the republic by such men as loved the
simplicity of the good old times. In the course of time, however,
it became customary for all the senators, chief magistrates, and at
last for the equites also, to wear a golden seal-ring. The right of
wearing a gold ring, which was subsequently called the _jus annuli
aurei_, or the _jus annulorum_, remained for several centuries at
Rome the exclusive privilege of senators, magistrates, and equites,
while all other persons continued to wear iron ones. During the
empire the right of granting the annulus aureus belonged to the
emperors, and some of them were not very scrupulous in conferring
this privilege. Augustus gave it to Mena, a freedman, and to Antonius
Musa, a physician. The emperors Severus and Aurelian conferred the
right of wearing golden rings upon all Roman soldiers; and Justinian
at length allowed all the citizens of the empire, whether ingenui
or libertini, to wear such rings. The ring of a Roman emperor was a
kind of state seal, and the emperor sometimes allowed the use of it
to such persons as he wished to be regarded as his representatives.
During the republic and the early times of the empire the jus annuli
seems to have made a person ingenuus (if he was a libertus), and to
have raised him to the rank of eques, provided he had the requisite
equestrian census, and it was probably never granted to any one
who did not possess this census. Those who lost their property,
or were found guilty of a criminal offence, lost the jus annuli.
The principal value of a ring consisted in the gem set in it, or
rather in the workmanship of the engraver. The stone most frequently
used was the onyx (σαρδῶνος, σαρδόνυξ), on account of its various
colours, of which the artist made the most skilful use. In the art
of engraving upon gems the ancients far surpassed anything that
modern times can boast of. The devices engraved upon rings were very
various: they were portraits of ancestors or of friends, subjects
connected with mythology; and in many cases a person had engraved
upon his seal some symbolical allusion to the real or mythical
history of his family. The bezel or part of the ring which contained
the gem was called _pala_. With the increasing love of luxury and
show, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, covered their fingers with
rings. Some persons also wore rings of immoderate size, and others
used different rings for summer and winter. Much superstition appears
to have been connected with rings, especially in the East and in
Greece. Some persons made it a lucrative trade to sell rings which
were believed to possess magic powers, and to preserve the wearers
from external danger.

ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM.]

ANQUĪSĪTĬO, signified, in criminal trials at Rome, the investigation
of the facts of the case with reference to the penalty that was to
be imposed: accordingly the phrases _pecunia capitis_ or _capitis
anquirere_ are used. Under the emperors the term _anquisitio_ lost
its original meaning, and was employed to indicate an accusation
in general; in which sense it also occurs even in the times of the
republic.

[Illustration: Temple in Antis. (Temple of Artemis at Eleusia.)]

ANTAE (παραστάδες), square pillars, which were commonly joined to
the side-walls of a building, being placed on each side of the door,
so as to assist in forming the portico. These terms are seldom
found except in the plural; because the purpose served by antae
required that they should be erected corresponding to each other and
supporting the extremities of the same roof. The temple _in antis_
was one of the simplest kind. It had in front antae attached to the
walls which inclosed the cella; and in the middle, between the antae,
two columns supporting the architrave.

ANTĔAMBŬLŌNES, slaves who were accustomed to go before their
masters, in order to make way for them through the crowd. The term
_anteambulones_ was also given to the clients, who were accustomed to
walk before their patroni, when the latter appeared in public.

ANTĔCESSŌRES, called also ANTĔCURSŌRES, horse-soldiers, who were
accustomed to precede an army on march, in order to choose a suitable
place for the camp, and to make the necessary provisions for the
army. They do not appear to have been merely scouts, like the
_speculatores_.

ANTĔCOENA. [COENA.]

ANTĔFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited various ornamental designs,
and were used in architecture to cover the frieze (_zophorus_) of
the entablature. These terra-cottas do not appear to have been used
among the Greeks, but were probably Etruscan in their origin, and
were thence taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. The name
_antefixa_ is evidently derived from the circumstance that they were
_fixed before_ the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor,
complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments
of this description, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and
Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the
superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the British Museum,
which were discovered at Rome.

ANTENNA. [NAVIS.]

ANTĔPĪLĀNI. [EXERCITUS.]

ANTĔSIGNĀNI. [EXERCITUS.]

ANTHESPHŎRĬA (ἀνθεσφόρια), a flower-festival, principally celebrated
in Sicily, in honour of Demeter and Persephone, in commemoration of
the return of Persephone to her mother in the beginning of spring.

ANTHESTĒRĬA. [DIONYSIA.]

ANTĬDŎSIS (ἀντίδοσις), in its literal and general meaning, “an
exchange,” was, in the language of the Attic courts, peculiarly
applied to proceedings under a law which is said to have originated
with Solon. By this, a citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia,
such as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank among the property-tax
payers, in a class disproportioned to his means, was empowered to
call upon any qualified person not so charged to take the office in
his stead, or submit to a complete exchange of property, the charge
in question of course attaching to the first party, if the exchange
were finally effected. For the proceedings the courts were opened
at a stated time every year by the magistrates that had official
cognisance of the particular subject; such as the strategi in cases
of trierarchy and rating to the property-taxes, and the archon in
those of choregia.

ANTĬGRĂPHE (ἀντιγραφή) originally signified the writing put in by the
defendant, his “plea” in all causes whether public or private, in
answer to the indictment or bill of the prosecutor. It is, however,
also applied to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff or accuser.

ĀNTLĬA (ἄντλια), any machine for raising water, a pump. The most
important of these machines were:--(1) The tympanum; a tread-wheel,
worked by men treading on it.--(2) A wheel having wooden boxes
or buckets, so arranged as to form steps for those who trod the
wheel.--(3) The chain pump.--(4) The _cochlea_, or Archimedes’s
screw.--(5) The _ctesibica machina_, or forcing-pump.--Criminals
were condemned to the _antlia_ or tread-mill. The antlia with which
Martial (ix. 19) watered his garden, was probably the pole and bucket
universally employed in Italy, Greece, and Egypt. The pole is curved,
as shown in the annexed figure; because it is the stem of a fir or
some other tapering tree.

[Illustration: Antlia.]

ANTYX (ἄντυξ), the rim or border of any thing, especially of a shield
or chariot. The rim of the large round shield of the ancient Greeks
was thinner than the part which it enclosed; but on the other hand,
the antyx of a chariot must have been thicker than the body to which
it gave both form and strength. In front of the chariot the antyx was
often raised above the body, into the form of a curvature, which
served the purpose of a hook to hang the reins upon.

[Illustration: Antyx. (From an Etruscan tomb.)]

ĂPĂGŌGĒ (ἀπαγωγή), a summary process, allowed in certain cases by the
Athenian law. The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending
a culprit caught _in ipso facto_, but also the written information
delivered to the magistrate, urging his apprehension. The cases in
which the _apagoge_ was most generally allowed were those of theft,
murder, ill-usage of parents, &c.

ĂPĂTŪRĬA (ἀπατούρια) was a political festival, which the Athenians
had in common with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with the
exception of those of Colophon and Ephesus. It was celebrated in the
month of Pyanepsion, and lasted for three days. The name ἀπατούρια
is not derived from ἀπατᾶν, to deceive, but is composed of ἀ =
ἅμα and πατύρια, which is perfectly consistent with what Xenophon
says of the festival, that when it is celebrated the fathers and
relations assemble together. According to this derivation, it is
the festival at which the phratriae met to discuss and settle their
own affairs. But, as every citizen was a member of a phratria, the
festival extended over the whole nation, who assembled _according to
phratriae_. The festival lasted three days. The third day was the
most important; for on that day, children born in that year, in the
families of the phratriae, or such as were not yet registered, were
taken by their fathers, or in their absence by their representatives
(κύριοι), before the assembled members of the phratria. For every
child a sheep or a goat was sacrificed. The father, or he who
supplied his place, was obliged to establish by oath that the child
was the offspring of free-born parents, and citizens of Athens.
After the victim was sacrificed, the phratores gave their votes,
which they took from the altar of Zeus Phratrius. When the majority
voted against the reception, the cause might be tried before one
of the courts of Athens; and if the claims of the child were found
unobjectionable, its name, as well as that of the father, was
entered into the register of the phratria, and those who had wished
to effect the exclusion of the child were liable to be punished.

ĂPERTA NĀVIS. [NAVIS.]

ĂPEX, a cap worn by the flamines and salii at Rome. The essential
part of the apex, to which alone the name properly belonged, was a
pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of which was surrounded with
a lock of wool. This was worn on the top of the head, and was held
there either by fillets only, or, as was more commonly the case, by
the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and was also fastened by
means of two strings or bands. The albogalerus, a white cap made of
the skin of a white victim sacrificed to Jupiter, and worn by the
flamen dialis, had the apex fastened to it by means of an olive twig.

[Illustration: Apices, caps worn by the Salii. (From bas-reliefs and
coins.)]

APHLASTON (ἄφλαστον). [NAVIS.]

ĂPHRACTUS. [NAVIS.]

ĂPHRŎDĪSĬA (ἀφροδίσια) were festivals celebrated in honour of
Aphrodité, in a great number of towns in Greece, but particularly
in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient temple was at Paphos. No
bloody sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, but only pure
fire, flowers, and incense.

APLUSTRE. [NAVIS.]

ĂPŎCLĒTI (ἀποκλητοὶ). [AETOLICUM FOEDUS.]

ĂPODECTAE (ἀποδέκται), public officers at Athens, who were introduced
by Cleisthenes in the place of the ancient colacretae (κωλακρέται).
They were ten in number, one for each tribe, and their duty was
to collect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute them among the
separate branches of the administration which were entitled to them.

ĂPŎGRĂPHĒ (ἀπογραφή), literally, “a list, or register;” signified
also, (1) An accusation in public matters, more particularly when
there were several defendants. It differed but little, if at all,
from the ordinary _graphe_.--(2) A solemn protest or assertion
in writing before a magistrate, to the intent that it might be
preserved by him till it was required to be given in evidence.--(3) A
specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually
in the possession of a private person; which specification was made
with a view to the confiscation of such property to the state.

ĂPOLLĬNĀRES LŪDI. [LUDI APOLLINARES.]

ĂPOLLŌNĬA (ἀπολλώνια), the name of a propitiatory festival solemnized
at Sicyon, in honour of Apollo and Artemis.

ĂPŎPHŎRĒTA (ἀποφόρητα) were presents, which were given to friends at
the end of an entertainment to take home with them. These presents
appear to have been usually given on festival days, especially during
the Saturnalia.

ĂPORRHĒTA (ἀπόῤῥητα), literally “things forbidden,” has two peculiar,
but widely different, acceptations in the Attic dialect. In one of
these it implies contraband goods; in the other, it denotes certain
contumelious epithets, from the application of which both the living
and the dead were protected by special laws.

ĂPŎSTŎLEUS (ἀποστολεύς), the name of a public officer at Athens.
There were ten magistrates of this name, and their duty was to see
that the ships were properly equipped and provided by those who were
bound to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain
cases, of imprisoning the trierarchs who neglected to furnish the
ships properly.

ĂPŎTHĒCA (ἀποθήκη), a place in the upper part of the house, in which
the Romans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their
wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the
_cella vinaria_, was above the _fumarium_; since it was thought that
the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase
the flavour of the wine. The position of the apotheca explains the
expression in Horace (_Carm._ ii. 21, 7), _Descende_, _testa_.

ĂPŎTHĔŌSIS (ἀποθέωσις), the enrolment of a mortal among the gods. The
mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the deification of
mortals; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples
of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered
sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek kingdoms,
which arose in the East on the dismemberment of the empire of
Alexander, it appears to have been not uncommon for the successor
to the throne to offer divine honours to the former sovereign.
Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described by
Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among the Romans,
properly signified the elevation of a deceased emperor to divine
honours. This practice, which was common upon the death of almost
all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the opinion which was
generally entertained among the Romans, that the souls or manes of
their ancestors became deities; and as it was common for children
to worship the manes of their fathers, so it was natural for divine
honours to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, who was regarded
as the parent of his country. This apotheosis of an emperor was
usually called _consecratio_; and the emperor who received the honour
of an apotheosis was usually said _in deorum numerum referri_, or
_consecrari_, and whenever he is spoken of after his death, the title
of _divus_ is prefixed to his name. The funeral pile on which the
body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was constructed of several
stories in the form of chambers rising one above another, and in the
highest an eagle was placed, which was let loose as the fire began to
burn, and which was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor from
earth to heaven.

APPĀRĬTOR, the general name for a public servant of the magistrates
at Rome, namely, the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTERPRES, LICTOR,
PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, VIATOR, of whom an account is given in
separate articles. They were called apparitores because they were
at hand to execute the commands of the magistrates (_quod iis
apparebant_). Their service or attendance was called _apparitio_.

APPELLĀTĬO, appeal.--(1) GREEK (ἔφεσις or ἀναδικία.) Owing to the
constitution of the Athenian tribunals, each of which was generally
appropriated to its peculiar subjects of cognisance, and therefore
could not be considered as homogeneous with or subordinate to any
other, there was little opportunity for bringing appeals properly
so called. It is to be observed also, that in general a cause was
finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict of the dicasts (δίκη
αὐτοτελής). There were only a few exceptions in which appeals and
new trials might be resorted to.--(2) ROMAN. The word _appellatio_,
and the corresponding verb _appellare_, are used in the early Roman
writers to express the application of an individual to a magistrate,
and particularly to a tribune, in order to protect himself from some
wrong inflicted, or threatened to be inflicted. It is distinguished
from _provocatio_, which in the early writers is used to signify
an appeal to the populus in a matter affecting life. It would seem
that the provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman citizens.
The surviving Horatius, who murdered his sister, appealed from the
duumviri to the populus. The decemviri took away the provocatio; but
it was restored by the _Lex Valeria et Horatia_, B.C. 449, in the
year after the decemvirate, and it was at the same time enacted, that
in future no magistrate should be made from whom there should be no
appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs were now protected by
the _provocatio_ and the _tribunicium auxilium_; this latter term has
reference to the appellatio properly so called. The complete phrase
to express the provocatio is _provocare ad populum_; and the phrase
which expresses the appellatio is _appellare ad_, &c.

APSIS or ABSIS (ἁψίς), in architecture, signified first, any building
or portion of a building of a circular form or vaulted, and more
especially the circular and vaulted end of a Basilica.

ĂQUAE DUCTUS (ὑδραγωγία), literally, a water-conduit, but the word
is used especially for the magnificent structures by means of which
Rome and other cities of the Roman empire were supplied with water.
A Roman aqueduct, often called simply _aqua_, may be described in
general terms as a channel, constructed as nearly as possible with
a regular declivity from the source whence the water was derived to
the place where it was delivered, carried through hills by means of
tunnels, and over valleys upon a substruction of solid masonry or
arches. The aqueduct is mentioned by Strabo as among the structures
which were neglected by the Greeks, and first brought into use by
the Romans. Springs (κρῆναι, κρουνοί) were sufficiently abundant
in Greece to supply the great cities with water; and they were
frequently converted into public fountains by the formation of a head
for their waters, and the erection of an ornamental superstructure.
Of this we have an example in the _Enneacrunos_ at Athens, which
was constructed by Peisistratus and his sons. The Romans were in a
very different position, with respect to the supply of water, from
most of the Greek cities. They, at first, had recourse to the Tiber,
and to wells sunk in the city; but the water obtained from those
sources was very unwholesome, and must soon have proved insufficient,
from the growth of the population. It was this necessity that led
to the invention of aqueducts, in order to bring pure water from
the hills which surround the Campagna. The number of aqueducts was
gradually increased, partly at the public expense, and partly by
the munificence of individuals, till, in the fourth century of the
Christian era, they amounted to fourteen. Of these only four belong
to the time of the republic, while five were built in the reigns of
Augustus and Claudius.--1. The _Aqua Appia_, begun by the censor
Appius Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its sources were near the _Via
Praenestina_, between the seventh and eighth mile-stones.--2. The
_Anio Vetus_ was commenced forty years later, B.C. 273, by the censor
M. Curius Dentatus, and was finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The
water was derived from the river Anio, above Tibur, at a distance of
20 Roman miles from the city; but, on account of its windings, its
actual length was 43 miles.--3. The _Aqua Marcia_, one of the most
important of the whole, was built by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, by
command of the senate, in B.C. 144. It commenced at the side of the
_Via Valeria_, 36 miles from Rome.--4. The _Aqua Tepula_, built by
the censors Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus in B.C.
127, began at a spot in the Lucullan or Tusculan land, two miles
to the right of the tenth milestone on the _Via Latina_. It was
afterwards connected with.--5. The _Aqua Julia_, built by Agrippa in
his aedileship, B.C. 33. It was conducted from a source two miles
to the right of the twelfth milestone on the _Via Latina_, first to
the _Aqua Tepula_, in which it was merged as far as the reservoir
(_piscina_) on the _Via Latina_, seven miles from Rome. From this
reservoir the water was carried along two distinct channels, on
the same substructions; the lower channel being called the _Aqua
Tepula_, and the upper the _Aqua Julia_; and this double aqueduct
again was united with the _Aqua Marcia_, over the watercourse of
which the other two were carried.--6. The _Aqua Virgo_, built by
Agrippa, to supply his baths. From a source in a marshy spot by the
8th milestone on the _Via Collatina_, it was conducted by a very
circuitous route.--7. The _Aqua Alsietina_ (sometimes called also
_Aqua Augusta_), on the other side of the Tiber, was constructed
by Augustus from the _Lacus Alsietinus_ (_Lago di Martignano_),
which lay 6500 _passus_ to the right of the 14th milestone on the
_Via Claudia_.--8, 9. The two most magnificent aqueducts were the
_Aqua Claudia_ and the _Anio Novus_ (or _Aqua Aniena Nova_), both
commenced by Caligula in A.D. 36, and finished by Claudius in A.D.
50. The water of the _Aqua Claudia_ was derived from two copious and
excellent springs, near the 38th milestone on the _Via Sublacensis_.
Its length was nearly 46½ miles. The _Anio Novus_ began at the 42nd
milestone. It was the longest and the highest of all the aqueducts,
its length being nearly 59 miles, and some of its arches 109 feet
high. In the neighbourhood of the city these two aqueducts were
united, forming two channels on the same arches, the _Claudia_
below and the _Anio Novus_ above. These nine aqueducts were all
that existed in the time of Frontinus, who was the _curator_ of the
aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. There was also another
aqueduct, not reckoned with the nine, because its waters were no
longer brought all the way to Rome, viz.: 10. The _Aqua Crabra_.--The
following were of later construction. 11. The _Aqua Trajana_, brought
by Trajan from the _Lacus Sabatinus_ (now _Bracciano_).--12. The
_Aqua Alexandrina_, constructed by Alexander Severus; its source was
in the lands of Tusculum, about 14 miles from Rome.--13. The _Aqua
Septimiana_, built by Septimius Severus, was perhaps only a branch
of the _Aqua Julia_.--14. The _Aqua Algentia_ had its source at _M.
Algidus_ by the _Via Tusculana_. Its builder is unknown.--Great
pains were taken by successive emperors to preserve and repair the
aqueducts. From the Gothic wars downwards, they have for the most
part shared the fate of the other great Roman works of architecture;
their situation and purpose rendering them peculiarly exposed to
injury in war; but still their remains form the most striking
features of the Campagna, over which their lines of ruined arches,
clothed with ivy and the wild fig-tree, radiate in various directions.

[Illustration: Triple Aqueduct.]

Three of them still serve for their ancient use. They are--(1.) The
_Acqua Vergine_, the ancient _Aqua Virgo_. (2.) The _Acqua Felice_,
named after the conventual name of its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra
Felice), is, probably, a part of the ancient _Aqua Claudia_, though
some take it for the _Alexandrina_. (3.) The _Acqua Paola_, the
ancient _Alsietina_.--The following woodcut represents a restored
section of the triple aqueduct of Agrippa:--_a._ the _Aqua Marcia_;
_b._ the _Aqua Tepula_; _c._ the _Aqua Julia_. The two latter are of
brick and vaulted over. The air-vents are also shown.--The channel
of an aqueduct (_specus_, _canalis_) was a trough of brick or stone,
lined with cement, and covered with a coping, which was almost always
arched; and the water either ran directly through this trough, or
it was carried through pipes laid along the trough. These pipes
were of lead, or terra-cotta (_fictiles_), and sometimes, for the
sake of economy, of leather. At convenient points on the course of
the aqueduct, and especially near the middle and end, there was
generally a reservoir (_piscina_, _piscina limosa_) in which the
water might deposit any sediment that it contained. The water was
received, when it reached the walls of the city, in a vast reservoir
called _castellum_, which formed the _head of water_ and also served
the purpose of a _meter_. From this principal _castellum_ the water
flowed into other _castella_, whence it was distributed for public
and private use. The term _castellum_ is sometimes also applied to
the intermediate reservoirs already mentioned. During the republic,
the censors and aediles had the superintendence of the aqueducts.
Augustus first established _curatores_ (or _praefecti_) _aquarum_,
who were invested with considerable authority. They were attended
outside the city by two lictors, three public slaves, a secretary,
and other attendants. In the time of Nerva and Trajan, 460 slaves
were constantly employed under the orders of the _curatores aquarum_
in attending to the aqueducts. They consisted of:--1. The _villici_,
whose duty it was to attend to the pipes and _calices_. 2. The
_castellarii_, who had the superintendence of all the _castella_,
both within and without the city. 3. The _circuitores_, so called
because they had to go from post to post, to examine into the state
of the works, and also to keep watch over the labourers employed
upon them. 4. The _silicarii_, or paviours. 5. The _tectores_, or
masons. These and other workmen appear to have been included under
the general term of AQUARII.

ĂQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTĬO. [EXSILIUM.]

ĂQUĀRĬI, slaves who carried water for bathing, &c., into the female
apartments. The aquarii were also public officers who attended to the
aqueducts. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]

ĂQUĬLA. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]

[Illustration: Arae, Altars.]

ĀRA (βωμός, θυτήριον), an altar. _Ara_ was a general term denoting
any structure elevated above the ground, and used to receive upon
it offerings made to the gods. _Altare_, probably contracted from
_alta ara_, was properly restricted to the larger, higher, and
more expensive structures. Four specimens of ancient altars are
given below; the two in the former woodcut are square, and those
in the latter round, which is the less common form. At the top of
three of the above altars we see the hole intended to receive the
fire (ἐσχαρίς, ἐσχάρα): the fourth was probably intended for the
offering of fruits or other gifts, which were presented to the gods
without fire. When the altars were prepared for sacrifice, they were
commonly decorated with garlands or festoons. These were composed
of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which were considered
consecrated to such uses, and were called _verbenae_. The altars
constructed with most labour and skill belonged to temples; and they
were erected either before the temple or within the cella of the
temple, and principally before the statue of the divinity to whom
it was dedicated. The altars in the area before the temple were
altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal sacrifices (_victimae_,
σφάγια, ἱερεῖα) were presented: only incense was burnt, or cakes and
bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within the building.

[Illustration: Arae, Altars.]

ĂRĀTRUM (ἄροτρον), a plough. Among the Greeks and Romans the three
most essential parts of the plough were,--the plough-tail (γύης,
_buris_, _bura_), the share-beam (ἔλυμα, _dens_, _dentale_), that
is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole
(ῥυμός], ἱστοβοεύς, _temo_). In the time and country of Virgil
it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the
_buris_, or plough-tail. The upper end of the _buris_ being held by
the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole,
was used to hold the _dentale_ or share-beam, which was either
sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to
circumstances. The term _vomer_ was sometimes applied to the end of
the _dentale_. To these three parts, the two following are added in
the description of the plough by Virgil:--1. The _earth-boards_, or
_mould-boards_ (_aures_), rising on each side, bending outwardly in
such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been
previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the
share-beam (_dentale_), which was made double for the purpose of
receiving them. 2. The _handle_ (_stiva_). Virgil describes this
part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow; and it is
defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the “handle by which
the plough is directed.” It is probable that as the _dentalia_,
the two share-beams, were in the form of the Greek letter Λ, which
Virgil describes by _duplici dorso_, the _buris_ was fastened to the
left share-beam and the _stiva_ to the right, so that the plough of
Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly
held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the _stiva_ was
used alone and instead of the _buris_ or tail. In place of _stiva_
the term _capulus_ is sometimes employed. The only other part of the
plough requiring notice is the coulter (_culter_), which was used by
the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to
depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which
came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning
of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some
ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all
essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and
Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three
times for each crop. The first ploughing was called _proscindere_,
or _novare_ (νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι); the second _offringere_, or
_iterare_; and the third, _lirare_, or _tertiare_. The field which
underwent the “proscissio” was called _vervactum_ or _novale_
(νεός), and in this process the coulter was employed, because the
fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required
to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The
term “_offringere_” from _ob_ and _frangere_, was applied to the
second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned
up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them
at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent
this process was called _ager iteratus_. After the second ploughing
the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not
always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing
(_occatio_). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached
the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was
to divide the level surface of the “ager _iteratus_” into ridges.
These were called _porcae_, and also _lirae_, whence came the verb
_lirare_, to make ridges, and also _delirare_, to decline from the
straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side
in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered
seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (αὔλακες, _sulci_) for
carrying off the water. In this state the field was called _seges_
and τρίπολος. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was
done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in
order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans
ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter
part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two
whole years intervened.

[Illustration: Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua).

1. Buris.
2. Temo.
3. Dentale.
4. Culter.
5. Vomer.
6 6. Aures.]

ARBĬTER. [JUDEX.]

ARCA (κιβωτός). (1) A chest, in which the Romans were accustomed to
place their money; and the phrase _ex arca solvere_ had the meaning
of paying in ready money. The term arcae was usually applied to
the chests in which the rich kept their money, and was opposed to
the smaller _loculi_, _sacculus_, and _crumena_.--(2) The coffin
in which persons were buried, or the bier on which the corpse was
placed previously to burial.--(3) A strong cell made of oak, in which
criminals and slaves were confined.

ARCĔRA, a covered carriage or litter, spread with cloths, which
was used in ancient times in Rome, to carry the aged and infirm.
It is said to have obtained the name of arcera on account of its
resemblance to an arca, or chest.

[Illustration: Arcera. (Ginzrot, Wagen, Tav. 19, fig. 2.)]

ARCHEION (ἀρχεῖον) properly means any public place belonging to
the magistrates, but is more particularly applied to the archive
office, where the decrees of the people and other state documents
were preserved. This office is sometimes merely called τὸ δημοσίον.
At Athens the archives were kept in the temple of the mother of the
gods (μήτρῳον), and the charge of it was entrusted to the president
(ἐπιστάτης) of the senate of the Five-hundred.

ARCHĬĀTER (ἀρχίατρος), a medical title under the Roman emperors, the
exact signification of which has been the subject of much discussion,
but which most probably means “the chief of the physicians.” The
first person whom we find bearing this title is Andromachus,
physician to Nero. In after times the order appears to have been
divided, and we find two distinct classes of archiatri, viz., those
of the palace and those of the people.

ARCHĬMĪMUS. [MIMUS.]

ARCHĬTECTŪRA (ἀρχιτεκτονία, ἀρχιτεκτονική), architecture. The
necessity for a habitation, and the attempt to adorn those
habitations which were intended for the gods, are the two causes
from which the art derives its existence. In early times little
attention was paid to domestic architecture. The resources of the
art were lavished upon the temples of the gods; and hence the
greater part of the history of Grecian architecture is inseparably
connected with that of the temple, and has its proper place under
TEMPLUM, and the subordinate headings, such as COLUMNA, &c. But,
though the first rise of architecture, as a fine art, is connected
with the temple, yet, viewed as the science of construction, it must
have been employed, even earlier, for other purposes, such as the
erection of fortifications, palaces, treasuries, and other works of
utility. Accordingly, it is the general opinion of antiquaries, that
the very earliest edifices, of which we have any remains, are the
so-called Cyclopean works, in which we see huge unsquared blocks of
stone built together in the best way that their shapes would allow.
[MURUS.] In addition to these, however, there are other purposes
for which architecture, still using the term in its lower sense,
would be required in a very early stage of political society; such
as the general arrangement of cities, the provision of a place for
the transaction of public business, with the necessary edifices
appertaining to it [AGORA, FORUM], and the whole class of works which
we embrace under the head of civil engineering, such as those for
drainage [CLOACA, EMISSARIUS], for communication [VIA, PONS], and
for the supply of water [AQUAE DUCTUS]. Almost equally necessary are
places devoted to public exercise, health, and amusement, GYMNASIUM,
STADIUM, HIPPODROMUS, CIRCUS, BALNEUM, THEATRUM, AMPHITHEATRUM.
Lastly, the skill of the architect has been from the earliest times
employed to preserve the memory of departed men and past events;
and hence we have the various works of monumental and triumphal
architecture, which are described under the heads FUNUS, ARCUS,
COLUMNA. The history of architecture may be divided into five
periods. The first, which is chiefly mythical, comes down to the
time of Cypselus, Ol. 30, B.C. 660: the second period comes down to
the termination of the Persian war, Ol. 75. 2, B.C. 478: the third
is the brilliant period from the end of the Persian war to the death
of Alexander the Great, Ol. 114, B.C. 323: the fourth period extends
to the battle of Actium, B.C. 31: the fifth period embraces the
architecture of the Roman empire till it became mingled with the
Gothic. Strongly fortified cities, palaces, and treasuries are the
chief works of the earlier part of the first period; and to it may
be referred most of the so-called Cyclopean remains; while the era
of the Dorian invasion marks, in all probability, the commencement
of the Dorian style of temple architecture. In the second period
the art made rapid advances under the powerful patronage of the
aristocracies in some cities, as at Sparta, and of the tyrants in
others, as Cypselus at Corinth, Theagnes at Megara, Cleisthenes
at Sicyon, the Peisistratids at Athens, and Polycrates at Samos.
Architecture now assumed decidedly the character of a fine art, and
became associated with the sister arts of sculpture and painting,
which are essential to its development. Magnificent temples sprung
up in all the principal Greek cities; and while the Doric order was
brought almost, if not quite, to perfection, in Greece Proper, in
the Doric colonies of Asia Minor, and in Central Italy and Sicily,
the Ionic order appeared, already perfect at its first invention, in
the great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The ruins still existing at
Paestum, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinus, Aegina, and other places,
are imperishable monuments of this period. To it also belong the
great works of the Roman kings. The commencement of the third and
most brilliant period of the art was signalized by the rebuilding of
Athens, the establishment of regular principles for the laying out
of cities by Hippodamus of Miletus, and the great works of the age
of Pericles, by the contemporaries of Phidias, at Athens, Eleusis,
and Olympia. The first part of the fourth period saw the extension
of the Greek architecture over the countries conquered by Alexander,
and, in the West, the commencement of the new style, which arose from
the imitation, with some alterations, of the Greek forms by Roman
architects, to which the conquest of Greece gave, of course, a new
impulse. By the time of Augustus, Rome was adorned with every kind
of public and private edifice, surrounded by villas, and furnished
with roads and aqueducts; and these various erections were adorned by
the forms of Grecian art; but already Vitruvius begins to complain
that the purity of that art is corrupted by the intermixture of
heterogeneous forms. This process of deterioration went on rapidly
during the fifth period, though combined at first with increasing
magnificence in the scale and number of the buildings erected. The
early part of this period is made illustrious by the numerous works
of Augustus and his successors, especially the Flavii, Nerva, Trajan,
Hadrian, and the Antonines, at Rome and in the provinces; but from
the time of the Antonines the decline of the art was rapid and
decided. In one department a new impulse was given to architecture
by the rise of Christian churches, which were generally built on the
model of the Roman Basilica. One of the most splendid specimens of
Christian architecture is the church of S. Sophia at Constantinople,
built in the reign of Justinian, A.D. 537, and restored, after its
partial destruction by an earthquake, in 554. But, long before this
time, the Greco-Roman style had become thoroughly corrupted, and
that new style, which is called the Byzantine, had arisen out of the
mixture of Roman architecture with ideas derived from the Northern
nations.

ARCHITHĔŌRUS (ἀρχιθέωρος). [DELIA.]

ARCHON (ἄρχων). The government of Athens began with monarchy,
and, after passing through a dynasty[1] and aristocracy, ended in
democracy. Of the kings of Athens, considered as the capital of
Attica, Theseus may be said to have been the first; for to him,
whether as a real individual or a representative of a certain period,
is attributed the union of the different and independent states of
Attica under one head. The last was Codrus; in acknowledgment of
whose patriotism in meeting death for his country, the Athenians
are said to have determined that no one should succeed him with the
title of king (βασιλεύς). It seems, however, equally probable that
it was the nobles who availed themselves of the opportunity to serve
their own interests, by abolishing the kingly power for another, the
possessors of which they called _Archontes_ (ἄρχοντες) or rulers.
These for some time continued to be like the kings of the house of
Codrus, appointed for life: still an important point was gained by
the nobles, the office being made accountable (ὑπεύθυνος), which of
course implies that the nobility had some control over it. This state
of things lasted for twelve reigns of archons. The next step was to
limit the continuance of the office to ten years, still confining
it to the Medontidae, or house of Codrus, so as to establish what
the Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryxias, the
last archon of that family elected as such. At the end of his ten
years (B.C. 684), a much greater change took place: the archonship
was made annual, and its various duties divided among a college
of nine, chosen by suffrage (χειροτονία) from the Eupatridae, or
Patricians, and no longer elected from the Medontidae exclusively.
This arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who still continued
the election by suffrage, but made the qualification for office
depend, not on birth, but property. The election by lot is believed
to have been introduced by Cleisthenes (B.C. 508). The last change
is supposed to have been made by Aristides, who after the battle of
Plataeae (B.C. 479) abolished the property qualification, throwing
open the archonship and other magistracies to all the citizens; that
is, to the Thetes, as well as the other classes, the former of whom
were not allowed by Solon’s laws to hold any magistracy at all.
Still, after the removal of the old restrictions, some security was
left to insure respectability; for, previously to an archon entering
on office, he underwent an examination, called the _anacrisis_
(ἀνάκρισις), as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen, a good
son, and qualified in point of property, but the latter limitation
was either done away with by Aristides, or soon became obsolete. Yet,
even after passing a satisfactory _anacrisis_, each of the archons,
in common with other magistrates, was liable to be deposed on
complaint of misconduct made before the people, at the first regular
assembly in each prytany. On such an occasion the _epicheirotonia_
(ἐπιχειροτονία), as it was called, took place: and we read that
in one case the whole college of archons was deprived of office
(ἀποχειροτονεῖσθαι). In consequence of the democratical tendency of
the assembly and courts of justice established by Solon, the archons
lost the great political power which they at one time possessed.
They became, in fact, not as of old directors of the government,
but merely municipal magistrates, exercising functions and bearing
titles described below. It has been already stated, that the duties
of the single archon were shared by a college of nine. The first, or
president of this body, was called _Archon_, by way of pre-eminence,
or _Archon Eponymus_ (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος), from the year being
distinguished by and registered in his name. The second was styled
_Archon Basileus_ (ἄρχων βασιλεύς), or the King Archon; the third
_Polemarchus_ (πολέμαρχος), or commander-in-chief; the remaining
six, _Thesmothetae_ (θεσμοθέται), or legislators. As regards the
duties of the archons, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish
what belonged to them individually, and what collectively. It
seems that a considerable portion of the judicial functions of the
ancient kings devolved upon the _Archon Eponymus_, who was also
constituted a sort of state protector of those who were unable to
defend themselves. Thus he was to superintend orphans, heiresses,
families losing their representatives, widows left pregnant, and
to see that they were not wronged in any way. This archon had also
the superintendence of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia.
The functions of the _King Archon_ were almost all connected with
religion; his distinguishing title shows that he was considered a
representative of the old kings in their capacity of high priest, as
the Rex Sacrificulus was at Rome. Thus he presided at the Lenaea,
or older Dionysia; superintended the mysteries and the games called
_Lampadephoriae_, and had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the
Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis. Moreover, indictments for
impiety, and controversies about the priesthood, were laid before
him; and, in cases of murder, he brought the trial into the court of
the areiopagus, and voted with its members. His wife, also, who was
called _Basilissa_ (βασίλισσα), had to offer certain sacrifices, and
therefore it was required that she should be a citizen of pure blood,
without stain or blemish. The _Polemarch_ was originally, as his name
denotes, the commander-in-chief, and we find him discharging military
duties as late as the battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the ten
_Strategi_; he there took, like the kings of old, the command of the
right wing of the army. This, however, seems to be the last occasion
on record of this magistrate appointed by lot being invested with
such important functions; and in after ages we find that his duties
ceased to be military, having been, in a great measure, transferred
to the protection and superintendence of the resident aliens, so that
he resembled in many respects the praetor peregrinus at Rome. Thus,
all actions affecting aliens, the isoteles and proxeni were brought
before him previously to trial. Moreover, it was the polemarch’s
duty to offer the yearly sacrifice to Artemis, in commemoration of
the vow made by Callimachus, at Marathon, and to arrange the funeral
games in honour of those who fell in war. The six _Thesmothetae_ were
extensively connected with the administration of justice, and appear
to have been called legislators, because, in the absence of a written
code, they might be said to make laws, or _thesmi_ (θεσμοί), in the
ancient language of Athens, though in reality they only explained
them. They were required to review, every year, the whole body of
laws, that they might detect any inconsistencies or superfluities,
and discover whether any laws which were abrogated were in the public
records amongst the rest. Their report was submitted to the people,
who referred the necessary alterations to a legislative committee
chosen for the purpose, and called _Nomothetae_ (νομοθέται). The
chief part of the duties of the thesmothetae consisted in receiving
informations, and bringing cases to trial in the courts of law, of
the days of sitting in which they gave public notice. They did not
try them themselves, but seem to have constituted a sort of grand
jury, or inquest. The trial itself took place before the Dicastae.
[DICASTAE.] It is necessary to be cautious in our interpretation of
the words ἀρχή and ἄρχοντες, since they have a double meaning in
the Attic orators, sometimes referring to the archons peculiarly
so called, and sometimes to any other magistracy. The archons had
various privileges and honours. The greatest of the former was the
exemption from the trierarchies--a boon not allowed even to the
successors of Harmodius and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office,
they wore a chaplet or crown of myrtle; and if any one struck or
abused one of the archons, when wearing this badge of office, he
became _atimus_ (ἄτιμος), or infamous in the fullest extent, thereby
losing his civic rights. The archons, at the close of their year
of service, were admitted among the members of the areiopagus.
[AREIOPAGUS.]

FOOTNOTE:

[1] By this is meant that the supreme power, though not monarchical,
was confined to one family.

[Illustration: Arch of Tiryns. (Gell’s Itinerary, pl. 16.)]

ARCUS (also fornix), an arch. A true arch is formed of a series
of wedge-like stones, or of bricks, supporting each other, and
all bound firmly together by their mutual pressure. It would seem
that the arch, as thus defined, and as used by the Romans, was not
known to the Greeks in the early periods of their history. But they
made use of a contrivance, even in the heroic age, by which they
were enabled to gain all the advantages of our archway in making
corridors, or hollow galleries, and which in appearance resembled
the pointed arch, such as is now termed Gothic. This was effected
by cutting away the superincumbent stones in the manner already
described, at an angle of about 45° with the horizon. The mode of
construction and appearance of such arches is represented in the
annexed drawing of the walls of Tiryns. The gate of Signia (_Segni_)
in Latium exhibits a similar example. The principle of the true arch
seems to have been known to the Romans from the earliest period;
it is used in the _Cloaca Maxima_. It is most probably an Etruscan
invention. The use of it constitutes one leading distinction between
Greek and Roman architecture, for by its application the Romans were
enabled to execute works of far bolder construction than those of
the Greeks. The Romans, however, never used any other form of arch
than the semicircle. The arcus triumphalis, triumphal arch, was a
structure peculiar to the Romans, erected in honour of an individual,
or in commemoration of a conquest. Triumphal arches were built
across the principal streets of Rome, and, according to the space
of their respective localities, consisted of a single archway, or
a central one for carriages, and two smaller ones on each side for
foot-passengers. Those actually made use of on the occasion of a
triumphal entry and procession were merely temporary and hastily
erected; and, having served their purpose, were taken down again, and
sometimes replaced by others of more durable materials. Stertinius
is the first upon record who erected anything of the kind. He built
an arch in the Forum Boarium, about B.C. 196, and another in the
Circus Maximus, each of which was surmounted by gilt statues. There
are twenty-one arches recorded by different writers, as having been
erected in the city of Rome, five of which now remain:--1. _Arcus
Drusi_, which was erected to the honour of Claudius Drusus on the
Appian way. 2. _Arcus Titi_, at the foot of the Palatine, which
was erected to the honour of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea;
the bas-reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from the temple
of Jerusalem carried in triumphal procession. 3. _Arcus Septimii
Severi_, which was erected by the senate (A.D. 207) at the end of
the Via Sacra, in honour of that emperor and his two sons, Caracalla
and Geta, on account of his conquest of the Parthians and Arabians.
4. _Arcus Gallieni_, erected to the honour of Gallienus by a private
individual, M. Aurelius Victor. 5. _Arcus Constantini_, which was
larger than the arch of Titus. As a specimen of the triumphal arches,
a drawing of the arch of Drusus is given in the preceding page.

[Illustration: Arch of Drusus at Rome]

ARCUS (βιός, τόξον), the bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the
most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather
than of Europe. In the Roman armies it was scarcely ever employed
except by auxiliaries; and these auxiliaries, called _sagittarii_,
were chiefly Cretes and Arabians. The upper of the two figures below
shows the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung; the lower one represents
the usual form of the Grecian bow, which had a double curvature,
consisting of two circular portions united by the handle. When not
used, the bow was put into a case (τοξοθήκη, γωρυτός, _corytus_),
which was made of leather, and sometimes ornamented. It frequently
held the arrows as well as the bow, and on this account is often
confounded with the _pharetra_ or quiver.

[Illustration: Arcus, Bow. (From paintings on vases.)

Corytus, Bow-case. (From a Relief in the Vatican, Visconti, iv.
tav. 43.)]

ĀRĔA (ἅλως, or ἁλωά), the threshing-floor, was a raised place in the
field, open on all sides to the wind. Great pains were taken to make
this floor hard; it was sometimes paved with flint stones, but more
usually covered with clay and smoothed with a roller.

ĂREIOPĂGUS (ὁ Ἄρειος πάγος, or hill of Ares) was a rocky eminence,
lying to the west of, and not far from the Acropolis at Athens. It
was the place of meeting of the council (Ἡ ἐν Ἀρείῳ πάγῳ βουλή),
which was sometimes called _The Upper Council_ (Ἡ ἄνω βουλή), to
distinguish it from the senate of Five-hundred, which sat in the
Cerameicus within the city. It was a body of very remote antiquity,
acting as a criminal tribunal, and existed long before the time
of Solon, but he so far modified its constitution and sphere of
duty, that he may almost be called its founder. What that original
constitution was, must in some degree be left to conjecture, though
there is every reason to suppose that it was aristocratical, the
members being taken, like the ephetae, from the noble patrician
families. [EPHETAE.] By the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was
composed of the ex-archons, who, after an unexceptionable discharge
of their duties, “went up” to the Areiopagus, and became members
of it for life, unless expelled for misconduct. As Solon made the
qualification for the office of archon to depend not on birth but
on property, the council after his time ceased to be aristocratic
in constitution; but, as we learn from Attic writers, continued so
in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have formed the two councils,
the senate and the Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democracy;
that, as he himself expressed it, “the state riding upon them as
anchors might be less tossed by storms.” Nay, even after the archons
were no longer elected by suffrage, but by lot, and the office was
thrown open by Aristides to all the Athenian citizens, the “upper
council” still retained its former tone of feeling. Moreover, besides
these changes in its constitution, Solon altered and extended its
functions. Before his time it was only a criminal court, trying cases
of “wilful murder and wounding, of arson and poisoning,” whereas he
gave it extensive powers of a censorial and political nature. Thus
we learn that he made the council an “overseer of everything, and
the guardian of the laws,” empowering it to inquire how any one got
his living and to punish the idle; and we are also told that the
Areiopagites were “superintendents of good order and decency,” terms
as unlimited and undefined as Solon not improbably wished to leave
their authority. When heinous crimes had notoriously been committed,
but the guilty parties were not known, or no accuser appeared, the
Areiopagus inquired into the subject, and reported to the demus. The
report or information was called _apophasis_. This was a duty which
they sometimes undertook on their own responsibility, and in the
exercise of an old established right, and sometimes on the order of
the demus. Nay, to such an extent did they carry their power, that
on one occasion they apprehended an individual (Antiphon), who had
been acquitted by the general assembly, and again brought him to a
trial, which ended in his condemnation and death. Again, we find them
revoking an appointment whereby Aeschines was made the advocate of
Athens before the Amphictyonic council, and substituting Hyperides
in his room. They also had duties connected with religion, one of
which was to superintend the sacred olives growing about Athens, and
try those who were charged with destroying them; and in general it
was their office to punish the impious and irreligious. Independent,
then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal court in cases of wilful
murder, which Solon continued to the Areiopagus, its influence must
have been sufficiently great to have been a considerable obstacle
to the aggrandisement of the democracy at the expense of the other
parties in the state. Accordingly, we find that Pericles, who was
opposed to the aristocracy, resolved to diminish its power and
circumscribe its sphere of action. His coadjutor in this work was
Ephialtes, a statesman of inflexible integrity, and also a military
commander. They experienced much opposition in their attempts, not
only in the assembly, but also on the stage, where Aeschylus produced
his tragedy of the Eumenides, the object of which was to impress upon
the Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and constitutional worth of
the institution which Pericles and Ephialtes wished to reform. Still
the opposition failed: a decree was carried by which, as Aristotle
says, the Areiopagus was “mutilated,” and many of its hereditary
rights abolished, though it is difficult to ascertain the precise
nature of the alterations which Pericles effected. The jurisdiction
of the Areiopagus in cases of murder was still left to them. In such
cases the process was as follows:--The king archon brought the case
into court, and sat as one of the judges, who were assembled in
the open air, probably to guard against any contamination from the
criminal. The accuser first came forwards to make a solemn oath that
his accusation was true, standing over the slaughtered victims, and
imprecating extirpation upon himself and his whole family were it
not so. The accused then denied the charge with the same solemnity
and form of oath. Each party then stated his case with all possible
plainness, keeping strictly to the subject, and not being allowed
to appeal in any way to the feelings or passions of the judges.
After the first speech, a criminal accused of murder might remove
from Athens, and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed by Draco’s
_Thesmi_, which on this point were still in force. Except in cases
of parricide, neither the accuser nor the court had power to prevent
this; but the party who thus evaded the extreme punishment was not
allowed to return home, and when any decree was passed at Athens to
legalize the return of exiles, an exception was always made against
those who had thus left their country. The Areiopagus continued
to exist, in name at least, till a very late period. Thus we find
Cicero mentioning the council in his letters; and an individual is
spoken of as an Areiopagite under the emperors Gratian and Theodosius
(A.D. 380). The case of St. Paul is generally quoted as an instance
of the authority of the Areiopagus in religious matters; but the
words of the sacred historian do not necessarily imply that he was
brought before the council. It may, however, be remarked, that the
Areiopagites certainly took cognizance of the introduction of new
and unauthorised forms of religious worship, called ἐπίθετα ἱερά, in
contradistinction to the πάτρια or older rites of the state.

ĂRĒNA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

ĂRĔTĀLŎGI, persons who amused the company at the Roman dinner tables.

ARGĒI, the name given by the pontifices to the places consecrated
by Numa for the celebration of religious services. Varro calls them
the chapels of the argei, and says they were twenty-seven in number,
distributed in the different districts of the city. There was a
tradition that these argei were named from the chieftains who came
with Hercules, the Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capitoline,
or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill. It is impossible
to say what is the historical value or meaning of this legend; we
may, however, notice its conformity with the statement that Rome was
founded by the Pelasgians, with whom the name of Argos was connected.
The name argei was also given to certain figures thrown into the
Tiber from the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May in every year.
This was done by the pontifices, the vestals, the praetors, and other
citizens, after the performance of the customary sacrifices. The
images were thirty in number, made of bulrushes, and in the form of
men. Ovid makes various suppositions to account for the origin of
this rite; we can only conjecture that it was a symbolical offering,
to propitiate the gods, and that the number was a representative
either of the thirty patrician curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the
thirty Latin townships.

ARGENTĀRĬI, bankers or money changers. (1) GREEK. The bankers at
Athens were called _Trapezitae_ (τραπεζίται), from their tables
(τραπεζαι) at which they sat, while carrying on their business, and
which were in the market place. Their principal occupation was that
of changing money; but they frequently took money, at a moderate
premium, from persons who did not like to occupy themselves with
the management of their own affairs, and placed it out at interest.
Their usual interest was 36 per cent.; a rate that at present
scarcely occurs except in cases of money lent on bottomry. The only
instance of a bank recognized and conducted on behalf of the state
occurs at Byzantium, where at one time it was let by the republic
to capitalists to farm. Yet the state probably exercised some kind
of superintendence over the private bankers, since it is hardly
possible otherwise to account for the unlimited confidence which they
enjoyed.--(2) ROMAN. The _Argentarii_ at Rome must be distinguished
from the _mensarii_ and _nummularii_, or public bankers. [MENSARII.]
The argentarii were private persons, who carried on business on their
own responsibility, and were not in the service of the republic;
but the shops or _tabernae_ about the forum, which they occupied,
and in which they transacted their business, were state property.
The business of the argentarii may be divided into the following
branches. 1. _Permutatio_, or the exchange of foreign coin for Roman,
and in later times the giving of bills of exchange payable in foreign
towns. 2. The keeping of sums of money for other persons. Such money
might be deposited by the owner merely to save himself the trouble
of keeping it and making payments, and in this case it was called
_depositum_; the argentarius then paid no interest, and the money was
called _vacua pecunia_. Or the money was deposited on condition of
the argentarius paying interest; in this case the money was called
_creditum_. A payment made through a banker was called _per mensam_,
_de mensa_, or _per mensae scripturam_, while a payment made by the
debtor in person was a payment _ex arca_ or _de domo_. An argentarius
never paid away any person’s money without being either authorised by
him in person or receiving a cheque which was called _perscriptio_.
The argentarii kept accurate accounts in books called _codices_,
_tabulae_, or _rationes_, and there is every reason for believing
that they were acquainted with what is called in book-keeping double
entry. When a party found to be in debt paid what he owed, he had
his name effaced (_nomen expedire_ or _expungere_) from the banker’s
books. 3. Their connection with commerce and public auctions. In
private sales and purchases, they sometimes acted as agents for
either party (_interpretes_), and sometimes they undertook to sell
the whole estate of a person, as an inheritance. At public auctions
they were almost invariably present, registering the articles sold,
their prices, and purchasers, and receiving the payment from the
purchasers. 4. The testing of the genuineness of coins (_probatio
nummorum_). This, however, seems originally to have been a part of
the duty of public officers, the mensarii or nummularii, until in
the course of time the opinion of an argentarius also came to be
looked upon as decisive. 5. The _solidorum venditio_, that is, the
obligation of purchasing from the mint the newly coined money, and
circulating it among the people. This branch of their functions
occurs only under the empire. The argentarii formed a collegium,
divided into _societates_ or corporations, which alone had the right
to admit new members of their guild. None but freemen could become
members of such a corporation. It has already been observed that the
argentarii had their shops round the forum: hence to become bankrupt
was expressed by _foro cedere_, or _abire_, or _foro mergi_.

ARGENTUM (ἄργυρος), silver. The relative value of gold and silver
differed considerably at different periods in Greek and Roman
history. Herodotus mentions it as 13 to 1; Plato, as 12 to 1;
Menander, as 10 to 1; and Livy as 10 to 1, about B.C. 189. According
to Suetonius, Julius Caesar, on one occasion, exchanged silver for
gold in the proportion of 9 to 1; but the most usual proportion under
the early Roman emperors was about 12 to 1. The proportion in modern
times, since the discovery of the American mines, has varied between
17 to 1 and 14 to 1. In the earliest times the Greeks obtained their
silver chiefly as an article of commerce from the Phocaeans and the
Samians; but they soon began to work the rich mines of their own
country and its islands. The chief mines were in Siphnos, Thessaly,
and Attica. In the last-named country, the silver mines of Laurion
furnished a most abundant supply, and were generally regarded as
the chief source of the wealth of Athens. The Romans obtained most
of their silver from the very rich mines of Spain, which had been
previously worked by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and which,
though abandoned for those of Mexico, are still not exhausted. By
far the most important use of silver among the Greeks was for money.
There are sufficient reasons for believing that, until some time
after the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had no gold
currency. [AURUM.] It may be remarked that all the words connected
with money are derived from ἄργυρος, and not from χρυσός, as
καταργυρόω, “to bribe with money;” ἀργυραμοιβός, “a money changer,”
&c.; and ἄργυρος is itself not unfrequently used to signify money
in general, as _aes_ is in Latin. At Rome, on the contrary, silver
was not coined till B.C. 269, before which period Greek silver was
in circulation at Rome; and the principal silver coin of the Romans,
the _denarius_, was borrowed from the Greek _drachma_. For further
details respecting silver money, see DENARIUS, DRACHMA. From a very
early period, silver was used also in works of art; and the use of it
for mere purposes of luxury and ostentation, as in plate, was very
general both in Greece and Rome.

ARGỸRASPĬDES (ἀργυράσπιδες), a division of the Macedonian army, who
were so called because they carried shields covered with silver
plates.

ARGỸROCŎPEION (ἀργυροκοπεῖον), the place where money was coined, the
mint, at Athens.

ĂRĬES (κριός), the battering-ram, was used to batter down the walls
of besieged cities. It consisted of a large beam, made of the trunk
of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash. To one end was fastened a
mass of bronze or iron (κεφαλή, ἐμβολή, προτομή), which resembled in
its form the head of a ram. The aries in its simplest state was borne
and impelled by human hands, without other assistance. In an improved
form, the ram was surrounded with iron bands, to which rings were
attached for the purpose of suspending it by ropes or chains from a
beam fixed transversely over it. By this contrivance the soldiers
were relieved from the necessity of supporting the weight of the ram,
and could with ease give it a rapid and forcible motion backwards and
forwards. The use of this machine was further aided by placing the
frame in which it was suspended upon wheels, and also by constructing
over it a wooden roof, so as to form a “testudo,” which protected the
besieging party from the defensive assaults of the besieged.

[Illustration: Aries, Battering Ram. (From Column of Trajan.)]

ĀRISTOCRĂTĬA (ἀριστοκρατία), signifies literally “the government of
the best men,” and as used by Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, &c., it
meant the government of a class whose supremacy was founded not on
wealth merely, but on personal distinction. That there should be
an aristocracy, moreover, it was essential that the administration
of affairs should be conducted with a view to the promotion of the
general interests, not for the exclusive or predominant advantage
of the privileged class As soon as the government ceased to be
thus conducted, or whenever the only title to political power in
the dominant class was the possession of superior wealth, the
constitution was termed an oligarchy (ὀλιγαρχία), which, in the
technical use of the term, was always looked upon as a corruption
(παρέκβασις) of an aristocracy. In the practical application of the
term aristocracy, however, the personal excellence which was held to
be a necessary element was not of a higher kind than what, according
to the deeply-seated ideas of the Greeks, was commonly hereditary in
families of noble birth, and in early times would be the ordinary
accompaniments of noble rank, namely, wealth, military skill, and
superior education and intelligence. It is to be noted that the word
ἀριστοκρατία is never, like the English term _aristocracy_, the name
of a class, but only of a particular political constitution.

[Illustration: Greek Soldier. (From an ancient vase.)

Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)]

ARMA, ARMĀTŪRA (ἔντεα, τεύχεα, Hom.; ὅπλα), arms, armour. Homer
describes in various passages an entire suit of armour, and we
observe that it consisted of the same portions which were used by
the Greek soldiers ever after. Moreover, the order of putting them
on is always the same. The heavy-armed warrior, having already a
tunic around his body, and preparing for combat, puts on--1. his
greaves (κνημῖδες, _ocreae_); 2. his cuirass (θώραξ, _lorica_), to
which belonged the μίτρη underneath, and the zone (ζώνη, ζωστῆρ,
_cingulum_), above; 3. his sword (ξίφος, _ensis_, _gladius_), hung on
the left side of his body by means of a belt which passed over the
right shoulder; 4. the large round shield (σάκος, ἀσπίς, _clipeus_,
_scutum_), supported in the same manner; 5. his helmet (κόρυς, κυνέη,
_cassis_, _galea_); 6. he took his spear (ἔγχος, δόρυ, _hasta_), or
in many cases, two spears. The form and use of these portions are
described in separate articles, under their Latin names. The annexed
cut exhibits them all. Those who were defended in the manner which
has now been represented are called by Homer _aspistae_ (ἀσπισταί),
from their great shield (ἀσπίς); also _angemachi_ (ἀγχεμάχοι),
because they fought hand to hand with their adversaries; but much
more commonly _promachi_ (πρόμαχοι), because they occupied the
front of the army. In later times, the heavy-armed soldiers were
called _hoplitae_ (ὁπλίται), because the term _hopla_ (ὄπλα) more
especially denoted the defensive armour, the shield and thorax. By
wearing these they were distinguished from the light-armed (ψιλοί,
ἄνοπλοι, γυμνοί, γυμνῆται, γυμνῆτες), who, instead of being defended
by the shield and thorax, had a much slighter covering, sometimes
consisting of skins, and sometimes of leather or cloth; and instead
of the sword or lance, they commonly fought with darts, stones, bows
and arrows, or slings. Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers,
another description of men, the _peltastae_ (πελτασταί), also
formed a part of the Greek army, though we do not hear of them in
early times. Instead of the large round shield, they carried a
smaller one called the _pelté_ (πέλτη), and in other respects their
armour, though heavier and more effective than that of the psili,
was much lighter than that of the hoplites. The weapon on which they
principally depended was the spear. The Roman legions consisted, as
the Greek infantry for the most part did, of heavy and light-armed
troops (_gravis et levis armatura_). The preceding figure represents
two heavy-armed Roman soldiers. All the essential parts of the Roman
heavy armour (_lorica_, _ensis_, _clipeus_, _galea_, _hasta_) are
mentioned together, except the spear, in a well-known passage of St.
Paul (_Eph._ vi. 17).

ARMĀRĬUM, originally a place for keeping arms, afterwards a cupboard,
in which were kept not only arms, but also clothes, books, money, and
other articles of value. The armarium was generally placed in the
atrium of the house.

ARMILLA (ψάλιον, ψέλιον, or ψέλλιον, χλιδών, ἀμφιδέα), a bracelet or
armlet, worn both by men and women. It was a favourite ornament of
the Medes and Persians. Bracelets do not appear to have been worn
among the Greeks by the male sex, but Greek ladies had bracelets of
various materials, shapes, and styles of ornament. They frequently
exhibited the form of snakes, and were in such cases called snakes
(ὄφεις) by the Athenians. According to their length, they went once,
twice, or thrice round the arm, or even a greater number of times.
The Roman generals frequently bestowed armillae upon soldiers for
deeds of extraordinary merit.

[Illustration: Armillae, Bracelets. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. tav.
14 vol. vii. tav. 46.)

Armilla, Bracelet. (On Statue of Sleeping Ariadne in Vatican.)]

ARMĬLUSTRĬUM, a Roman festival for the purification of arms. It was
celebrated every year on the 19th of October, when the citizens
assembled in arms, and offered sacrifices in the place called
Armilustrum, or Vicus Armilustri.

ARRA, ARRĂBO, or ARRHA, ARRHABO, was the thing which purchasers
and vendors gave to one another, whether it was a sum of money or
anything else, as an evidence of the contract being made: it was
no essential part of the contract of buying and selling, but only
evidence of agreement as to price. The term arrha, in its general
sense of an evidence of agreement, was also used on other occasions,
as in the case of betrothment (_sponsalia_). Sometimes the word
arrha is used as synonymous with _pignus_, but this is not the legal
meaning of the term.

ARRHĒPHŎRĬA (ἀῤῥηφόρια), a festival celebrated at Athens in honour
of Athena (Minerva). Four girls, of between seven and eleven years
(ἀῤῥηφόροι, ἐρσηφόροι, ἐῤῥηφόροι), were selected every year by
the king archon from the most distinguished families, two of whom
superintended the weaving of the sacred peplus of Athena; the two
others had to carry the mysterious and sacred vessels of the goddess.
These latter remained a whole year on the Acropolis; and when the
festival commenced, the priestess of the goddess placed vessels upon
their heads, the contents of which were neither known to them nor to
the priestess. With these they descended to a natural grotto within
the district of Aphrodite in the gardens. Here they deposited the
sacred vessels, and carried back something else, which was covered
and likewise unknown to them. After this the girls were dismissed
and others were chosen to supply their place in the acropolis.

ARRŎGĀTĬO. [ADOPTIO.]

ARTĂBA (ἀρτάβη), a Persian measure of capacity = 1 medimnus and 3
choenices (Attic) = 102 Roman sextarii = 12 gallons, 5·092 pints.

ARTĔMĪSĬA (ἀρτεμίσια), a festival celebrated at Syracuse in honour
of Artemis Potamia and Soteira. It lasted three days, which were
principally spent in feasting and amusements, Festivals of the same
name, and in honour of the same goddess, were held in many places in
Greece, but principally at Delphi.

ARTOPTA. [PISTOR.]

ĂRŪRA (ἄρουρα), a Greek measure of surface, mentioned by Herodotus,
who says that it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direction. Now
the Egyptian cubit contained nearly 17¾ inches; therefore the square
of 100 by 17¾ inches, _i.e._ nearly 148 feet, gives the number of
square feet (English) in the arura, viz. 21,904.

ĂRUSPEX. [HARUSPEX.]

ARVĀLES FRĀTRES, formed a college or company of twelve priests, and
were so called from offering public sacrifices for the fertility
of the fields. That they were of extreme antiquity is proved by
the legend which refers their institution to Romulus, of whom it
is said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia lost one of her twelve
sons, he allowed himself to be adopted by her in his place, and
called himself and the remaining eleven “Fratres Arvales.” We also
find a college called the Sodales Titii, and as the latter were
confessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted for the purpose of
keeping up the Sabine religious rites, it is probable that these
colleges corresponded one to the other--the Fratres Arvales being
connected with the Latin, and the Sodales Titii with the Sabine
element of the Roman state. The office of the fratres arvales was
for life, and was not taken away even from an exile or captive.
One of their annual duties was to celebrate a three days’ festival
in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres, sometimes held on the
17th, 19th, and 20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30th of May.
But besides this festival of the Dea Dia, the fratres arvales were
required on various occasions, under the emperors, to make vows
and offer up thanksgivings. Under Tiberius, the Fratres Arvales
performed sacrifices called the _Ambarvalia_, at various places on
the borders of the ager Romanus, or original territory of Rome;
and it is probable that this was a custom handed down from time
immemorial, and, moreover, that it was a duty of the priesthood to
invoke a blessing on the whole territory of Rome. There were also the
private _ambarvalia_, which were so called from the victim (_hostia
ambarvalis_) that was slain on the occasion being led three times
round the corn-fields, before the sickle was put to the corn. This
victim was accompanied by a crowd of merry-makers, the reapers and
farm-servants dancing and singing, as they marched, the praises of
Ceres, and praying for her favour and presence, while they offered
her the libations of milk, honey, and wine. This ceremony was also
called a _lustratio_, or purification.

ARX signifies a height within the walls of a city, upon which a
citadel was built, and thus came to be applied to the citadel
itself. Thus one of the summits of the Capitoline hill at Rome is
called _Arx_. The _Arx_ was the regular place at Rome for taking
the auspices, and was hence likewise called _auguraculum_; or, more
probably, the auguraculum was a place in the Arx.

AS, or _Libra_, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans. [LIBRA.]

AS, the unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was
made of copper, or of the mixed metal called AES. It was originally
of the weight of a pound of twelve ounces, whence it was called _as
libralis_ and _aes grave_. The oldest form of the _as_ is that which
bears the figure of an animal (a bull, ram, boar, or sow). The next
and most common form is that which has the two-faced head of Janus on
one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression
used by Roman boys in tossing up, _Capita aut navim_.) Pliny informs
us, that in the time of the first Punic war (B.C. 264-241), in
order to meet the expenses of the state, this weight of a pound was
diminished, and asses were struck of the same weight as the sextans
(that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the ancient weight); and that
thus the republic paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six; that
afterwards, in the second Punic war, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabius
Maximus (B.C. 217), asses of one ounce were made, and the denarius
was decreed to be equal to sixteen asses, the republic thus gaining
one half; but that in military pay the denarius was always given for
ten asses; and that soon after, by the Papirian law (about B.C. 191),
asses of half an ounce were made. The value of the as, of course,
varied with its weight. Before the reduction to two ounces, ten asses
were equal to the denarius = about 8½ pence English [DENARIUS].
Therefore the as = 3·4 farthings. By the reduction the denarius
was made equal to sixteen asses; therefore the as = 2⅛ farthings.
The as was divided into parts, which were named according to the
number of ounces they contained. They were the _deunx_, _dextans_,
_dodrans_, _bes_, _septunx_, _semis_, _quincunx_, _triens_,
_quadrans_ or _teruncius_, _sextans_, _sescunx_ or _sescuncia_, and
uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2,
1½, and 1 ounces. Of these divisions the following were represented
by coins; namely, the _semis_, _quincunx_, _triens_, _quadrans_,
_sextans_, and _uncia_. After the reduction in the weight of the
as, coins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10 asses,
which were called respectively _dussis_ or _dupondius_, _tressis_,
_quadrussis_, and _decussis_. Other multiples of the as were denoted
by words of similar formation, up to _centussis_, 100 asses; but most
of them do not exist as coins. In certain forms of expression, in
which _aes_ is used for money without specifying the denomination,
we must understand the as. Thus _deni aeris_, _mille aeris_, _decies
aeris_, mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 _asses_. The word _as_
was used also for any whole which was to be divided into equal parts;
and those parts were called _unciae_. Thus these words were applied
not only to weight and money, but to measures of length, surface,
and capacity, to inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and many
other things. Hence the phrases _haeres ex asse_, the heir to a whole
estate; _haeres ex dodrante_, the heir to three-fourths. The _as_ was
also called in ancient times _assarius_ (sc. _nummus_), and in Greek
τὸ ἀσσάριον. According to Polybius, the assarius was equal to half
the obolus.

ASCĬA (σκέπαρνον), an adze. The annexed cut shows two varieties of
the adze. The instrument at the bottom was called _acisculus_, and
was chiefly used by masons.

[Illustration: Asciae, adzes. (From ancient monuments and a coin.)]

ASCLĒPIEIA (ἀσκληπίεια), the name of festivals which were probably
celebrated in all places where temples of Asclepius (Aesculapius)
existed. The most celebrated, however, was that of Epidaurus, which
took place every five years, and was solemnized with contests of
rhapsodists and musicians, and with solemn processions and games.

ASCŌLĬASMUS (ἀσκωλιασμός, the leaping upon the leathern bag, ἀσκός)
was one of the many kinds of amusements in which the Athenians
indulged during the Anthesteria and other festivals in honour of
Dionysus. Having sacrificed a he-goat to the god, they made a bag out
of the skin, smeared it with oil, and then tried to dance upon it.

[Illustration: Ascoliasmus. (From an ancient gem.)]

ĂSĔBEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ἀσεβείας γραφή), one of the many forms prescribed
by the Attic laws for the impeachment of impiety. Any citizen not
incapacitated by disfranchisement (ἀτιμία) seems to have been a
competent accuser; and citizens, resident aliens, and strangers, were
equally liable to the accusation. Whether the causes were brought
into the areiopagus, or the common heliastic court, seems to have
been determined by the form of action adopted by the prosecutor, or
the degree of competency to which the areiopagus rose or fell at the
different periods of Athenian history.

ĂSĬARCHAE (ἀσιάρχαι) were, in the Roman province of Asia, the chief
presidents of the religious rites, whose office it was to exhibit
games and theatrical amusements every year, in honour of the gods and
the Roman emperor, at their own expense, like the Roman aediles. They
were ten in number, selected annually by the different towns of Asia,
and approved of by the Roman proconsul; of these, one was the chief
asiarch, and frequently, but not always, resided at Ephesus.

ASSĀRĬUS NUMMUS. [AS.]

ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains the same root as the verb _adserere_,
which, when coupled with the word _manu_, signifies to lay hold
of a thing, to draw it towards one. Hence the phrase _adserere
in libertatem_, or _liberali adserere manu_, applies to him who
lays his hand on a person reputed to be a slave, and _asserts_, or
maintains his freedom. The person who thus maintained the freedom of
a reputed slave was called _adsertor_. The person whose freedom was
thus claimed was said to be _adsertus_. The expressions _liberalis
causa_, and _liberalis manus_, which occur in connection with the
verb _adserere_, will easily be understood from what has been said.
Sometimes the word _adserere_ alone was used as equivalent to
_adserere in libertatem_. The expression _asserere in servitutem_, to
claim a person as a slave, occurs in Livy.

ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one who sits by the side of
another. Since the consuls, praetors, governors of provinces, and
the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted with the law and
forms of procedure, it was necessary that they should have the aid
of those who had made the law their study. The assessors sat on the
tribunal with the magistrate. Their advice or aid was given during
the proceedings as well as at other times, but they never pronounced
a judicial sentence.

ASSĬDUI. [LOCUPLETES.]

ASTRĂGĂLUS (ἀστράγαλος), literally, that particular bone in the
ankles of certain quadrupeds, which the Greeks, as well as the
Romans, used for dice and other purposes. [TALUS.] In architecture
it signifies a certain moulding (the astragal) which seems to have
derived its name from its resemblance to a string or chain of _tali_,
and it is in fact always used in positions where it seems intended to
bind together the parts to which it is applied. It belongs properly
to the more highly decorated forms of the Ionic order, in which it
appears as a lower edging to the larger mouldings, especially the
_echinus_ (ovolo), particularly in the capital, as shown in the
following woodcut.

[Illustration: Astragalus. (Capital of an Ionic Column. Dilettanti
Society, Ionian Antiquities.)]

ASTRĂTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ἀστρατείας γραφή), the accusation instituted at
Athens against persons who failed to appear among the troops after
they had been enrolled for a campaign by the generals. The defendant,
if convicted, incurred disfranchisement (ἀτιμία) both in his own
person and that of his descendants.

ASTRŎLŎGĬA, astrology. A belief very early arose, which still
prevails unshaken in the East, that a close connection subsisted
between the position and movements of the heavenly bodies and the
fate of man. Few doubted that the destiny of a child might be
predicted with certainty by those who were skilled to interpret
the position of the stars at the moment of his birth, and that the
result of any undertaking might be foretold from the aspect of the
firmament when it was commenced. Hence a numerous and powerful
class of men arose who were distinguished by various designations.
From the country where their science was first developed, they
were called _Chaldaei_ or _Babylonii_; from observing the stars,
_astronomi_, _astrologi_, _planetarii_; from employing diagrams such
as were used by geometricians, _mathematici_; from determining the
lot of man at his natal hour, _genethliaci_; from prophesying the
consummation of his struggles, ἀποτελεσματικοί; while their art was
known as ἀστρολογία, μετεωρολογία, γενεθλιαλογία, ἀποτελεσματική,
_Ars Chaldaeorum_, _Mathesis_, or, from the tables they consulted,
πινακική. Their calculations were termed _Babylonii numeri_,
Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι, Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες, _Rationes Chaldaicae_; their
responses when consulted _Chaldaeorum monita_, _Chaldaeorum natalicia
praedicta_, _Astrologorum praedicta_. The stars and constellations
to which attention was chiefly directed were the planets and the
signs of the zodiac, some of which were supposed to exert uniformly
a benign influence (ἀγαθοποιοὶ ἀστέρες), such as Venus, Jupiter,
Luna, Virgo, Libra, Taurus; others to be uniformly malign (κακοποιοὶ
ἀστέρες), such as Saturnus, Mars, Scorpio, Capricornus; others to be
doubtful (ἐπίκοινοι ἀστέρες), such as Mercurius. The exact period of
birth (_hora genitalis_) being the critical moment, the computations
founded upon it were styled γένεσις(_genitura_), ὡροσκόπος
(_horoscopus_), or simply θέμα, and the star or stars in the
ascendant _sidus natalitium_, _sidera natalitia_. Astrologers seem
to have found their way very early into Italy. In B.C. 139 an edict
was promulgated by C. Cornelius Hispallus, at that time praetor, by
which the Chaldaeans were ordered to quit Italy within ten days, and
they were again banished from the city in B.C. 33, by M. Agrippa, who
was then aedile. Another severe ordinance was levelled by Augustus
against this class, but the frequent occurrence of such phrases as
“expulit et mathematicos,” “pulsis Italia mathematicis,” in the
historians of the empire prove how firm a hold these pretenders must
have obtained over the public mind, and how profitable the occupation
must have been which could induce them to brave disgrace, and
sometimes a cruel death.

ASTỸNŎMI (ἀστυνόμοι), or street-police of Athens, were ten in number,
five for the city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The _astynomi_ and
_agoranomi_ divided between them most of the functions of the Roman
aediles. [AGORANOMI.]

ĂSῩLUM (ἄσυλον). In the Greek states the temples, altars, sacred
groves, and statues of the gods, generally possessed the privilege
of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, who fled to them for
refuge. The laws, however, do not appear to have recognised the
right of all such sacred places to afford the protection which was
claimed, but to have confined it to a certain number of temples, or
altars, which were considered in a more especial manner to have the
ἀσυλία, or _jus asyli_. There were several places in Athens which
possessed this privilege; of which the best known was the Theseium,
or temple of Theseus, in the city, near the gymnasium, which was
chiefly intended for the protection of ill-treated slaves, who could
take refuge in this place, and compel their masters to sell them to
some other person. In the time of Tiberius, the number of places
possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in Greece and Asia
Minor became so numerous, as seriously to impede the administration
of justice; and, consequently, the senate, by the command of the
emperor, limited the jus asyli to a few cities. The asylum, which
Romulus is said to have opened at Rome to increase the population of
the city, was a place of refuge for the inhabitants of other states,
rather than a sanctuary for those who had violated the laws of the
city. In the republican and early imperial times, a right of asylum,
such as existed in the Greek states, does not appear to have been
recognised by the Roman law; but it existed under the empire, and a
slave could fly to the temples of the gods, or the statues of the
emperors, to avoid the ill-usage of his master.

ĂTĔLEIA (ἀτέλεια), immunity from public burthens, was enjoyed at
Athens by the archons for the time being; by the descendants of
certain persons, on whom it had been conferred as a reward for great
services, as in the case of Harmodius and Aristogeiton; and by the
inhabitants of certain foreign states. It was of several kinds: it
might be a general immunity (ἀτέλεια ἁπάντων); or a more special
exemption, as from custom-duties, from the liturgies, or from
providing sacrifices.

ĀTELLĀNAE FĂBŬLAE were a species of farce or comedy, so called from
Atella, a town of the Osci, in Campania. From this circumstance,
and from being written in the Oscan dialect, they were also called
_Ludi Osci_. These Atellane plays were not _praetextatae_, _i.e._
comedies in which magistrates and persons of rank were introduced,
nor _tabernariae_, the characters in which were taken from low life;
they rather seem to have been a union of high comedy and its parody.
They were also distinguished from the mimes by the absence of low
buffoonery and ribaldry, being remarkable for a refined humour, such
as could be understood and appreciated by educated people. They were
not performed by regular actors (_histriones_), but by Roman citizens
of noble birth, who were not on that account subjected to any
degradation, but retained their rights as citizens, and might serve
in the army. The Oscan or Opican language, in which these plays were
written, was spread over the whole of the south of Italy, and from
its resemblance to the Latin could easily be understood by the more
educated Romans.

ĂTHĒNAEUM (ἀθήναιον), a school (_ludus_) founded by the Emperor
Hadrian at Rome, for the promotion of literary and scientific studies
(_ingenuarum artium_), and called Athenaeum from the town of Athens,
which was still regarded as the seat of intellectual refinement.
The Athenaeum was situated on the Capitoline hill. It was a kind of
university, with a staff of professors, for the various branches
of study. Besides the instruction given by these magistri, poets,
orators, and critics were accustomed to recite their compositions
there, and these prelections were sometimes honoured with the
presence of the emperors themselves. The Athenaeum seems to have
continued in high repute till the fifth century.

ATHLĒTAE (ἀθληταί, ἀθλητῆρες), persons who contended in the public
games of the Greeks and Romans for prizes (ἆθλα, whence the name of
ἀθληταί), which were given to those who conquered in contests of
agility and strength. The name was in the later period of Grecian
history, and among the Romans, properly confined to those persons
who entirely devoted themselves to a course of training which might
fit them to excel in such contests, and who, in fact, made athletic
exercises their profession. The athletae differed, therefore, from
the _agonistae_ (ἀγωνισταί), who only pursued gymnastic exercises
for the sake of improving their health and bodily strength, and who,
though they sometimes contended for the prizes in the public games,
did not devote their whole lives, like the athletae, to preparing
for these contests. Athletae were first introduced at Rome, B.C.
186, in the games exhibited by M. Fulvius, on the conclusion of
the Aetolian war. Aemilius Paullus, after the conquest of Perseus,
B.C. 167, is said to have exhibited games at Amphipolis, in which
athletae contended. Under the Roman emperors, and especially under
Nero, who was passionately fond of the Grecian games, the number of
athletae increased greatly in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. Those
athletae who conquered in any of the great national festivals of
the Greeks were called _Hieronicae_ (ἱερονῖκαι), and received the
greatest honours and rewards. Such a conqueror was considered to
confer honour upon the state to which he belonged; he entered his
native city through a breach made in the walls for his reception, in
a chariot drawn by four white horses, and went along the principal
street of the city to the temple of the guardian deity of the state.
Those games, which gave the conquerors the right of such an entrance
into the city, were called _Iselastici_ (from εἰσελαύνειν). This term
was originally confined to the four great Grecian festivals, the
Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards applied
to other public games. In the Greek states, the victors in these
games not only obtained the greatest glory and respect, but also
substantial rewards. They were generally relieved from the payment
of taxes, and also enjoyed the first seat (προεδρία) in all public
games and spectacles. Their statues were frequently erected at the
cost of the state, in the most frequented part of the city, as the
market-place, the gymnasia, and the neighbourhood of the temples. At
Athens, according to a law of Solon, the conquerors in the Olympic
games were rewarded with a prize of 500 drachmae; and the conquerors
in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with one of 100 drachmae;
and at Sparta they had the privilege of fighting near the person
of the king. The privileges of the athletae were secured, and in
some respects increased, by the Roman emperors. The term athletae,
though sometimes applied metaphorically to other combatants, was
properly limited to those who contended for the prize in the five
following contests:--1. _Running_ (δρόμος, _cursus_). [STADIUM.]
2. _Wrestling_ (πάλη, _lucta_). 3. _Boxing_ (πυγμή, _pugilatus_).
4. The _pentathlum_ (πένταθλον), or, as the Romans called it,
_quinquertium_. 5. The _pancratium_ (παγκράτιον). Of all these an
account is given in separate articles. Great attention was paid to
the training of the athletae. They were generally trained in the
_palaestrae_, which, in the Grecian states, were distinct places from
the gymnasia. Their exercises were superintended by the gymnasiarch,
and their diet was regulated by the aliptes. [ALIPTAE.]--The
athletae were accustomed to contend naked. In the descriptions of
the games given in the Iliad, the combatants are represented with
a girdle about their loins; and the same practice, as we learn
from Thucydides, anciently prevailed at the Olympic games, but was
discontinued afterwards.

ĂTĪMĬA (ἀτιμία), the forfeiture of a man’s civil rights at Athens.
It was either total or partial. A man was totally deprived of his
rights, both for himself and for his descendants (καθάπαξ ἄτιμος),
when he was convicted of murder, theft, false witness, partiality as
arbiter, violence offered to a magistrate, and so forth. This highest
degree of atimia excluded the person affected by it from the forum,
and from all public assemblies; from the public sacrifices, and from
the law courts; or rendered him liable to immediate imprisonment,
if he was found in any of these places. It was either temporary
or perpetual, and either accompanied or not with confiscation of
property. Partial atimia only involved the forfeiture of some
few rights, as, for instance, the right of pleading in court.
Public debtors were suspended from their civic functions till they
discharged their debt to the state. People who had once become
altogether atimi were very seldom restored to their lost privileges.
The converse term to _atimia_ was _epitimia_ (ἐπιτιμία).

ATLANTES (ἄτλαντες) and TĔLĂMŌNES (τελαμῶνες), terms used in
architecture, the former by the Greeks, the latter by the Romans, to
designate those male figures which are sometimes fancifully used,
like the female _Caryatides_, in place of columns. Both words are
derived from τλῆναι, and the former evidently refers to the fable of
Atlas, who supported the vault of heaven, the latter _perhaps_ to
the strength of the Telamonian Ajax.

[Illustration: Atlantes. (From Temple at Agrigentum: Professor
Cockerell.)]

ĀTRĀMENTUM, a term applicable to any black colouring substance, for
whatever purpose it may be used, like the _melan_ (μέλαν) of the
Greeks. There were, however, three principal kinds of atramentum:
one called _librarium_, or _scriptorium_ (in Greek, γραφικὸν μέλαν),
writing-ink; another called _sutorium_, which was used by the
shoemakers for dyeing leather; the third _tectorium_, or _pictorium_,
which was used by painters for some purposes, apparently as a sort
of varnish. The inks of the ancients seem to have been more durable
than our own; they were thicker and more unctuous, in substance and
durability more resembling the ink now used by printers. An inkstand
was discovered at Herculaneum, containing ink as thick as oil, and
still usable for writing. The ancients used inks of various colours.
Red ink, made of _minium_ or vermilion, was used for writing the
titles and beginning of books. So also was ink made of _rubrica_,
“red ochre;” and because the headings of _laws_ were written with
rubrica, the word rubric came to be used for the civil law. So
_album_, a white or whited table, on which the praetors’ edicts
were written, was used in a similar way. A person devoting himself
to _album_ and _rubrica_, was a person devoting himself to the law.
[ALBUM.]

ĀTRĬUM (called αὐλή by the Greeks and by Virgil, and also μεσαύλιον,
περίστυλον, περίστῳον) is used in a distinctive as well as collective
sense, to designate a particular part in the private houses of the
Romans [DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, so called
from their general resemblance in construction to the atrium of a
private house. An atrium of the latter description was a building by
itself, resembling in some respects the open basilica [BASILICA],
but consisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum in
the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was struck with lightning,
B.C. 216. It was at other times attached to some temple or other
edifice, and in such case consisted of an open area and surrounding
portico in front of the structure. Several of these buildings are
mentioned by the ancient historians, two of which were dedicated to
the same goddess, Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as the most
ancient, was situated on the Aventine Mount. In this atrium there
was a tabularium, where the legal tablets (_tabulae_) relating to
the censors were preserved. The other Atrium Libertatis was in the
neighbourhood of the Forum Caesaris, and was immediately behind the
Basilica Paulli or Aemilia.

AUCTĬO signifies generally “an increasing, an enhancement,” and hence
the name is applied to a public sale of goods, at which persons
bid against one another. The sale was sometimes conducted by an
_argentarius_, or by a _magister auctionis_; and the time, place,
and conditions of sale, were announced either by a public notice
(_tabula_, _album_, &c.), or by a crier (_praeco_). The usual phrases
to express the giving notice of a sale were, _auctionem proscribere,
praedicare_; and to determine on a sale, _auctionem constituere_.
The purchasers (_emtores_), when assembled, were sometimes said
_ad tabulam adesse_. The phrases signifying to bid are, _liceri_,
_licitari_, which was done either by word of mouth, or by such
significant hints as are known to all people who have attended an
auction. The property was said to be knocked down (_addici_) to the
purchaser. The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted the part of the
modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, and amusing
the company. Slaves, when sold by auction, were placed on a stone,
or other elevated thing, as is the case when slaves are sold in
the United States of North America; and hence the phrase _homo de
lapide emtus_. It was usual to put up a spear (_hasta_) in auctions;
a symbol derived, it is said, from the ancient practice of selling
under a spear the booty acquired in war.

AUCTOR, a word which contains the same element as _aug-eo_, and
signifies generally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a
thing its completeness and efficient form. The numerous technical
significations of the word are derivable from this general notion. As
he who gives to a thing that which is necessary for its completeness
may in this sense be viewed as the chief actor or doer, the
word auctor is also used in the sense of one who originates or
proposes a thing; but this cannot be viewed as its primary meaning.
Accordingly, the word auctor, when used in connection with lex or
senatus consultum, often means him who originates and proposes.--The
expressions _patres auctores fiunt_, _patres auctores facti_, have
given rise to much discussion. In the earlier periods of the Roman
state, the word _patres_ was equivalent to _patricii_; in the later
period, when the patricians had lost all importance as a political
body, the term patres signified the senate. Hence some ambiguity has
arisen. The expression _patres auctores fiunt_, when used of the
early period of Rome, means that the determinations of the populus
in the comitia centuriata were confirmed by the patricians in the
comitia curiata. Till the time of Servius Tullius there were only
the comitia curiata, and this king first established the comitia
centuriata, in which the plebs also voted, and consequently it was
not till after this time that the phrase _patres auctores fiunt_
could be properly applied. Livy, however, uses it of an earlier
period. The comitia curiata first elected the king, and then by
another vote conferred upon him the imperium. The latter was called
_lex curiata de imperio_, an expression not used by Livy, who
employs instead the phrase _patres auctores fiunt_ (Liv. i. 17, 22,
32).--After the exile of the last Tarquin, the patres, that is the
patricians, had still the privilege of confirming at the comitia
curiata the vote of the comitia centuriata, that is, they gave to
it the _patrum auctoritas_; or, in other words, the _patres_ were
_auctores facti_. In the fifth century of the city a change was made.
By one of the laws of the plebeian dictator Q. Publilius Philo, it
was enacted that in the case of leges to be enacted at the comitia
centuriata, the _patres_ should be _auctores_, that is, the curiae
should give their assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata.
By a lex Maenia of uncertain date the same change was made as to
elections.--But both during the earlier period and afterwards no
business could be brought before the comitia without first receiving
the sanction of the senate; and accordingly the phrase _patres
auctores fiunt_ came now to be applied to the approval of a measure
by the senate before it was confirmed by the votes of the people.
This preliminary approval was also termed _senatus auctoritas_.--When
the word auctor is applied to him who recommends but does not
originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent to _suasor_.
Sometimes both auctor and suasor are used in the same sentence, and
the meaning of each is kept distinct. With reference to dealings
between individuals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense
auctor is the seller (_venditor_), as opposed to the buyer (_emtor_):
and hence we have the phrase _a malo auctore emere_. Auctor is also
used generally to express any person under whose authority any legal
act is done. In this sense, it means a tutor who is appointed to aid
or advise a woman on account of the infirmity of her sex.

AUCTŌRĀMENTUM, the pay of gladiators. [GLADIATORES.]

AUCTŌRĬTAS. The technical meanings of this word correlate with those
of auctor. The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus-consultum; it
was a measure, incomplete in itself, which received its completion
by some other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to property, is
equivalent to legal ownership, being a correlation of auctor.

AUDĪTŌRĬUM, as the name implies, is any place for hearing. It was
the practice among the Romans for poets and others to read their
compositions to their friends, who were sometimes called the
auditorium; but the word was also used to express any place in which
any thing was heard, and under the empire it was applied to a court
of justice. Under the republic the place for all judicial proceedings
was the comitium and the forum. But for the sake of shelter and
convenience it became the practice to hold courts in the Basilicae,
which contained halls, which were also called auditoria. It is first
under M. Aurelius that the auditorium principis is mentioned, by
which we must understand a hall or room in the imperial residence;
and in such a hall Septimius Severus and the later emperors held
their regular sittings when they presided as judges. The latest
jurists use the word generally for any place in which justice was
administered.

AUGUR, AUGŬRĬUM; AUSPEX, AUSPĬCĬUM. _Augur_ or _auspex_ meant
a diviner by birds, but came in course of time, like the Greek
οἰωνός, to be applied in a more extended sense: his art was called
_augurium_ or _auspicium_. Plutarch relates that the _augures_ were
originally termed _auspices_. The word _auspex_ was supplanted by
_augur_, but the scientific term for the observation continued on
the contrary to be _auspicium_ and not _augurium_. By Greek writers
on Roman affairs, the augurs are called οἰωνοπόλοι, οἰωνοσκόποι,
οἰωνισταί, οἱ ἐπ’ οἰωνοῖς ἱερεῖς. The belief that the flight of
birds gave some intimation of the will of the gods seems to have
been prevalent among many nations of antiquity, and was common to
the Greeks, as well as the Romans; but it was only among the latter
people that it was reduced to a complete system, governed by fixed
rules, and handed down from generation to generation. In Greece,
the oracles supplanted the birds, and the future was learnt from
Apollo and other gods, rarely from Zeus, who possessed very few
oracles in Greece. The contrary was the case at Rome: it was from
Jupiter that the future was learnt, and the birds were regarded
as his messengers. It must be remarked in general, that the Roman
auspices were essentially of a practical nature; they gave no
information respecting the course of future events, they did not
inform men _what was to happen_, but simply taught them _what they
were to do, or not to do_; they assigned no reason for the decision
of Jupiter--they simply announced, yes or no. The words _augurium_
and _auspicium_ came to be used in course of time to signify the
observation of various kinds of signs. They were divided into five
sorts: _ex caelo_, _ex avibus_, _ex tripudiis_, _ex quadrupedibus_,
_ex diris_. Of these, the last three formed no part of the ancient
auspices.--1. _Ex caelo._ This included the observation of the
various kinds of thunder and lightning, and was regarded as the
most important, _maximum auspicium_. Whenever it was reported by a
person authorised to take the auspices, that Jupiter thundered or
lightened, the comitia could not be held.--2. _Ex avibus._ It was
only a few birds which could give auguries among the Romans. They
were divided into two classes: _Oscines_, those which gave auguries
by singing, or their voice, and _Alites_, those which gave auguries
by their flight. To the former class belonged the raven (_corvus_)
and the crow (_cornix_), the first of these giving a favourable omen
(_auspicium ratum_) when it appeared on the right, the latter, on the
contrary, when it was seen on the left: likewise the owl (_noctua_)
and the hen (_gallina_). To the _aves alites_ belonged first of all
the eagle (_aquila_), which is called pre-eminently the bird of
Jupiter (_Jovis ales_), and next the vulture (_vultur_). Some birds
were included both among the _oscines_ and the _alites_: such were
the _Picus Martius_, and _Feronius_, and the _Parra_. These were the
principal birds consulted in the auspices. When the birds favoured an
undertaking, they were said _addicere_, _admittere_ or _secundare_,
and were then called _addictivae_, _admissivae_, _secundae_, or
_praepetes_: when unfavourable they were said _abdicere_, _arcere_,
_refragari_, &c., and were then called _adversae_ or _alterae_.
The birds which gave unfavourable omens were termed _funebres_,
_inhibitae_, _lugubres_, _malae_, &c., and such auspices were called
_clivia_ and _clamatoria_.--3. _Ex tripudiis._ These auspices were
taken from the feeding of chickens, and were especially employed on
military expeditions. The chickens were kept in a cage, under care of
a person called _pullarius_; and when the auspices were to be taken,
the pullarius opened the cage and threw to the chickens pulse or a
kind of soft cake. If they refused to come out or to eat, or uttered
a cry (_occinerent_), or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs
were considered unfavourable. On the contrary, if they ate greedily,
so that something fell from their mouth and struck the earth, it
was called _tripudium solistimum_ (_tripudium_ quasi _terripavium_,
_solistimum_, from _solum_, according to the ancient writers), and
was held a favourable sign.--4. _Ex quadrupedibus._ Auguries could
also be taken from four-footed animals; but these formed no part of
the original science of the augurs, and were never employed by them
in taking auspices on behalf of the state, or in the exercise of
their art properly so called. They must be looked upon simply as a
mode of private divination. When a fox, a wolf, a horse, a dog, or
any other kind of quadruped ran across a person’s path or appeared in
an unusual place, it formed an augury.--5. _Ex diris_, sc. _signis_.
Under this head was included every kind of augury which does not fall
under any of the four classes mentioned above, such as sneezing,
stumbling, and other accidental things. There was an important
augury of this kind connected with the army, which was called _ex
acuminibus_, that is, the flames appearing at the points of spears or
other weapons. The ordinary manner of taking the auspices, properly
so called (i.e. _ex caelo_ and _ex avibus_), was as follows: The
person who was to take them first marked out with a wand (_lituus_)
a division in the heavens called _templum_ or _tescum_, within which
he intended to make his observations. The station where he was to
take the auspices was also separated by a solemn formula from the
rest of the land, and was likewise called _templum_ or _tescum_.
He then proceeded to pitch a tent in it (_tabernaculum capere_),
and this tent again was also called _templum_, or, more accurately,
_templum minus_. [TEMPLUM.] Within the walls of Rome, or, more
properly speaking, within the pomoerium, there was no occasion to
select a spot and pitch a tent on it, as there was a place on the
Arx on the summit of the Capitoline hill, called _Auguraculum_,
which had been consecrated once for all for this purpose. In like
manner there was in every Roman camp a place called _augurale_, which
answered the same purpose; but on all other occasions a place had to
be consecrated, and a tent to be pitched, as, for instance, in the
Campus Martius, when the comitia centuriata were to be held. The
person who was then taking the auspices waited for the favourable
signs to appear; but it was necessary during this time that there
should be no interruption of any kind whatsoever (_silentium_), and
hence the word _silentium_ was used in a more extended sense to
signify the absence of every thing that was faulty. Every thing, on
the contrary, that rendered the auspices invalid was called _vitium_;
and hence we constantly read in Livy and other writers of _vitio
magistratus creati_, _vitio lex lata_, &c. The watching for the
auspices was called _spectio_ or _servare de coelo_, the declaration
of what was observed _nuntiatio_, or, if they were unfavourable,
_obnuntiatio_. In the latter case, the person who took the auspices
seems usually to have said _alio die_, by which the business in hand,
whether the holding of the _comitia_ or any thing else, was entirely
stopped.--In ancient times no one but a patrician could take the
auspices. Hence the possession of the auspices (_habere auspicia_)
is one of the most distinguished prerogatives of the patricians;
they are said to be _penes patrum_, and are called _auspicia
patrum_. It would further appear that every patrician might take
the auspices; but here a distinction is to be observed between the
_auspicia privata_ and _auspicia publica_. One of the most frequent
occasions on which the _auspicia privata_ were taken, was in case of
a marriage: and this was one great argument used by the patricians
against _connubium_ between themselves and the plebeians, as it
would occasion, they urged, _perturbationem auspiciorum publicorum
privatorumque_. In taking these private auspices, it would appear
that any patrician was employed who knew how to form _templa_ and
was acquainted with the art of augury. The case, however, was very
different with respect to the _auspicia publica_, generally called
_auspicia_ simply, or those which concerned the state. The latter
could only be taken by the persons who represented the state, and who
acted as mediators between the gods and the state; for though all the
patricians were eligible for taking the auspices, yet it was only the
magistrates who were in actual possession of them. In case, however,
there was no patrician magistrate, the auspices became vested in the
whole body of the patricians (_auspicia ad patres redeunt_), who had
recourse to an _interregnum_ for the renewal of them, and for handing
them over in a perfect state to the new magistrates: hence we find
the expressions _repetere de integro auspicia_, and _renovare per
interregnum auspicia_.--The distinction between the duties of the
magistrates and the augurs in taking the auspices is one of the
most difficult points connected with this subject, but perhaps a
satisfactory solution of these difficulties may be found by taking
an historical view of the question. We are told not only that the
kings were in possession of the auspices, but that they themselves
were acquainted with the art and practised it. Romulus is stated to
have appointed three augurs, but only as his assistants in taking
the auspices, a fact which it is important to bear in mind. Their
dignity gradually increased in consequence of their being employed
at the inauguration of the kings, and also in consequence of their
becoming the preservers and depositaries of the science of augury.
Formed into a collegium, they handed down to their successors the
various rules of the science, while the kings, and subsequently the
magistrates of the republic, were liable to change. Their duties thus
became two-fold, to assist the magistrates in taking up auspices,
and to preserve a scientific knowledge of the art. As the augurs
were therefore merely the assistants of the magistrates, they could
not take the auspices without the latter, though the magistrates on
the contrary could dispense with their assistance. At the same time
it must be borne in mind, that as the augurs were the interpreters
of the science, they possessed the right of declaring whether the
auspices were valid or invalid. They thus possessed in reality a
veto upon every important public transaction; and they frequently
exercised this power as a political engine to vitiate the election
of such parties as were unfavourable to the enclusive privileges of
the patricians. But although the augurs could declare that there was
some fault in the auspices, yet, on the other hand, they could not,
by virtue of their office, declare that any unfavourable sign had
appeared to them, since it was not to them that the auspices were
sent. Thus we are told that the augurs did not possess the _spectio_.
This _spectio_ was of two kinds, one more extensive and the other
more limited. In the one case the person who exercised it could put a
stop to the proceedings of any other magistrate by his obnuntiatio:
this was called _spectio et nuntiatio_ (perhaps also _spectio cum
nuntiatione_), and belonged only to the highest magistrates, the
consuls, dictators, interreges, and, with some modifications, to
the praetors. In the other case, the person who took the auspices
only exercised the _spectio_ in reference to the duties of his own
office, and could not interfere with any other magistrate: this
was called _spectio sine nuntiatione_, and belonged to the other
magistrates, the censors, aediles, and quaestors. Now as the augurs
did not possess the auspices, they consequently could not possess
the spectio (_habere spectionem_); but as the augurs were constantly
employed by the magistrates to take the auspices, they _exercised_
the spectio, though they did not _possess_ it in virtue of their
office. When they were employed by the magistrates in taking the
auspices, they possessed the right of the _nuntiatio_, and thus had
the power, by the declaration of unfavourable signs (_obnuntiatio_),
to put a stop to all important public transactions.--The auspices
were not conferred upon the magistrates in any special manner. It
was the act of their election which made them the recipients of the
auspices, since the comitia, in which they were appointed to their
office, were held _auspicato_, and consequently their appointment
was regarded as ratified by the gods. The auspices, therefore,
passed immediately into their hands upon the abdication of their
predecessors in office.--The auspices belonging to the different
magistrates were divided into two classes, called _auspicia maxima_
or _majora_ and _minora_. The former, which belonged originally to
the kings, passed over to the consuls, censors, and praetors, and
likewise to the extraordinary magistrates, the dictators, interreges,
and consular tribunes. The quaestors and the curule aediles, on the
contrary, had only the _auspicia minora_.--It was a common opinion in
antiquity that a college of three augurs was appointed by Romulus,
answering to the number of the early tribes, the Ramnes, Tities,
and Lucerenses, but the accounts vary respecting their origin and
number. At the passing of the Ogulnian law (B.C. 300) the augurs were
four in number. This law increased the number of pontiffs to eight,
by the addition of four plebeians, and that of the augurs to nine
by the addition of five plebeians. The number of nine augurs lasted
down to the dictatorship of Sulla, who increased them to fifteen,
a multiple of the original three, probably with a reference to the
early tribes. A sixteenth was added by Julius Caesar after his
return from Egypt. The members of the college of augurs possessed
the right of self-election (_cooptatio_) until B.C. 103, the year
of the Domitian law. By this law it was enacted that vacancies in
the priestly colleges should be filled up by the votes of a minority
of the tribes, _i.e._ seventeen out of thirty-five chosen by lot.
The Domitian law was repealed by Sulla B.C. 81, but again restored
B.C. 63, during the consulship of Cicero, by the tribune T. Annius
Labienus, with the support of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated
by Antony B.C. 44; whether again restored by Hirtius and Pansa in
their general annulment of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain.
The emperors possessed the right of electing augurs at pleasure.
The augurs were elected for life, and even if capitally convicted,
never lost their sacred character. When a vacancy occurred, the
candidate was nominated by two of the elder members of the college,
the electors were sworn, and the new member was then solemnly
inaugurated. On such occasion there was always a splendid banquet
given, at which all the augurs were expected to be present. The only
distinction in the college was one of age; an elder augur always
voted before a younger, even if the latter filled one of the higher
offices in the state. The head of the college was called _magister
collegii_. As insignia of their office the augurs wore the _trabea_,
or public dress, and carried in their hand the _lituus_ or curved
wand. [LITUUS.] On the coins of the Romans, who filled the office
of augur, we constantly find the _lituus_, and along with it, not
unfrequently, the _capis_, an earthen vessel which was used by them
in sacrifices. The science of the augurs was called _jus augurum_
and _jus augurium_, and was preserved in books (_libri augurales_),
which are frequently mentioned in the ancient writers. The expression
for consulting the augurs was _referre ad augures_, and their
answers were called _decreta_ or _responsa augurum_. The science of
augury had greatly declined in the time of Cicero; and although he
frequently deplores its neglect in his _De Divinatione_, yet neither
he nor any of the educated classes appears to have had any faith in
it.

[Illustration: Coin representing the lituus and capis on the reverse.]

AŪGŬRĀCŬLUM. [ARX; AUGUR, p. 50, b.]

AUGŬRĀLE. [AUGUR, p. 50, b.]

AUGŬRIUM. [AUGUR.]

AUGUSTĀLES--(1) (sc. _ludi_, also called _Augustalia_, sc.
_certamina_, _ludicra_), games celebrated in honour of Augustus, at
Rome and in other parts of the Roman empire. After the battle of
Actium, a quinquennial festival was instituted; and the birthday
of Augustus, as well as that on which the victory was announced at
Rome, were regarded as festival days. It was not, however, till
B.C. 11 that the festival on the birthday of Augustus was formally
established by a decree of the senate, and it is this festival which
is usually meant when the Augustales or Augustalia are mentioned.
It was celebrated iv. Id. Octobr. At the death of Augustus, this
festival assumed a more solemn character, was added to the Fasti,
and celebrated to his honour as a god. It was henceforth exhibited
annually in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the plebs, at the
commencement of the reign of Tiberius, but afterwards by the praetor
peregrinus.--(2) The name of two classes of priests, one at Rome and
the other in the municipia. The _Augustales_ at Rome, properly called
_sodales Augustales_, were an order of priests instituted by Tiberius
to attend to the worship of Augustus and the Julia gens. They were
chosen by lot from among the principal persons of Rome, and were
twenty-one in number, to which were added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius,
and Germanicus, as members of the imperial family. They were also
called _sacerdotes Augustales_, and sometimes simply _Augustales_.
The _Augustales_ in the municipia are supposed by most modern writers
to have been a class of priests selected by Augustus from the
libertini to attend to the religions rites connected with the worship
of the Lares, which that emperor was said to have put up in places
where two or more ways met; but there are good reasons for thinking
that they were instituted in imitation of the Augustales at Rome, and
for the same object, namely, to attend to the worship of Augustus.
They formed a collegium and were appointed by the _decuriones_, or
senate of the municipia. The six principal members of the college
were called _Seviri_, a title which seems to have been imitated from
the _Seviri_ in the equestrian order at Rome.

AUGUSTUS, a name bestowed upon Octavianus in B.C. 27, by the senate
and the Roman people. It was a word used in connection with religion,
and designated a person as sacred and worthy of worship; hence
the Greek writers translate it by Σεβαστός. It was adopted by all
succeeding emperors, as if descended, either by birth or adoption,
from the first emperor of the Roman world. The name of _Augusta_
was frequently bestowed upon females of the imperial family; but
_Augustus_ belonged exclusively to the reigning emperor till towards
the end of the second century of the Christian aera, when M. Aurelius
and L. Verus both received this surname. From this time we frequently
find two or even a greater number of _Augusti_. From the time of
Probus the title became _perpetuus Augustus_, and from Philippus or
Claudius Gothicus _semper Augustus_, the latter of which titles was
borne by the so-called Roman emperors in Germany. [CAESAR.]

AULAEUM. [SIPARIUM.]

AURĔUS. [AURUM.]

AURĪGA. [CIRCUS.]

[Illustration: Aureus Nummus. (British Museum.)]

AURUM (χρυσός), gold. Gold was scarce in Greece. The chief places
from which the Greeks procured their gold were India, Arabia,
Armenia, Colchis, and Troas. It was found mixed with the sands of the
Pactolus and other rivers. Almost the only method of purifying gold,
known to the ancients, seems to have been that of grinding and then
roasting it, and by this process they succeeded in getting it very
pure. This is what we are to understand by the phrase χρυσίον ἄπεφθον
in Thucydides, and by the word _obrussa_ in Pliny. The art of gilding
was known to the Greeks from the earliest times of which we have any
information. The time when gold was first coined at Athens is very
uncertain, but on the whole it appears most probable that gold money
was not coined there, or in Greece Proper generally, till the time of
Alexander the Great, if we except a solitary issue of debased gold at
Athens in B.C. 407. But from a very early period the Asiatic nations,
and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, as well
as Sicily and Cyrene, possessed a gold coinage, which was more or
less current in Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians were the
first who coined gold, and the stater of Croesus appears to have been
the earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The Daric was a Persian
coin. Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable currency in
Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of
Polycrates. The islands of Siphnos and Thasos, which possessed gold
mines, appear to have had a gold coinage at an early period. The
Macedonian gold coinage came into circulation in Greece in the time
of Philip, and continued in use till the subjection of Greece to the
Romans. [DARICUS; STATER.] The standard gold coin of Rome was the
_aureus nummus_, or _denarius aureus_, which, according to Pliny,
was first coined 62 years after the first silver coinage [ARGENTUM],
that is, in the year 207 B.C. The lowest denomination was the
_scrupulum_, which was made equal to 20 sestertii. The weight of the
scrupulum was 18·06 grains. The annexed cut represents a gold coin
of 60 sestertii. Pliny adds that afterwards aurei were coined of 40
to the pound, which weight was diminished, till under Nero they were
45 to the pound. The average weight of the aurei of Augustus, in the
British Museum, is 121·26 grains: and as the weight was afterwards
diminished, we may take the average at 120 grains. The value of the
aureus in terms of the sovereign = 1_l._ 1_s._ 1_d._ and a little
more than a halfpenny. This is its value according to the present
worth of gold; but its current value in Rome was different from
this, on account of the difference in the worth of the metal. The
aureus passed for 25 denarii; therefore, the denarius being 8½_d._,
it was worth 17_s._ 8½_d._ The ratio of the value of gold to that of
silver is given in the article ARGENTUM. Alexander Severus coined
pieces of one-half and one-third of the aureus, called _Semissis_
and _tremissis_, after which time the aureus was called _solidus_.
Constantine the Great coined aurei of 72 to the pound; at which
standard the coin remained to the end of the empire.

[Illustration: Aureus of Augustus. (British Museum.)]

AURUM CŎRŌNĀRĬUM. When a general in a Roman province had obtained a
victory, it was the custom for the cities in his own provinces, and
for those from the neighbouring states, to send golden crowns to him,
which were carried before him in his triumph at Rome. In the time of
Cicero it appears to have been usual for the cities of the provinces,
instead of sending crowns on occasion of a victory, to pay money,
which was called _aurum coronarium_. This offering, which was at
first voluntary, came to be regarded as a regular tribute, and was
sometimes exacted by the governors of the provinces, even when no
victory had been gained.

AURUM VĪCĒSĬMĀRĬUM. [AERARIUM.]

AUSPEX. [AUGUR.]

AUSPĬCĬUM. [AUGUR.]

AUTHEPSA (αὐθέψης), which literally means “self-boiling,” or
“self-cooking,” was the name of a vessel which is supposed to have
been used for heating water, or for keeping it hot.

AUTŎNŎMI (αὐτονόμοι), the name given by the Greeks to those states
which were governed by their own laws, and were not subject to any
foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to
the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws and elect
their own magistrates.

AUXĬLĬA. [SOCII.]

AXĀMENTA. [SALII.]

AXĪNĒ. [SECURIS.]

AXIS. [CURRUS.]

AXŎNES (ἄξονες), also called _kurbeis_ (κύρβεις), wooden tablets of
a square or pyramidal form, made to turn on an axis, on which were
written the laws of Solon. According to some writers the _Axones_
contained the civil, and the _Kurbeis_ the religious laws; according
to others the _Kurbeis_ had four sides and the _Axones_ three. But at
Athens, at all events, they seem to have been identical. They were at
first preserved in the Acropolis, but were afterwards placed in the
agora, in order that all persons might be able to read them.

BĀLISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMENTUM.]

BALNĔUM or BĂLĬNĔUM (λοετρόν or λουτρόν, βαλανεῖον, also _balneae_
or _balineae_), a bath. _Balneum_ or _balineum_ signifies, in
its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such as most Romans
possessed in their own houses; and from that it came to mean
the chamber which contained the bath. When the baths of private
individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the
plural _balnea_ or _balinea_ was adopted, which still, in correct
language, had reference only to the baths of private persons.
_Balneae_ and _balineae_, which have no singular number, were the
public baths. But this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of
the later writers. _Thermae_ (from θέρμη, warmth) means properly
warm springs, or baths of warm water, but was afterwards applied to
the structures in which the baths were placed, and which were both
hot and cold. There was, however, a material distinction between the
_balneae_ and _thermae_, inasmuch as the former was the term used
under the republic, and referred to the public establishments of
that age, which contained no appliances for luxury beyond the mere
convenience of hot and cold baths, whereas the latter name was given
to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, and
which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances
belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as well as a regular establishment
appropriated for bathing.--Bathing was a practice familiar to the
Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. The artificial warm
bath was taken in a vessel called _asaminthus_ (ἀσάμινθος) by Homer,
and _puelus_ (πύελος) by the later Greeks. It did not contain water
itself, but was only used for the bather to sit in, while the
warm water was poured over him. On Greek vases, however, we never
find anything corresponding to a modern bath in which persons can
stand or sit; but there is always a round or oval basin (λουτήρ or
λουτήριον), resting on a stand, by the side of which those who are
bathing are standing undressed and washing themselves. In the Homeric
times it was customary to take first a cold and afterwards a warm
bath; but in later times it was the usual practice of the Greeks to
take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath. At Athens
the frequent use of the public baths, most of which were warm baths
(βαλανεῖα, called by Homer θερμὰ λοετρά), was regarded in the time
of Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and effeminacy.
Accordingly, Phocion was said to have never bathed in a public bath,
and Socrates to have used it very seldom. After bathing both sexes
anointed themselves, in order that the skin might not be left harsh
and rough, especially after warm water. Oil (ἔλαιον) is the only
ointment mentioned by Homer, but in later times precious unguents
(μῦρα) were used for this purpose. The bath was usually taken before
the principal meal of the day (δεῖπνον). The Lacedaemonians, who
considered warm water as enervating, used two kinds of baths; namely,
the cold daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific bath in a
chamber heated with warm air by means of a stove, and from them
the chamber used by the Romans for a similar purpose was termed
_Laconicum_. A sudorific or vapour bath (πυρία or πυριατήριον) is
mentioned as early as the time of Herodotus. At what period the use
of the warm bath was introduced among the Romans is not recorded; but
we know that Scipio had a warm bath in his villa at Liternum, and
the practice of heating an apartment with warm air by flues placed
immediately under it, so as to produce a vapour bath, is stated to
have been invented by Sergius Orata, who lived in the age of Crassus,
before the Marsic war. By the time of Cicero the use of baths of
warm water and hot air had become common, and in his time there were
baths at Rome which were open to the public upon payment of a small
fee. In the public baths at Rome the men and women used originally to
bathe in separate sets of chambers; but under the empire it became
the common custom for both sexes to bathe indiscriminately in the
same bath. This practice was forbidden by Hadrian and M. Aurelius;
and Alexander Severus prohibited any baths, common to both sexes,
from being opened in Rome. The price of a bath was a quadrant, the
smallest piece of coined money, from the age of Cicero downwards,
which was paid to the keeper of the bath (_balneator_). Children
below a certain age were admitted free. It was usual with the Romans
to take the bath after exercise, and before the principal meal
(_coena_) of the day; but the debauchees of the empire bathed also
after eating as well as before, in order to promote digestion, and to
acquire a new appetite for fresh delicacies.

[Illustration: Roman Bath. (Fresco from the Thermae of Titus.)]

Upon quitting the bath the Romans as well as the Greeks were
anointed with oil. The Romans did not content themselves with a
single bath of hot or cold water; but they went through a course of
baths in succession, in which the agency of air as well as water was
applied. It is difficult to ascertain the precise order in which
the course was usually taken; but it appears to have been a general
practice to close the pores, and brace the body after the excessive
perspiration of the vapour bath, either by pouring cold water over
the head, or by plunging at once into the _piscina_. To render the
subjoined remarks more easily intelligible, the preceding woodcut is
inserted, which is taken from a fresco painting upon the walls of
the thermae of Titus at Rome. The chief parts of a Roman bath were
as follow:--1. _Apodyterium._ Here the bathers were expected to take
off their garments, which were then delivered to a class of slaves,
called _capsarii_, whose duty it was to take charge of them. These
men were notorious for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the
thieves of the city, so that they connived at the robberies which
they were placed to prevent. There was probably an _Elaeothesium_
or _Unctorium_, as appears from the preceding cut, in connection
with the apodyterium, where the bathers might be anointed with
oil.--2. _Frigidarium_ or _Cella Frigidaria_, where the cold bath
was taken. The cold bath itself was called _Natatio_, _Natatorium_,
_Piscina_, _Baptisterium_, or _Puteus_.--3. _Tepidarium_ would seem
from the preceding cut to have been a bathing room, for a person
is there apparently represented pouring water over a bather. But
there is good reason for thinking that this was not the case. In
most cases the tepidarium contained no water at all, but was a
room merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in
order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm
baths, and upon returning from the latter, to obviate the danger
of a too sudden transition to the open air.--4. The _Caldarium_ or
_Concamerata Sudatio_ contained at one extremity the vapour bath
(_Laconicum_), and at the other the warm bath (_balneum_ or _calda
lavatio_), while the centre space between the two ends was termed
_sudatio_ or _sudatorium_. In larger establishments the vapour bath
and warm bath were in two separate cells, as we see in the preceding
cut: in such cases the former part _alone_ was called _concamerata
sudatio_. The whole rested on a suspended pavement (_suspensura_),
under which was a fire (_hypocaustum_), so that the flames might heat
the whole apartment. (See cut.) The warm water bath (_balneum_ or
_calda lavatio_), which is also called _piscina_ or _calida piscina_,
_labrum_ and _solium_, appears to have been a capacious marble vase,
sometimes standing upon the floor, like that in the preceding cut,
and sometimes either partly elevated above the floor, as it was at
Pompeii, or entirely sunk into it. After having gone, through the
regular course of perspiration, the Romans made use of instruments
called _strigiles_ or _strigles_, to scrape off the perspiration.

[Illustration: Strigil. (From a Relief at Athens.)]

The strigil was also used by the Greeks, who called it _stlengis_
(στλεγγίς) or _xystra_ (ξύστρα). The figure in the cut on p. 24 is
represented with a strigil in his hand. As the strigil was not a
blunt instrument, its edge was softened by the application of oil,
which was dropped upon it from a small vessel called _guttus_ or
_ampulla_, which had a narrow neck, so as to discharge its contents
drop by drop, from whence the name is taken.

[Illustration: Strigil and Guttus. (From a Statue in the Vatican.)]

In the _Thermae_, spoken of above, the baths were of secondary
importance. They were a Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium,
contained exedrae for the philosophers and rhetoricians to lecture
in, porticoes for the idle, and libraries for the learned, and were
adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded walks and plantations.
M. Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus, was the first who afforded
these luxuries to his countrymen, by bequeathing to them the thermae
and gardens which he had erected in the Campus Martius. The example
set by Agrippa was followed by Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the
ruins of whose thermae are still visible, covering a vast extent,
partly under ground and partly above the Esquiline hill. Thermae were
also erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, of the two last
of which ample remains still exist. Previously to the erection of
these establishments for the use of the population, it was customary
for those who sought the favour of the people to give them a day’s
bathing free of expense. From thence it is fair to infer that the
quadrant paid for admission into the _balneae_ was not exacted at the
_thermae_, which, as being the works of the emperors, would naturally
be opened with imperial generosity to all, and without any charge.

BALTĔUS (τελαμών), a belt, a shoulder belt, was used to suspend the
sword. See the figs. on p. 41. In the Homeric times the Greeks used
a belt to support the shield. The balteus was likewise employed
to suspend the quiver, and sometimes together with it the bow.
More commonly the belt, whether employed to support the sword, the
shield, or the quiver, was made of leather, and was frequently
ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones. In a general
sense _balteus_ was applied not only to the belt which passed over
the shoulder, but also to the girdle (_cingulum_), which encompassed
the waist. In architecture, Vitruvius applies the term _Baltei_ to
the bands surrounding the volute on each side of an Ionic capital.
Other writers apply it to the _praecinctiones_ of an amphitheatre.
[AMPHITHEATRUM.]

BĂRATHRON (βάραθρον), also called ORUGMA (ὄρυγμα), a deep cavern or
chasm, like the Ceadas at Sparta, behind the Acropolis at Athens,
into which criminals were thrown. [CEADAS.]

BARBA (πώγων, γένειον, ὑπήνη), the beard. The Greeks seem generally
to have worn the beard till the time of Alexander the Great; and
a thick beard was considered as a mark of manliness. The Greek
philosophers in particular were distinguished by their long beards
as a sort of badge. The Romans in early times wore the beard uncut,
and the Roman beards are said not to have been shaved till B.C. 300,
when P. Ticinius Maena brought over a barber from Sicily; and Pliny
adds, that the first Roman who is said to have been shaved every day
was Scipio Africanus. His custom, however, was soon followed, and
shaving became a regular thing. In the later times of the republic
there were many who shaved the beard only partially, and trimmed it,
so as to give it an ornamental form; to them the terms _bene barbati_
and _barbatuli_ are applied. In the general way at Rome, a long
beard (_barba promissa_) was considered a mark of slovenliness and
_squalor_. The first time of shaving was regarded as the beginning
of manhood, and the day on which this took place was celebrated as
a festival. There was no particular time fixed for this to be done.
Usually, however, it was done when the young Roman assumed the toga
virilis. The hair cut off on such occasions was consecrated to
some god. Thus Nero put his up in a gold box, set with pearls, and
dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus. Under the emperor Hadrian the
beard began to revive. Plutarch says that the emperor wore it to hide
some scars on his face. The practice afterwards became common, and
till the time of Constantine the Great, the emperors appear in busts
and coins with beards. The Romans let their beards grow in time of
mourning; the Greeks, on the other hand, on such occasions shaved the
beard close.

BARBĬTUS (βάρβιτος), or BARBĬTON (βάρβιτον), a stringed instrument,
the original form of which is uncertain. Later writers use it as
synonymous with the lyra. [LYRA.]

BASCAUDA, a British basket. This term, which remains with very little
variation in the Welsh “basgawd” and the English “basket,” was
conveyed to Rome together with the articles denoted by it.

BĂSĬLĬCA (sc. _aedes_, _aula_, _porticus_--βασιλική, also _regia_),
a building which served as a court of law and an exchange, or place
of meeting for merchants and men of business. The word was adopted
from the Athenians, whose second archon was styled _archon basileus_
(ἄρχων βασιλεύς), and the tribunal where he adjudicated _stoa
basileius_ (ἡ βασίλειος στοά), the substantive _aula_ or _porticus_
in Latin being omitted for convenience, and the distinctive epithet
converted into a substantive. The first edifice of this description
at Rome was not erected until B.C. 182. It was situated in the
forum adjoining the curia, and was denominated Basilica Porcia, in
commemoration of its founder, M. Porcius Cato. Besides this there
were twenty others erected at different periods, within the city
of Rome. The forum, or, where there was more than one, the one
which was in the most frequented and central part of the city, was
always selected for the site of a basilica; and hence it is that the
classic writers not unfrequently use the terms _forum_ and _basilica_
synonymously. The ground plan of all these buildings is rectangular,
and their width not more than half, nor less than one-third of the
length. This area was divided into three naves, consisting of a
centre (_media porticus_), and two side aisles, separated from the
centre one, each by a single row of columns. At one end of the centre
aisle was the tribunal of the judge, in form either rectangular or
circular, as is seen in the annexed plan of the basilica at Pompeii.
In the centre of the tribunal was placed the curule chair of the
praetor, and seats for the judices and the advocates. The two side
aisles, as has been said, were separated from the centre one by a
row of columns, behind each of which was placed a square pier or
pilaster (_parastata_), which supported the flooring of an upper
portico, similar to the gallery of a modern church. The upper gallery
was in like manner decorated with columns, of lower dimensions than
those below; and these served to support the roof, and were connected
with one another by a parapet-wall or balustrade (_pluteus_), which
served as a defence against the danger of falling over, and screened
the crowd of loiterers above (_sub-basilicani_) from the people of
business in the area below. Many of these edifices were afterwards
used as Christian churches, and many churches were built after the
model above described. Such churches were called _basilicae_, which
name they retain to the present day, being still called at Rome
_basiliche_.

[Illustration: Ground Plan of a Basilica.]

BASTERNA, a kind of litter (_lectica_) in which women were carried
in the time of the Roman emperors. It appears to have resembled the
Lectica [LECTICA] very closely; and the only difference apparently
was, that the lectica was carried by slaves, and the basterna by two
mules.

BAXA, or BAXĔA, a sandal made of vegetable leaves, twigs, or fibres,
worn on the stage by comic actors.

BĒMA (βῆμα). [ECCLESIA.]

BENDĬDEIA (βενδίδεια), a Thracian festival in honour of the goddess
Bendis, who is said to be identical with the Grecian Artemis and with
the Roman Diana. The festival was of a bacchanalian character. From
Thrace it was brought to Athens, where it was celebrated in the
Peiraeeus, on the 19th or 20th of the month Thargelion, before the
Panathenaea Minora. The temple of Bendis was called Bendideion.

BĔNĔFĬCĬUM, BĔNĔFĬCĬĀRĬUS. The term _beneficium_ is of frequent
occurrence in the Roman law, in the sense of some special privilege
or favour granted to a person in respect of age, sex, or condition.
But the word was also used in other senses. In the time of Cicero
it was usual for a general, or a governor of a province, to report
to the treasury the names of those under his command who had done
good service to the state: those who were included in such report
were said _in beneficiis ad aerarium deferri_. _In beneficiis_ in
these passages may mean that the persons so reported were considered
as persons who had deserved well of the state; and so the word
_beneficium_ may have reference to the services of the individuals;
but as the object for which their services were reported was the
benefit of the individuals, it seems that the term had reference also
to the reward, immediate or remote, obtained for their services. The
honours and offices of the Roman state, in the republican period,
were called the _beneficia_ of the Populus Romanus. Beneficium also
signified any promotion conferred on or grant made to soldiers, who
were thence called _beneficiarii_.

BESTIĀRĬI (θηριομάχοι), persons who fought with wild beasts in the
games of the circus. They were either persons who fought for the sake
of pay (_auctoramentum_), and who were allowed arms, or they were
criminals, who were usually permitted to have no means of defence
against the wild beasts.

BIBLĬŎPŌLA (βιβλιοπώλης), also called _librarius_, a bookseller.
The shop was called _apotheca_ or _taberna libraria_, or merely
_libraria_. The Romans had their Paternoster-row; for the bibliopolae
or librarii lived mostly in one street, called Argiletum. Another
favourite quarter of the booksellers was the Vicus Sandalarius.
There seems also to have been a sort of bookstalls by the temples of
Vertumnus and Janus.

BIBLĬŎTHĒCA (βιβλιοθήκη, or ἀποθήκη βιβλίων), primarily, the place
where a collection of books was kept; secondarily, the collection
itself. Public collections of books appear to have been very ancient.
That of Peisistratus (B.C. 550) was intended for public use; it
was subsequently removed to Persia by Xerxes. About the same time
Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, is said to have founded a library. In
the best days of Athens, even private persons had large collections
of books; but the most important and splendid public library of
antiquity was that founded by the Ptolemies at Alexandria, begun
under Ptolemy Soter, but increased and re-arranged in an orderly
and systematic manner by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who also appointed a
fixed librarian, and otherwise provided for the usefulness of the
institution. A great part of this splendid library was consumed
by fire in the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar; but it was
soon restored, and continued in a flourishing condition till it
was destroyed by the Arabs, A.D. 640. The Ptolemies were not long
without a rival in zeal. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, became a patron
of literature and the sciences, and established a library, which,
in spite of the prohibition against exporting papyrus issued by
Ptolemy, who was jealous of his success, became very extensive, and
perhaps next in importance to the library of Alexandria. The first
public library in Rome was that founded by Asinius Pollio, and was
in the atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine. The library of Pollio
was followed by that of Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount
Palatine and by another, bibliothecae Octavianae, in the theatre of
Marcellus. There were also libraries on the Capitol, in the temple of
Peace, in the palace of Tiberius, besides the Ulpian library, which
was the most famous, founded by Trajan. Libraries were also usually
attached to the Thermae. [BALNEUM.] Private collections of books were
made at Rome soon after the second Punic war. The zeal of Cicero,
Atticus, and others, in increasing their libraries is well known. It
became, in fact, the fashion to have a room elegantly furnished as a
library, and reserved for that purpose. The charge of the libraries
in Rome was given to persons called _librarii_.

BĪCOS (βῖκος), the name of an earthen vessel in common use among the
Greeks, for holding wine, and salted meat and fish.

BĬDENTAL, the name given to a place where any one had been struck
by lightning, or where any one had been killed by lightning and
buried. Such a place was considered sacred. Priests, who were
called _bidentales_, collected the earth which had been torn up by
lightning, and every thing that had been scorched, and burnt it in
the ground with a sorrowful murmur. The officiating priest was said
_condere fulgur_; he further consecrated the spot by sacrificing a
two-year-old sheep (_bidens_), whence the name of the place and of
the priest, and he also erected an altar, and surrounded it with a
wall or fence. To move the bounds of a bidental, or in any way to
violate its sacred precincts, was considered as sacrilege.

BIDIAEI (βιδιαῖοι), magistrates in Sparta, whose business was to
inspect the gymnastic exercises. They were either five or six in
number.

BĪGA or BĪGAE. [CURRUS.]

BĪGĀTUS. [DENARIUS.]

BĬPENNIS. [SECURIS.]

BĬRĒMIS. (1.) A ship with two banks of oars. [NAVIS.] Such ships
were called _dicrota_ by the Greeks, which term is also used by
Cicero.--(2.) A boat rowed by two oars.

BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM, ROMAN.]

BŎĒDRŎMĬA (βοηδρόμια), a festival celebrated at Athens on the seventh
day of the month Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius. The name
Boëdromius, by which Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other
parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by this festival he was
honoured as a martial god, who, either by his actual presence or by
his oracles, afforded assistance in the dangers of war.

BOEŌTARCHĒS (βοιωτάρχης, or βοιωτάρχος), the name of the chief
magistrates of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the different
states. Their duties were chiefly of a military character. Each
state of the confederacy elected one boeotarch, the Thebans two.
The total number from the whole confederacy varied with the number
of the independent states, but at the time of the Peloponnesian war
they appear to have been ten or twelve. The boeotarchs, when engaged
in military service, formed a council of war, the decisions of which
were determined by a majority of votes, the president being one of
the two Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alternately. Their period of
service was a year, beginning about the winter solstice; and whoever
continued in office longer than his time was punishable with death,
both at Thebes and in other cities.

BŎNA, property. The phrase _in bonis_ is frequently used as opposed
to _dominium_ or _Quiritarian ownership_ (_ex jure Quiritium_). The
ownership of certain kinds of things among the Romans could only be
transferred from one person to another with certain formalities, or
acquired by usucapion (that is, the uninterrupted possession of a
thing for a certain time). But if it was clearly the intention of
the owner to transfer the ownership, and the necessary forms only
were wanting, the purchaser had the thing _in bonis_, and he had
the enjoyment of it, though the original owner was still _legally_
the owner, and was said to have the thing _ex jure Quiritium_,
notwithstanding he had parted with the thing. The person who
possessed a thing _in bonis_ was protected in the enjoyment of it
by the praetor, and consequently after a time would obtain the
Quiritarian ownership of it by usucapion. [USUCAPIO.]

BŎNA CĂDŪCA. _Caducum_ literally signifies that which falls: thus
_glans caduca_ is the mast which falls from a tree. The strict legal
sense of _caducum_ and _bona caduca_ is as follows:--If a thing is
left by testament to a person, so that he can take it by the jus
civile, but from some cause has not taken it, that thing is called
_caducum_, as if it had _fallen_ from him. Or if a _heres ex parte_,
or a legatee, died before the opening of the will, the thing was
_caducum_. That which was caducum came, in the first place, to
those among the heredes who had children; and if the heredes had
no children, it came among those of the legatees who had children.
In case there was no prior claimant the caducum belonged to the
aerarium; and subsequently to the fiscus. [AERARIUM.]

BŎNA FĬDES implies, generally speaking, the absence of all fraud and
unfair dealing or acting. In various actions arising out of mutual
dealings, such as buying and selling, lending and hiring, partnership
and others, bona fides is equivalent to aequum and justum; and such
actions were sometimes called bonae fidei actiones. The formula of
the praetor, which was the authority of the judex, empowered him
in such cases to inquire and determine _ex bona fide_, that is,
according to the real merits of the case: sometimes aequius melius
was used instead of ex bona fide.

BŎNŌRUM CESSĬO. There were two kinds of bonorum cessio, _in jure_
and _extra jus_. The _in jure cessio_ was a mode of transferring
ownership by means of a fictitious suit. The _bonorum cessio extra
jus_ was introduced by a Julian law, passed either in the time of
Julius Caesar or Augustus, which allowed an insolvent debtor to give
up his property to his creditors. The debtor thus avoided the infamia
consequent on the bonorum emtio, which was involuntary, and he was
free from all personal execution. He was also allowed to retain a
small portion of his property for his support. The property thus
given up was sold, and the proceeds distributed among the creditors.

BŎNŌRUM COLLĀTĬO. By the strict rules of the civil law an emancipated
son had no right to the inheritance of his father, whether he died
testate or intestate. But, in course of time, the praetor granted to
emancipated children the privilege of equal succession with those who
remained in the power of the father at the time of his death; but
only on condition that they should bring into one common stock with
their father’s property, and for the purpose of an equal division
among all the father’s children, whatever property they had at the
time of the father’s death, and which would have been acquired for
the father in case they had still remained in his power. This was
called bonorum collatio.

BŎNŌRUM EMTĬO ET EMTOR. The expression bonorum emtio applies to a
sale of the property either of a living or of a dead person. It
was in effect, as to a living debtor, an execution. In the case of
a dead person, his property was sold when it was ascertained that
there was neither heres nor bonorum possessor, nor any other person
entitled to succeed to it. In the case of the property of a living
person being sold, the praetor, on the application of the creditors,
ordered it to be possessed (_possideri_) by the creditors for thirty
successive days, and notice to be given of the sale. This explains
the expression in Livy (ii. 24): “ne quis militis, donec in castris
esset, bona _possideret_ aut venderet.”

BŎNŌRUM POSSESSĬO was the right of suing for or retaining a patrimony
or thing which belonged to another at the time of his death. The
bonorum possessio was given by the edict both _contra tabulas_,
_secundum tabulas_, and _intestati_. 1. An emancipated son had
no legal claim on the inheritance of his father; but if he was
omitted in his father’s will, or not expressly exheredated, the
praetor’s edict gave him the bonorum possessio contra tabulas, on
condition that he would bring into hotchpot (_bonorum collatio_)
with his brethren who continued in the parent’s power, whatever
property he had at the time of the parent’s death. 2. The _bonorum
possessio secundum tabulas_ was that possession which the praetor
gave, conformably to the words of the will, to those named in it as
heredes, when there was no person intitled to make a claim against
the will, or none who chose to make such a claim. 3. In the case of
intestacy (_intestati_) there were seven degrees of persons who might
claim the bonorum possessio, each in his order, upon there being
no claim of a prior degree. The first three degrees were children,
_legitimi heredes_, and _proximi cognati_. Emancipated children could
claim as well as those who were not emancipated, and adoptive as well
as children of the blood; but not children who had been adopted into
another family. If a freedman died intestate, leaving only a wife
(in manu) or an adoptive son, the patron was entitled to the bonorum
possessio of one half of his property.

BŎŌNAE (βοῶναι), persons in Athens who purchased oxen for the
public sacrifices and feasts. They are spoken of by Demosthenes
in conjunction with the ἱεροποιοί and those who presided over the
mysteries.

BORĔASMUS (βορεασμός or βορεασμοί), a festival celebrated by the
Athenians in honour of Boreas, which, as Herodotus seems to think,
was instituted during the Persian war, when the Athenians, being
commanded by an oracle to invoke their γαμβρὸς ἐπίκουρος, prayed to
Boreas. But considering that Boreas was intimately connected with
the early history of Attica, we have reason to suppose that even
previous to the Persian wars certain honours were paid to him, which
were perhaps only revived and increased after the event recorded by
Herodotus. The festival, however, does not seem ever to have had any
great celebrity.

BOULĒ (βουλή--ἡ τῶν πεντακοσίων). In the heroic ages, represented to
us by Homer, the _boulé_ is simply an aristocratical council of the
elders amongst the nobles, sitting under their king as president,
which decided on public business and judicial matters, frequently in
connection with, but apparently not subject to an _agora_, or meeting
of the freemen of the state. [AGORA.] This form of government, though
it existed for some time in the Ionian, Aeolian, and Achaean states,
was at last wholly abolished in these states. Among the Dorians,
however, especially among the Spartans, this was not the case, for
they retained the kingly power of the Heracleidae, in conjunction
with the _Gerousia_ or assembly of elders, of which the kings were
members. [GEROUSIA.] At Athens on the contrary, the _boulé_ was a
representative, and in most respects a popular body (δημοτικόν). The
first institution of the Athenian _boulé_ is generally attributed to
Solon; but there are strong reasons for supposing that, as in the
case of the _Areiopagus_, he merely modified the constitution of a
body which he found already existing. But be this as it may, it is
admitted that Solon made the number of his _boulé_ 400, 100 from
each of the four tribes. When the number of the tribes was raised
to ten by Cleisthenes (B.C. 510), the council also was increased to
500, fifty being taken from each of the ten tribes. The _bouleutae_
(βουλευταί) or councillors were appointed by lot, and hence they are
called councillors made by the bean (οἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ κυάμου βουλευταί),
from the use of beans in drawing lots. They were required to submit
to a scrutiny or _docimasia_, in which they gave evidence of being
genuine citizens, of never having lost their civic rights by
_atimia_, and also of being above 30 years of age. They remained
in office for a year, receiving a drachma (μισθὸς βουλευτικός) for
each day on which they sat: and independent of the general account
(εὐθύναι), which the whole body had to give at the end of the year,
any single member was liable to expulsion for misconduct by his
colleagues. The senate of 500 was divided into ten sections of fifty
each, the members of which were called _prytanes_ (πρυτάνεις), and
were all of the same tribe; they acted as presidents both of the
council and the assemblies during thirty-five or thirty-six days,
as the case might be, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days
(12×29½). Each tribe exercised these functions in turn; the period
of office was called a _prytany_ (πρυτανεία), and the tribe that
presided the _presiding tribe_; the order in which the tribes
presided was determined by lot, and the four supernumerary days were
given to the tribes which came last in order. Moreover, to obviate
the difficulty of having too many in office at once, every fifty
was subdivided into five bodies of ten each; its prytany also being
portioned out into five periods of seven days each; so that only ten
senators presided for a week over the rest, and were thence called
_proedri_ (πρόεδροι). Again, out of these proedri an _epistates_
(ἐπιστάτης) was chosen for one day to preside as a chairman in the
senate, and the assembly of the people; during his day of office
he kept the public records and seal. The prytanes had the right of
convening the council and the assembly (ἐκκλησία). The duty of the
proedri and their president was to propose subjects for discussion,
and to take the votes both of the councillors and the people;
for neglect of their duty they were liable to a fine. Moreover,
whenever a meeting, either of the council or of the assembly, was
convened, the chairman of the proedri selected by lot nine others,
one from each of the non-presiding tribes; these also were called
proedri, and possessed a chairman of their own, likewise appointed
by lot from among themselves. But the proedri who proposed the
subject for discussion to the assembly belonged to the presiding
tribe. It is observed, under AREIOPAGUS, that the chief object of
Solon, in forming the senate and the areiopagus, was to control the
democratical powers of the state: for this purpose he ordained that
the senate should discuss and vote upon all matters before they were
submitted to the assembly, so that nothing could be laid before the
people on which the senate had not come to a previous decision.
This decision, or bill, was called _probouleuma_ (προβούλευμα); but
then not only might this _probouleuma_ be rejected or modified by
the assembly, but the latter also possessed and exercised the power
of coming to a decision completely different from the will of the
senate. In addition to the bills which it was the duty of the senate
to propose of their own accord, there were others of a different
character, viz. such as any private individual might wish to have
submitted to the people. To accomplish this, it was first necessary
for the party to obtain, by petition, the privilege of access to
the senate, and leave to propose his motion; and if the measure met
with their approbation, he could then submit it to the assembly. A
proposal of this kind, which had the sanction of the senate, was
also called _probouleuma_, and frequently related to the conferring
of some particular honour or privilege upon an individual. Thus the
proposal of Ctesiphon for crowning Demosthenes is so styled. In the
assembly the bill of the senate was first read, perhaps by the crier,
after the introductory ceremonies were over; and then the proedri put
the question to the people, whether they approved of it. The people
declared their will by a show of hands (προχειροτονία). If it was
confirmed it became a _psephisma_ (ψήφισμα), or decree of the people,
binding upon all classes. The form for drawing up such decrees varied
in different ages. In the time of Demosthenes the decrees commence
with the name of the archon; then come the day of the month, the
tribe in office, and, lastly, the name of the proposer. The motive
for passing the decree is next stated; and then follows the decree
itself, prefaced with the formula δεδόχθαι τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ.
The senate-house was called _Bouleuterion_ (βουλευτηριον). The
prytanes also had a building to hold their meetings in, where they
were entertained at the public expense during their prytany. This
was called the _Prytaneion_, and was used for a variety of purposes.
[PRYTANEION.]

BRĀCAE, or BRACCAE (ἀναξυρίδες), trowsers, pantaloons, were common
to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population,
extending from the Indian to the Atlantic ocean, but were not worn
by the Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly the monuments
containing representations of people different from the Greeks and
Romans exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing them from the
latter people.

BRAURŌNĬA (βραυρώνια), a festival celebrated in honour of Artemis
Brauronia, in the Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes and
Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were supposed by the
Athenians to have landed, and left the statue of the Taurian goddess.
It was held every fifth year, and the chief solemnity consisted in
the Attic girls between the ages of five and ten years going in
solemn procession to the sanctuary, where they were consecrated to
the goddess. During this act the priests sacrificed a goat, and the
girls performed a propitiatory rite, in which they imitated bears.
This rite may have simply risen from the circumstance that the bear
was sacred to Artemis, especially in Arcadia. There was also a
quinquennial festival called Brauronia, which was celebrated by men
and dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of Dionysus.

BRUTTĬĀNI, slaves whose duty it was to wait upon the Roman
magistrates. They are said to have been originally taken from among
the Bruttians.

BUCCĬNA (βυκάνη), a kind of horn trumpet, anciently made out of a
shell (_buccinum_), the form of which is exhibited in the specimen
annexed. The _buccina_ was distinct from the _cornu_; but it is
often confounded with it. The buccina seems to have been chiefly
distinguished by the twisted form of the shell, from which it was
originally made. In later times it was carved from horn, and perhaps
from wood or metal, so as to imitate the shell. The _buccina_ was
chiefly used to proclaim the watches of the day and of the night,
hence called _buccina prima_, _secunda_, &c. It was also blown at
funerals, and at festive entertainments both before sitting down to
table and after.

[Illustration: Buccina, Trumpet. (Blanchini, De Mus. Instrum. Vet.)]

BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal, so called from its
resemblance in form to a bubble floating upon water. Bright studs
of this description were used to adorn the sword belt; but we most
frequently read of _bullae_ as ornaments worn by children, suspended
from the neck, and especially by the sons of the noble and wealthy.
Such an one is called _heres bullatus_ by Juvenal. The bulla was
usually made of thin plates of gold. The use of the bulla, like that
of the praetexta, was derived from the Etruscans. It was originally
worn only by the children of the patricians, but subsequently by all
of free birth.

[Illustration: Bulla. (From the Collection of Mr. Rogers; the gold
chord added from a specimen in the Brit. Mus.)]

BŪRIS. [ARATRUM.]

BUSTUM. It was customary among the Romans to burn the bodies of the
dead before burying them. When the spot appointed for that purpose
adjoined the place of sepulture, it was termed _bustum_; when it
was separate from it, it was called _ustrina_. From this word the
gladiators, who were hired to fight round the burning pyre of the
deceased, were called _bustuarii_.

BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the wood of the box-tree, but was
given as a name to many things made of this wood. The tablets used
for writing on, and covered with wax (_tabulae ceratae_), were
usually made of box. In the same way the Greek πυξίον, formed from
πύξος, “box-wood,” came to be applied to any tablets, whether they
were made of this wood or any other substance. Tops and combs were
made of box-wood, and also all wind instruments, especially the flute.

BYSSUS (βύσσος), linen, and not cotton. The word byssus appears to
come from the Hebrew _butz_, and the Greeks probably got it through
the Phoenicians.

CĂBEIRĬA (καβείρια), mysteries, festivals, and orgies, solemnised
in all places in which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped, but
especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus,
and Berytos. Little is known respecting the rites observed in these
mysteries, as no one was allowed to divulge them. The most celebrated
were those of the island of Samothrace, which, if we may judge from
those of Lemnos, were solemnised every year, and lasted for nine
days. Persons on their admission seem to have undergone a sort of
examination respecting the life they had led hitherto, and were then
purified of all their crimes, even if they had committed murder.

CĀDŪCĔUS (κηρύκειον, κηρύκιον), the staff or mace carried by heralds
and ambassadors in time of war. This name is also given to the staff
with which Hermes or Mercury is usually represented, as is shown in
the following figure of that god. From _caduceus_ was formed the
word _caduceator_, which signified a person sent to treat of peace.
The persons of the caduceatores were considered sacred.

[Illustration: Hermes bearing the Caduceus. (Museo Borbonico, vol.
vi. pl. 2.)]

CĂDŪCUM. [BONA CADUCA.]

CĂDUS (κάδος, κάδδος), a large vessel usually made of earthenware,
which was used for keeping wine, drawing water, &c. The name of
cadus was sometimes given to the vessel or urn in which the counters
or pebbles of the dicasts were put, when they gave their vote on a
trial, but the diminutive καδίσκος was more commonly used in this
signification.

CAELĀTŪRA (τορευτική), a branch of the fine arts, under which all
sorts of ornamental work in metal, except actual statues, appear to
be included. The principal processes, which these words were used
to designate, seem to have been of three kinds: hammering metal
plates into moulds or dies, so as to bring out a raised pattern;
engraving the surface of metals with a sharp tool; and working a
pattern of one metal upon or into the surface of another: in short,
the various processes which we describe by the words _chasing_,
_damascening_, &c. The objects on which the _caelator_ exercised his
art were chiefly weapons and armour--especially shields, chariots,
tripods, and other votive offerings, quoits, candelabra, thrones,
curule chairs, mirrors, goblets, dishes, and all kinds of gold and
silver plate. The ornamental work with which the chaser decorated
such objects consisted either of simple running patterns, chiefly in
imitation of plants and flowers, or of animals, or of mythological
subjects, and, for armour, of battles. The mythological subjects
were reserved for the works of the greatest masters of the art: they
were generally executed in very high relief (_anaglypha_). In the
finest works, the ornamental pattern was frequently distinct from
the vessel, to which it was either fastened permanently, or so that
it could be removed at pleasure, the vessel being of silver, and the
ornaments of gold, _crustae aut emblemata_. The art of ornamental
metal-work was in an advanced stage of progress among the Greeks of
the heroic period, as we see from numerous passages of Homer: but its
origin, in the high artistic sense, is to be ascribed to Phidias,
and its complete development to Polycletus. In the last age of the
Roman Republic, the prevailing wealth and luxury, and the presence of
Greek artists at Rome, combined to bring the art more than ever into
requisition. After this period it suddenly fell into disuse.

CAELĬBĀTUS. [AES UXORIUM; LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]

CAERĬTUM TĂBŬLAE. [AERARII.]

CAESAR, a title of the Roman emperors, was originally a family name
of the Julia gens; it was assumed by Octavianus as the adopted son
of the great dictator, C. Julius Caesar, and was by him handed down
to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to be used by Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero, as members either by adoption or female descent
of Caesar’s family; but although the family became extinct with
Nero, succeeding emperors still retained the name as part of their
titles, and it was the practice to prefix it to their own names, as
for instance, _Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus_. When Hadrian
adopted Aelius Varus, he allowed the latter to take the title of
Caesar; and from this time, though the title of _Augustus_ continued
to be confined to the reigning emperor, that of _Caesar_ was also
granted to the second person in the state and the heir presumptive to
the throne. [AUGUSTUS.]

CĂLĂMISTRUM, an instrument made of iron, and hollow like a reed
(_calamus_), used for curling the hair. For this purpose it was
heated, the person who performed the office of heating it in wood
ashes (_cinis_) being called _ciniflo_, or _cinerarius_.

CĂLĂMUS, a sort of reed which the ancients used as a pen for writing.
The best sorts were got from Aegypt and Cnidus.

CĂLANTĬCA. [COMA.]

CĂLĂTHUS (κάλαθος, also called τάλαρος), usually signified the basket
in which women placed their work, and especially the materials for
spinning. In the following cut a slave, belonging to the class called
_quasillariae_, is presenting her mistress with the calathus.
Baskets of this kind were also used for other purposes, such as for
carrying fruits, flowers, &c. The name of calathi was also given to
cups for holding wine. Calathus was properly a Greek word, though
used by the Latin writers. The Latin word corresponding to it was
_qualus_ or _quasillus_. From _quasillus_ came _quasillaria_, the
name of the slave who spun, and who was considered the meanest of the
female slaves.

[Illustration: Slave presenting a Calathus. (From a Painting on a
Vase.)]

CALCĔUS, CALCĔĀMEN, CALCĔĀMENTUM (ὑποδήμα, πέδιλον), a shoe or boot,
anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use
of shoes was by no means universal among the Greeks and Romans. The
Homeric heroes are represented without shoes when armed for battle.
Socrates, Phocion, and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Roman
slaves had no shoes. The covering of the feet was removed before
reclining at meals. People in grief, as for instance at funerals,
frequently went barefooted. Shoes may be divided into those in which
the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the sole of the foot by
ties or bands, or by a covering for the toes or the instep [SOLEA;
CREPIDA; SOCCUS]; and those which ascended higher and higher,
according as they covered the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the
leg. To calceamenta of the latter kind, _i.e._ to shoes and boots,
as distinguished from sandals and slippers, the term _calceus_ was
applied in its proper and restricted sense. There were also other
varieties of the _calceus_ according to its adaptation to particular
professions or modes of life. Thus the CALIGA was principally worn
by soldiers; the PERO by labourers and rustics; and the COTHURNUS
by tragedians, hunters, and horsemen. The _calcei_ probably did
not much differ from our shoes, and are exemplified in a painting
at Herculaneum, which represents a female wearing bracelets, a
wreath of ivy, and a panther’s skin, while she is in the attitude
of dancing and playing on the cymbals. The form and colour of the
calceus indicated rank and office. Roman senators wore high shoes
like buskins, fastened in front with four black thongs. They were
also sometimes adorned with a small crescent: we do not find on any
ancient statues the crescent, but we may regard the bottom right hand
figure in the annexed cut as representing the shoe of a senator.
Among the calcei worn by senators, those called _mullei_, from their
resemblance to the scales of the red mullet, were particularly
admired; as well as others called _alutae_, because the leather was
softened by the use of alum.

[Illustration: Greek Shoes. (From ancient Vases.)

Roman Shoes. (Museo Borbonico.)]

CALCŬLĀTOR (λογιστής), a keeper of accounts in general, and also a
teacher of arithmetic. In Roman families of importance there was a
_calculator_ or account-keeper, who is, however, more frequently
called by the name of _dispensator_, or procurator: he was a kind of
steward.

CALCŬLI, little stones or pebbles, used for various purposes, as,
for instance, among the Athenians for voting. Calculi were used
in playing a sort of draughts. Subsequently, instead of pebbles,
ivory, or silver, or gold, or other men (as we call them) were used;
but they still bore the name of calculi. Calculi were also used
in reckoning; and hence the phrases _calculum ponere_, _calculum
subducere_.

CALDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM.]

CĂLENDAE or KĂLENDAE. [CALENDARIUM.]

CĂLENDĀRĬUM or KĂLENDĀRĬUM, generally signified an account-book,
in which were entered the names of a person’s debtors, with the
interest which they had to pay, and it was so called because the
interest had to be paid on the calends of each month. The word,
however, was also used in the signification of a modern calendar or
almanac. (1) GREEK CALENDAR. The Greek year was divided into twelve
lunar months, depending on the actual changes of the moon. The first
day of the month (νουμηνία) was not the day of the conjunction, but
the day on the evening of which the new moon appeared; consequently
full moon was the middle of the month. The lunar month consists of
twenty-nine days and about thirteen hours; accordingly some months
were necessarily reckoned at twenty-nine days, and rather more of
them at thirty days. The latter were called _full_ months (πληρεῖς),
the former _hollow_ months (κοῖλοι). As the twelve lunar months
fell short of the solar year, they were obliged every other year
to interpolate an intercalary month (μὴν ἐμβολιμαῖος) of thirty or
twenty-nine days. The ordinary year consisted of 354 days, and the
interpolated year, therefore, of 384 or 383. This interpolated year
(τριέτηρις) was seven days and a half too long, and to correct the
error, the intercalary month was from time to time omitted. The Attic
year began with the summer solstice: the following is the sequence of
the Attic months and the number of days in each:--Hecatombaeon (30),
Metageitnion (29), Boedromion (30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion
(30), Poseideon (29), Gamelion (30), Anthesterion (29), Elaphebolion
(30), Munychion (29), Thargelion (30), Scirophorion (29). The
intercalary month was a second Poseideon inserted in the middle of
the year. Every Athenian month was divided into three decads. The
days of the first decad were designated as ἱσταμένου or ἀρχομένου
μηνος, and were counted on regularly from one to ten; thus, δευτέρα
ἀρχομένου or ἱσταμένου is “the second day of the month.” The days
of the second decad were designated as ἐπὶ δέκα or μεσοῦντος, and
were counted on regularly from the 11th to the 20th day, which was
called εἴκας. There were two ways of counting the days of the last
decad; they were either reckoned onwards from the 20th (thus, πρώτη
ἐπὶ εἰκάδι was the 21st), or backwards from the last day, with
the addition φθίνοντος, παυομένου, λήγοντος, or ἀπίοντος; thus,
the twenty-first day of a hollow month was ἐνάτη φθίνοντος; of a
full month, δεκάτη φθίνοντος. The last day of the month was called
ἕνη καὶ νέα, “the old and new,” because as the lunar month really
consisted of more than twenty-nine and less than thirty days, the
last day might be considered as belonging equally to the old and
new month. Separate years were designated at Athens by the name of
the chief archon, hence called _archon eponymus_ (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος),
or “the name giving archon;” at Sparta, by the first of the ephors;
at Argos, by the priestess of JUNO, &c.--(2) ROMAN CALENDAR. The
old Roman, frequently called the Romulian year, consisted of only
ten months, which were called Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius,
Quinctilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, December. That
March was the first month in the year is implied in the last six
names. Of these months, four, namely, Martius, Maius, Quinctilis,
and October, consisted of thirty-one days, the other six of thirty.
The four former were distinguished in the latest form of the Roman
calendar by having their nones two days later than any of the other
months. The symmetry of this arrangement will appear by placing the
numbers in succession:--31, 30; 31, 30; 31, 30, 30; 31, 30, 30.
The Romulian year therefore consisted of 304 days, and contained
thirty-eight nundinae or weeks; every eighth day, under the name of
_nonae_, or _nundinae_, being especially devoted to religious and
other public purposes. Hence we find that the number of _dies fasti_
afterwards retained in the Julian calendar tally exactly with these
thirty-eight nundines; besides which, it may be observed that a year
of 304 days bears to a solar year of 365 days nearly the ratio of
five to six, six of the Romulian years containing 1824, five of the
solar years 1825 days; and hence we may explain the origin of the
well-known quinquennial period called the lustrum, which ancient
writers expressly call an _annus magnus_; that is, in the modern
language of chronology, a cycle. It was consequently the period at
which the Romulian and solar years coincided. The next division of
the Roman year was said to have been made by Numa Pompilius, who
instituted a lunar year of 12 months and 355 days. Livy says that
Numa so regulated his lunar year of twelve months by the insertion
of intercalary months, that at the end of every _nineteenth_ year
(_vicesimo anno_) it again coincided with the same point in the
sun’s course from which it started. It is well known that 19 years
constitute a most convenient cycle for the junction of a lunar and
solar year. It seems certain that the Romans continued to use a lunar
year for some time after the establishment of the republic; and it
was probably at the time of the decemviral legislation that the
lunar year was abandoned. By the change which was then made the year
consisted of 12 months, the length of each of which was as follows:--

Martius, 31 days.
Aprilis, 29 ”
Maius, 31 ”
Junius, 29 ”
Quinctilis, 31 ”
Sextilis, 29 ”
September, 29 ”
October, 31 ”
November, 29 ”
December, 29 ”
Januarius, 29 ”
Februarius, 28 ”

The year thus consisted of 355 days, and this was made to correspond
with the solar year by the insertion of an intercalary month
(_mensis intercalaris_ or _intercalarius_), called _Mercedonius_
or _Mercidonius_. This month of 22 or 23 days seems to have been
inserted in alternate years. As the festivals of the Romans were for
the most part dependent upon the calendar, the regulation of the
latter was entrusted to the college of pontifices, who in early times
were chosen exclusively from the body of patricians. It was therefore
in the power of the college to add to their other means of oppressing
the plebeians, by keeping to themselves the knowledge of the days on
which justice could be administered, and assemblies of the people
could be held. In the year 304 B.C., one Cn. Flavius, a secretary
(_scriba_) of Appius Claudius, is said fraudulently to have made the
_Fasti_ public. The other privilege of regulating the year by the
insertion of the intercalary month gave the pontiffs great political
power, which they were not backward to employ. Every thing connected
with the matter of intercalation was left to their unrestrained
pleasure; and the majority of them, on personal grounds, added to or
took from the year by capricious intercalations, so as to lengthen or
shorten the period during which a magistrate remained in office, and
seriously to benefit or injure the farmer of the public revenue. The
calendar was thus involved in complete confusion, and accordingly we
find that in the time of Cicero the year was three months in advance
of the real solar year. At length, in the year B.C. 46, Caesar, now
master of the Roman world, employed his authority, as pontifex
maximus, in the correction of this serious evil. The account of the
way in which he effected this is given by Censorinus:--“The confusion
was at last carried so far that C. Caesar, the pontifex maximus, in
his third consulate, with Lepidus for his colleague, inserted between
November and December two intercalary months of 67 days, the month
of February having already received an intercalation of 23 days, and
thus made the whole year to consist of 445 days. At the same time he
provided against a repetition of similar errors, by casting aside
the intercalary month, and adapting the year to the sun’s course.
Accordingly, to the 355 days of the previously existing year he added
ten days, which he so distributed between the seven months having
29 days that January, Sextilis, and December received two each, the
others but one; and these additional days he placed at the end of
the several months, no doubt with the wish not to remove the various
festivals from those positions in the several months which they had
so long occupied. Hence in the present calendar, although there are
seven months of 31 days, yet the four months, which from the first
possessed that number, are still distinguishable by having their
nones on the seventh, the rest having them on the fifth of the month.
Lastly, in consideration of the quarter of a day, which he regarded
as completing the true year, he established the rule that, at the
end of every four years, a single day should be intercalated, where
the month had been hitherto inserted, that is, immediately after the
terminalia; which day is now called the _bissextum_.” The mode of
denoting the days of the month will cause no difficulty, if it be
recollected that the kalends always denote the first of the month;
that the nones occur on the seventh of the four months of March,
May, Quinctilis or July, and October, and on the fifth of the other
months; that the ides always fall eight days later than the nones;
and lastly, that the intermediate days are in all cases reckoned
backwards upon the Roman principle of counting both extremes. For the
month of January the notation will be as follows:--

1. Kal. Jan.
2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan.
3. a. d. III. Non. Jan.
4. Prid. Non. Jan.
5. Non. Jan.
6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan.
7. a. d. VII. Id. Jan.
8. a. d. VI. Id. Jan.
9. a. d. V. Id. Jan.
10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan.
11. a. d. III. Id. Jan.
12. Prid. Id. Jan.
13. Id. Jan.
14. a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb.
15. a. d. XVIII. Kal. Feb.
16. a. d. XVII. Kal. Feb.
17. a. d. XVI. Kal. Feb.
18. a. d. XV. Kal. Feb.
19. a. d. XIV. Kal. Feb.
20. a. d. XIII. Kal. Feb.
21. a. d. XII. Kal. Feb.
22. a. d. XI. Kal. Feb.
23. a. d. X. Kal. Feb.
24. a. d. IX. Kal. Feb.
25. a. d. VIII. Kal. Feb.
26. a. d. VII. Kal. Feb.
27. a. d. VI. Kal. Feb.
28. a. d. V. Kal. Feb.
29. a. d. IV. Kal. Feb.
30. a. d. III. Kal. Feb.
31. Prid. Kal. Feb.

The letters _a d_ are often, through error, written together, and so
confounded with the preposition _ad_ which would have a different
meaning, for _ad kalendas_ would signify _by_, i.e. _on or before
the kalends_. The letters are in fact an abridgment of _ante diem_,
and the full phrase for “on the second of January,” would be _ante
diem quartum nonas Januarias_. The word _ante_ in this expression
seems really to belong in sense to _nonas_, and to be the cause why
_nonas_ is an accusative. Whether the phrase _kalendae Januarii_ was
ever used by the best writers is doubtful. The words are commonly
abbreviated; and those passages where Aprilis, Decembris, &c. occur
are of no avail, as they are probably accusatives. The _ante_ may be
omitted, in which case the phrase will be _die quarto nonarum_. In
the leap year (to use a modern phrase), the last days of February
were called,--

Feb. 23. a. d. VII. Kal. Mart.
Feb. 24. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. posteriorem.
Feb. 25. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. priorem.
Feb. 26. a. d. V. Kal. Mart.
Feb. 27. a. d. IV. Kal. Mart.
Feb. 28. a. d. III. Kal. Mart.
Feb. 29. Prid. Kal. Mart.

In which the words _prior_ and _posterior_ are used in reference to
the retrograde direction of the reckoning. From the fact that the
intercalated year has two days called _ante diem sextum_, the name
bissextile has been applied to it. The term _annus bissextilis_,
however, does not occur in any classical writer, but in place of
it the phrase _annus bissextus_.--The names of two of the months
were changed in honour of Julius Caesar and Augustus. Julius was
substituted for Quinctilis, the month in which Caesar was born, in
the second Julian year, that is, the year of the dictator’s death,
for the first Julian year was the first year of the _corrected_
Julian calendar, that is, B.C. 45. The name Augustus in place of
Sextilis was introduced by the emperor himself in B.C. 27. The month
of September in like manner received the name of Germanicus from
the general so called, and the appellation appears to have existed
even in the time of Macrobius. Domitian, too, conferred his name
upon October; but the old word was restored upon the death of the
tyrant.--The Julian calendar supposes the mean tropical year to
be 365 d. 6 h.; but this exceeds the real amount by 11′ 12″, the
accumulation of which, year after year, caused at last considerable
inconvenience. Accordingly, in the year 1582, Pope Gregory XIII.
again reformed the calendar. The ten days by which the year had been
unduly retarded were struck out by a regulation that the day after
the fourth of October in that year should be called the fifteenth;
and it was ordered that whereas hitherto an intercalary day had been
inserted every four years, for the future three such intercalations
in the course of four hundred years should be omitted, viz., in
those years which are divisible without remainder by 100, but not by
400. Thus, according to the Julian calendar, the years 1600, 1700,
1800, 1900, 2000, were to be bissextile as before. The bull which
effected this change was issued Feb. 24th, 1582. The Protestant parts
of Europe resisted what they called a papistical invention for more
than a century. In England the Gregorian calendar was first adopted
in 1752. In Russia, and those countries which belonged to the Greek
church, the Julian year, or _old style_, as it is called, still
prevails. In the ancient calendars the letters A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, were used for the purpose of fixing the nundines in the week
of eight days; precisely in the same way in which the first seven
letters are still employed in ecclesiastical calendars, to mark the
days of the Christian week.

CĂLĬGA, a strong and heavy sandal worn by the Roman soldiers, but
not by the superior officers. Hence the common soldiers, including
centurions, were distinguished by the name of _caligati_. The emperor
Caligula received that cognomen when a boy, in consequence of wearing
the caliga, and being inured to the life of a common soldier. The
cuts on pp. 1, 41, show the difference between the caliga of the
common soldier and the calceus worn by men of higher rank.

CĂLIX (κύλιξ). (1) a drinking-cup used at symposia and on similar
occasions.--(2) A vessel used in cooking.--(3) A tube in the
aquaeducts attached to the extremity of each pipe, where it entered
the castellum.

[Illustration: Calices, Drinking-cups. (Museo Borbonico, vol. v. pl.
18.)]

CALLIS, a beaten path or track made by the feet of cattle. The
sheep-walks in the mountainous parts of Campania and Apulia were
the property of the Roman state; and as they were of considerable
value, one of the quaestors usually had these _calles_ assigned to
him as his province, whence we read of the _Callium provincia_. His
principal duties were to receive the _scriptura_, or tax paid for
the pasturage of the cattle, and to protect life and property in
these wild and mountainous districts. When the senate wished to put
a slight upon the consuls on one occasion they endeavoured to assign
to them as their provinces, the care of the woods (_silvae_) and
sheep-walks (_calles_).

CALLISTEIA (καλλιστεῖα), a festival, or perhaps merely a part of one,
held by the women of Lesbos; at which they assembled in the sanctuary
of Hera, and the fairest received the prize of beauty. Similar
contests of beauty are said to have been held in other places.

CĀLŌNES, the slaves or servants of the Roman soldiers, so called
from carrying wood (κᾶλα) for their use. The word _calo_, however,
was also applied to farm-servants. The _calones_ and _lixae_ are
frequently spoken of together, but they were not the same: the latter
were freemen, who merely followed the camp for the purposes of gain
and merchandise, and were so far from being indispensable to an army,
that they were sometimes forbidden to attend it.

CĂLUMNĬA. When an accuser failed in his proof, and the accused
party was acquitted, there might be an inquiry into the conduct and
motives of the accuser. If the person who made this judicial inquiry
found that the accuser had merely acted from error of judgment, he
acquitted him in the form _non probasti_; if he convicted him of evil
intention, he declared his sentence in the words _calumniatus es_,
which sentence was followed by the legal punishment. The punishment
for _calumnia_ was fixed by the lex Remmia, or as it is sometimes,
perhaps incorrectly, named, the lex Memmia. But it is not known when
this lex was passed, nor what were its penalties. It appears from
Cicero, that the false accuser might be branded on the forehead with
the letter K, the initial of Kalumnia. The punishment for calumnia
was also _exsilium, relegatio in insulam_, or loss of rank (_ordinis
amissio_); but probably only in criminal cases, or in matters
relating to status.

CĂMĂRA (καμάρα), or CĂMĔRA. (1) A particular kind of arched
ceiling, formed by semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged at
small lateral distances, over which a coating of lath and plaster
was spread, and the whole covered in by a roof, resembling in
construction the hooped awnings in use amongst us.--(2) A small boat
used in early times by the people who inhabited the shores of the
Palus Maeotis, capable of containing from twenty-five to thirty men.
These boats were made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing
proas of the Indian seas, and continued in use until the age of
Tacitus.

CĂMILLI, CĂMILLAE, boys and girls employed in the religious rites and
ceremonies of the Romans. They were required to be perfect in form,
and sound in health, free born, and with both their parents alive;
or, in other words, according to the expression of the Romans, _pueri
seu puellae ingenui, felicissimi, patrimi matrimique_.

CĂMĪNUS. [DOMUS.]

CAMPESTRE (sc. _subligar_), a kind of girdle or apron, which the
Roman youths wore around their loins, when they exercised naked in
the Campus Martius. The campestre was sometimes worn in warm weather,
in place of the tunic under the toga.

CAMPUS MARTĬUS. [See CLASSICAL DICTIONARY.]

CĂNĂBUS (κάναβος), a figure of wood in the form of a skeleton, round
which the clay or plaster was laid in forming models. Figures of a
similar kind, formed to display the muscles and veins, were studied
by painters in order to acquire some knowledge of anatomy.

CĀNATHRON (κάναθρον), a carriage, the upper part of which was made of
basket-work, or more properly the basket itself, which was fixed in
the carriage.

CANCELLĀRĬUS. [CANCELLI.]

CANCELLI, lattice-work, placed before a window, a door-way, the
tribunal of a judge, or any other place. Hence was derived the
word _Cancellarius_, which originally signified a porter, who
stood at the latticed or grated door of the emperor’s palace. The
cancellarius also signified a legal scribe or secretary, who sat
within the cancelli or lattice-work. The chief scribe or secretary
was called Cancellarius κατ’ ἐξοχήν, and was eventually invested with
judicial power at Constantinople. From this word has come the modern
Chancellor.

CANDĒLA, a candle, made either of wax (_cerea_), or tallow
(_sebacea_), was used universally by the Romans before the invention
of oil lamps (_lucernae_). In later times candelae were only used
by the poorer classes; the houses of the more wealthy were always
lighted by lucernae.

CANDĒLABRUM, originally a candlestick, but afterwards the name of a
stand for supporting lamps (λυχνοῦχοι), in which signification it
most commonly occurs. The candelabra of this kind were usually made
to stand upon the ground, and were of a considerable height. The
most common kind were made of wood; but those which have been found
in Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze. Sometimes they were
made of the more precious metals, and even of jewels. The candelabra
did not always stand upon the ground, but were also placed upon
the table. Such candelabra usually consisted of pillars, from the
capitals of which several lamps hung down, or of trees, from whose
branches lamps also were suspended.

[Illustration: Candelabrum in the Vatican. (Visconti, vol. IV. tav.
5.)]

CANDĬDĀTUS. [AMBITUS.]

CANDYS (κάνδυς), a robe worn by the Medes and Persians over their
trowsers and other garments. It had wide sleeves, and was made of
woollen cloth, which was either purple or of some other splendid
colour. In the Persepolitan sculptures, from which the annexed
figures are taken, nearly all the principal personages wear it.

[Illustration: Candys, Persian Cloak. (From Bas-relief at
Persepolis.)]

CĂNĒPHŎROS (κανηφόρος), a virgin who carried a flat circular basket
(κάνεον, _canistrum_) at sacrifices, in which the chaplet of flowers,
the knife to slay the victim, and sometimes the frankincense
were deposited. The name, however, was more particularly applied
to two virgins of the first Athenian families who were appointed
to officiate as canephori at the Panathaenaea. The preceding cut
represents the two canephori approaching a candelabrum. Each of them
elevates one arm to support the basket while she slightly raises her
tunic with the other.

[Illustration: Canephori. (British Museum.)]

CANTHĂRUS (κάνθαρος), a kind of drinking cup, furnished with handles.
It was the cup sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently represented on
ancient vases holding it in his hand.

[Illustration: Cantharus. (From an ancient Vase.)]

CANTĬCUM, an interlude between the acts of a Roman comedy, and
sometimes, perhaps, of a tragedy. It consisted of flute music,
accompanied by a kind of recitative performed by a single actor,
or if there were two, the second was not allowed to speak with the
first. In the canticum, as violent gesticulation was required, it
appears to have been the custom, from the time of Livius Andronicus,
for the actor to confine himself to the gesticulation, while another
person sang the recitative.

CĂPILLUS. [COMA.]

CĂPISTRUM (φορβειά), a halter, or tie for horses, asses, or other
animals, placed round the head or neck, and made of osiers or other
fibrous materials. The Greek word φορβειά was also applied to a
contrivance used by pipers and trumpeters to compress their mouths
and cheeks, and thus to aid them in blowing. It is often seen in
works of ancient art, and was said to be the invention of Marsyas.
[TIBIA.]

CĂPĬTE CENSI. [CAPUT.]

CĂPĬTIS DĒMĬNŪTĬO. [CAPUT.]

CĂPĬTŌLĪNI LŪDI. [LUDI.]

CĂPĬTŌLĬUM. [See CLASS. DICTIONARY.]

CĂPĬTŬLUM. [COLUMNA.]

CAPSA, or SCRĪNĬUM, a box for holding books among the Romans. These
boxes were of a cylindrical form. There does not appear to have
been any difference between the _capsa_ and _scrinium_, except that
the latter word was usually applied to those boxes which held a
considerable number of rolls. The slaves who had the charge of these
book-chests were called _capsarii_, and also _custodes scriniorum_;
and the slaves who carried in a capsa behind their young masters
the books, &c. of the sons of respectable Romans, when they went to
school, were called by the same name.

[Illustration: The Muse Clio with a Capsa. (Pitture d’Ercolano, vol.
ii. pl. 2.)]

CAPSĀRĬI, the name of three different classes of slaves. [BALNEUM;
CAPSA.]

CĂPUT, the head. The term “head” is often used by the Roman writers
as equivalent to “person,” or “human being.” By an easy transition
it was used to signify “life:” thus, _capite damnari_, _plecti_,
&c., are equivalent to capital punishment. _Caput_ is also used
to express a man’s _status_, or civil condition; and the persons
who were registered in the tables of the censor are spoken of as
_capita_, sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and
sometimes not. Thus to be registered in the census was the same
thing as _caput habere_: and a slave and a filius familias, in this
sense of the word, were said to have no _caput_. The sixth class of
Servius Tullius comprised the _proletarii_ and the _capite censi_,
of whom the latter, having little or no property, were barely rated
as so many _head_ of citizens.--He who lost or changed his status
was said to be _capite minutus_, _deminutus_, or _capitis minor_.
_Capitis minutio_ or _deminutio_ was a change of a person’s status
or civil condition, and consisted of three kinds.--A Roman citizen
possessed freedom (_libertas_), citizenship (_civitas_), and family
(_familias_): the loss of all three constituted the _maxima capitis
deminutio_. This capitis deminutio was sustained by those who refused
to be registered at the census, or neglected the registration, and
were thence called _incensi_. The _incensus_ was liable to be sold,
and so to lose his liberty. Those who refused to perform military
service might also be sold.--The loss of citizenship and family only,
as when a man was interdicted from fire and water, was the _media
capitis deminutio_. [EXSILIUM.]--The change of family by adoption,
and by the in manum conventio, was the _minima capitis deminutio_.--A
_judicium capitale_, or _poena capitalis_, was one which affected a
citizen’s caput.

CĂPUT. [FENUS.]

CĂPUT EXTŌRUM. The Roman soothsayers (_haruspices_) pretended to a
knowledge of coming events from the inspection of the entrails of
victims slain for that purpose. The part to which they especially
directed their attention was the liver, the convex upper portion of
which seems to have been called the _caput extorum_. Any disease
or deficiency in this organ was considered an unfavourable omen;
whereas, if healthy and perfect, it was believed to indicate good
fortune. If no caput was found, it was a bad sign (_nihil tristius
accidere potuit_); if well defined or double, it was a lucky omen.

CĂRĂCALLA, an outer garment used in Gaul, and not unlike the Roman
_lacerna_. It was first introduced at Rome by the emperor Aurelius
Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled all the people that came to
court to wear it, whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla. This
garment, as worn in Gaul, does not appear to have reached lower than
the knee, but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach the ankle.

CARCER (_kerker_, German; γοργύρα, Greek), a prison, is connected
with ἕρκος and εἵργω, the guttural being interchanged with the
aspirate. (1) GREEK. Imprisonment was seldom used amongst the Greeks
as a legal punishment for offences; they preferred banishment to
the expense of keeping prisoners in confinement. The prisons in
different countries were called by different names; thus there
was the _Ceadas_ (Κεάδας), at Sparta; and, among the Ionians, the
_Gorgyra_ (γοργύρα), as at Samos. The prison at Athens was in former
times called _Desmoterion_ (δεσμωτήριον), and afterwards, by a
sort of euphemism, οἴκημα. It was chiefly used as a guard-house or
place of execution, and was under the charge of the public officers
called the Eleven.--(2) ROMAN. A prison was first built at Rome by
Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum. This was enlarged by Servius
Tullius, who added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called from him
the _Tullianum_. Sallust describes this as being twelve feet under
ground, walled on each side, and arched over with stone work. For
a long time this was the only prison at Rome, being, in fact, the
“Tower,” or state prison of the city, which was sometimes doubly
guarded in times of alarm, and was the chief object of attack in
many conspiracies. There were, however, other prisons besides this,
though, as we might expect, the words of Roman historians generally
refer to this alone. In the _Tullianum_ prisoners were generally
executed, and this part of the prison was also called _robur_.

CARCĔRES. [CIRCUS.]

CARCHĒSĬUM (καρχήσιον). (1) A beaker or drinking-cup, which was used
by the Greeks in very early times. It was slightly contracted in the
middle, and its two handles extended from the top to the bottom. It
was much employed in libations of wine, milk, and honey.--(2) The
upper part of the mast of a ship. [NAVIS.]

CARMENTĀLĬA, a festival celebrated in honour of Carmenta or
Carmentis, who is fabled to have been the mother of Evander, who
came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and settled in Latium: he was said
to have brought with him a knowledge of the arts, and the Latin
alphabetical characters as distinguished from the Etruscan. This
festival was celebrated annually on the 11th of January. A temple
was erected to the same goddess, at the foot of the Capitoline
hill, near the Porta Carmentalis, afterwards called Scelerata. The
name Carmenta is said to have been given to her from her prophetic
character, carmens or carmentis being synonymous with vates. The word
is, of course, connected with _carmen_, as prophecies were generally
delivered in verse.

CARNEIA (καρνεῖα), a great national festival, celebrated by the
Spartans in honour of Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the
seventh day of the month of Carneios = Metageitnion of the Athenians,
and lasted for nine days. It was of a warlike character, similar to
the Attic Boëdromia. During the time of its celebration nine tents
were pitched near the city, in each of which nine men lived in
the manner of a military camp, obeying in everything the commands
of a herald. The priest conducting the sacrifices at the Carneia
was called _Agetes_ (Ἀγητής), whence the festival was sometimes
designated by the name _Agetoria_ or _Agetoreion_ (Ἀγητόρια or
Ἀγητόρειον), and from each of the Spartan tribes five men (Καρνεᾶται)
were chosen as his ministers, whose office lasted four years,
during which period they were not allowed to marry. When we read in
Herodotus and Thucydides that the Spartans during the celebration of
this festival were not allowed to take the field against an enemy, we
must remember that this restriction was not peculiar to the Carneia,
but common to all the great festivals of the Greeks: traces of it are
found even in Homer.

CARNĬFEX, the public executioner at Rome, who executed slaves and
foreigners, but not citizens, who were punished in a manner different
from slaves. It was also his business to administer the torture.
This office was considered so disgraceful, that he was not allowed
to reside within the city, but lived without the Porta Metia or
Esquilina, near the place destined for the punishment of slaves,
called Sestertium under the emperors.

CARPENTUM, a cart; also a two-wheeled carriage, enclosed, and with
an arched or sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was used to
convey the Roman matrons in the public festal processions; and this
was a high distinction, since the use of carriages in the city was
entirely forbidden during the whole of the republican period. Hence
the privilege of riding in a carpentum in the public festivals was
sometimes granted to females of the imperial family. This carriage
contained seats for two, and sometimes for three persons, besides
the coachman. It was commonly drawn by a pair of mules, but more
rarely by oxen or horses, and sometimes by four horses like a
quadriga.--Carpenta, or covered carts, were much used by the Britons,
the Gauls, and other northern nations. These, together with the
carts of the more common form, including baggage-waggons, appear to
have been comprehended under the term _carri_, or _carra_, which is
the Celtic name with a Latin termination. The Gauls took a great
multitude of them on their military expeditions, and when they were
encamped, arranged them in close order, so as to form extensive lines
of circumvallation.

CARRĀGO, a kind of fortification, consisting of a great number of
waggons placed round an army. It was employed by barbarous nations,
as, for instance, the Scythians, Gauls, and Goths. Carrago also
signifies sometimes the baggage of an army.

CARRŪCA, a carriage, the name of which only occurs under the
emperors. It appears to have been a species of rheda [RHEDA], had
four wheels, and was used in travelling. These carriages were
sometimes used in Rome by persons of distinction, like the carpenta;
in which case they appear to have been covered with plates of bronze,
silver, and even gold, which were sometimes ornamented with embossed
work.

CARRUS. [CARPENTUM.]

CĂRỸA or CĂRỸĀTIS (καρύα, καρυατίς), a festival celebrated at Caryae,
in Laconia, in honour of Artemis Caryatis. It was celebrated every
year by Lacedaemonian maidens with national dances of a very lively
kind.

CĂRỸĀTĬDES, female figures used in architecture instead of columns.
Their name is usually derived from Caryae, a city in Arcadia, near
the Laconian border, the women of which are said to have been reduced
to slavery by the Greeks, because Caryae had joined the Persians at
the invasion of Greece. But this tale is probably apocryphal. One of
the porticos of the Erechtheum at Athens is supported by Caryatides.

CASSIS. [GALEA.]

CASTELLUM ĂQUAE. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]

CASTRA. Roman armies never halted for a single night without forming
a regular entrenchment, termed _castra_, capable of receiving within
its limits the whole body of fighting men, their beasts of burden,
and the baggage. So completely was this recognised as a part of the
ordinary duties of each march, that _pervenire ad locum tertiis ...
quartis ... septuagesimis castris_ are the established phrases for
expressing the number of days occupied in passing from one point to
another. Whenever circumstances rendered it expedient for a force to
occupy the same ground for any length of time, then the encampment
was distinguished as _castra stativa_. In wild and barbarian lands,
where there were no large towns and no tribes on whose faith
reliance could be placed, armies, whether of invasion or occupation,
were forced to remain constantly in camps. They usually, however,
occupied different ground in summer and in winter, whence arose the
distinction between _castra aestiva_ and _castra hiberna_, both alike
being _stativa_. But whether a camp was temporary or permanent,
whether tenanted in summer or in winter, the main features of the
work were always the same for the same epoch. In hiberna, huts of
turf or stone would be substituted for the open tents of the aestiva
(hence _aedificare hiberna_), and in stativa held for long periods
the defences would present a more substantial and finished aspect,
but the general outline and disposition of the parts were invariable.
Polybius has transmitted to us a description of a Roman camp, from
which the annexed plan has been drawn up. It is such as would be
formed at the close of an ordinary day’s march by a regular consular
army consisting of two Roman legions with the full contingent of
Socii. Each legion is calculated at 4200 infantry and 300 cavalry;
the Socii furnished an equal number of infantry, and twice as many
cavalry, so that the whole force would amount to 16,800 foot and
1800 horse. Skill in the selection of a spot for a camp (_capere
locum castris_) was ever considered as a high quality in a general,
and we find it recorded among the praises of the most renowned
commanders that they were wont in person to perform this duty. Under
ordinary circumstances, however, the task was devolved upon one of
the military tribunes, and a certain number of centurions appointed
from time to time for the purpose. These having gone forward in
advance of the army until they reached the place near which it was
intended to halt, and having taken a general survey of the ground,
selected a spot from whence a good view of the whole proposed area
might be obtained. This spot was considerably within the limits of
the contemplated enclosure, and was marked by a small white flag. The
next object was to ascertain in what direction water and fodder might
be most easily and securely provided. These two preliminary points
being decided, the business of measuring out the ground (_metari
castra_) commenced, and was executed, as we learn from various
sources, with graduated rods (_decempedae_) by persons denominated
_metatores_. In practice the most important points were marked by
white poles, some of which bore flags of various colours, so that the
different battalions on reaching the ground could at once discover
the place assigned to them.

[Illustration: A, praetorium.--B, tents of the tribunes.--C, tents
of the praefecti sociorum.--D, street 100 feet wide.--E, F, G, and
H, streets 50 feet wide.--L, select foot and volunteers.--K, select
horse and volunteers.--M, extraordinary horse of the allies.--N,
extraordinary foot of the allies.--O, reserved for occasional
auxiliaries.--Q, the street called Quintana, 50 feet wide.--V P, via
principalis, 100 feet wide.]

The white flag A, which served as the starting point of the
whole construction, marked the position of the consul’s tent, or
_praetorium_, so called because _praetor_ was the ancient term for
any one invested with supreme command. A square area was left open,
extending a hundred feet each way from the praetorium. The camp was
divided into two parts, the upper and the lower. The upper part
formed about a third of the whole. In it was the _praetorium_ (A) or
general’s tent. A part of the praetorium was called the _Augurale_,
as the auguries were there taken by the general. On the right and
left of the praetorium were the _forum_ and _quaestorium_; the former
a sort of market-place, the latter appropriated to the quaestor and
the camp stores under his superintendence. On the sides of and facing
the forum and quaestorium, were stationed select bodies of horse
(K) taken from the extraordinaries, with mounted volunteers, who
served out of respect to the consul, and were stationed near him. And
parallel to these were posted similar bodies of foot-soldiers (L).
Before the quaestorium and the forum were the tents of the twelve
tribunes of the two legions (B), and before the select bodies of
horse and infantry the tents of the praefecti sociorum were probably
placed (C). Again, behind the praetorium, the quaestorium, and the
forum, ran a street or _via_ (D), 100 feet broad, from one side of
the camp to the other. Along the upper side of this street was ranged
the main body of the “extraordinary” horse (M): they were separated
into two equal parts by a street fifty feet broad (E). At the back
of this body of cavalry was posted a similar body of infantry (N),
selected from the allies, and facing the opposite way, _i.e._ towards
the ramparts of the camp. The vacant spaces (O) on each side of these
troops were reserved for foreigners and occasional auxiliaries.
The lower part of the camp was divided from the upper by a street,
called the _Via Principalis_ (V P), or _Principia_, a hundred feet
broad. Here the tribunal of the general was erected, from which he
harangued the soldiers, and here the tribunes administered justice.
Here also the principal standards, the altars of the gods, and the
images of the emperors were placed. The lower part of the camp was
occupied by the two legions and the troops of the allies according
to the arrangement of the preceding cut. Between the ramparts and
the tents was left a vacant space of 200 feet on every side, which
was useful for many purposes: thus it served for the reception of
any booty that was taken, and facilitated the entrance and exit of
the army. The camp had four gates, one at the top and bottom, and
one at each of the sides; the top or back-gate, which was the side
most away from the enemy, was called the _decumana_. The bottom or
the front gate was the _practoria_, the gates of the sides were the
_porta principalis dextra_, and the _porta principalis sinistra_. The
whole camp was surrounded by a trench (_fossa_), generally nine feet
deep and twelve broad, and a rampart (_vallum_) made of the earth
that was thrown up (_agger_), with stakes (_valli_) fixed at the
top of it. The labour of this work was so divided, that the allies
completed the two sides of the camp alongside of which they were
stationed, and the two Roman legions the rest.--In describing the
Roman camp and its internal arrangements, we have confined ourselves
to the information given by Polybius, which, of course, applies only
to his age, and to armies constituted like those he witnessed. When
the practice of drawing up the army according to cohorts, ascribed
to Marius or Caesar [EXERCITUS], had superseded the ancient division
into maniples, and the distinction of triarii, &c., the internal
arrangements of the camp must have been changed accordingly. In
each legion the tribunes divided themselves into three sections of
two each, and each section in turn undertook for two months the
superintendence of all matters connected with the camp. Out of the
twenty maniples of Principes and Triarii in each legion, two were
appointed to take charge of the broad passage or street called
_Principia_, extending right across the camp in front of the tents
of the tribunes. Of the remaining eighteen maniples of Principes and
Hastati in each legion, three were assigned by lot to each of the six
tribunes, and of these three maniples one in turn rendered each day
certain services to the tribune to whom it was specially attached.
One maniple was selected each day from the whole legionary force,
to keep guard beside the tent of the general. Three sentinels were
usually posted at the tents of the quaestor, and of the legati: and
by night sentinels kept watch at every maniple, being chosen out of
the maniple which they guarded. The Velites mounted guard by day
and by night along the whole extent of the vallum: to them also in
bodies of ten was committed the charge of the gates, while strong
bodies of infantry and cavalry were thrown forward in advance of
each gate, to resist any sudden onset, and give timely notice of the
approach of the enemy.--_Excubiae_; _excubias agere_; _excubare_;
are the general terms used with reference to mounting guard whether
by night or by day. _Vigiliae_; _vigilias agere_; _vigilare_; are
restricted to night duty: _Excubiae_ and _Vigiliae_ frequently
denote not only the service itself, but also the individuals who
performed it. _Stationes_ is used specially to denote the advanced
posts thrown forward in front of the gates. _Custodes_ or _Custodiae_
the parties who watched the gates themselves, _Praesidia_ the
sentinels on the ramparts, but all these words are employed in many
other significations also. The duty of going the rounds (_Vigilias
circuire s. circumire_) was committed to the Equites, and for this
purpose each legion supplied daily four, picked out from each turma
in rotation by the commander of the troop. The eight persons thus
selected decided by lot in which watch they should make their rounds,
two being assigned to each watch. They then repaired to the tribune,
and each individual received a written order specifying the posts
which he was to visit, every post being visited in each watch by one
or other of the two to whom the watch belonged. Sometimes we find
centurions, tribunes, and even the general in chief represented as
going the rounds, but, under ordinary circumstances, the duty was
performed as we have described. The watchword for the night was not
communicated verbally, but by means of a small rectangular tablet
of wood (πλατεῖον ἐπιγεγραμμένον--_tessera_) upon which it was
written.--_Breaking up a Camp._ On the first signal being given by
the trumpet, the tents were all struck and the baggage packed, the
tents of the general and the tribunes being disposed of before the
others were touched. At the second signal the baggage was placed upon
the beasts of burden; at the third, the whole army began to move.

CĂTĂLŎGUS (κατάλογος), the catalogue of those persons in Athens who
were liable to regular military service. At Athens, those persons
alone who possessed a certain amount of property were allowed to
serve in the regular infantry, whilst the lowest class, the thetes,
had not this privilege. [CENSUS.] Thus the former are called οἱ ἐκ
καταλόγου στρατεύοντες, and the latter οἱ ἔξω τοῦ καταλόγου.

CĂTĂPHRACTA. [LORICA.]

CĂTĂPHRACTI (κατάφρακτοι). (1) Heavy-armed cavalry, the horses
of which were also covered with defensive armour. Among many of
the Eastern nations, who placed their chief dependence upon their
cavalry, we find horses protected in this manner; but among the
Romans we do not read of any troops of this description till the
later times of the empire, when the discipline of the legions was
destroyed, and the chief dependence began to be placed on the
cavalry. This species of troops was common among the Persians from
the earliest times, from whom it was adopted by their Macedonian
conquerors. They were called by the Persians _clibanarii_.--(2)
Decked vessels, in opposition to _Aphracti_.

CĂTĂPĪRĀTĒR (καταπειρατηρία, βολίς), the lead used in sounding (ἐν τῷ
βολίζειν), or fathoming the depth of water in navigation. The mode of
employing this instrument appears to have been precisely the same as
that now in use.

CĂTĂPULTA. [TORMENTUM.]

CĂTĂRACTA (καταῤῥάκτης), a portcullis, so called because it fell with
great force and a loud noise. It was an additional defence, suspended
by iron rings and ropes, before the gates of a city, in such a manner
that, when the enemy had come up to the gates, the portcullis might
be let down so as to shut them in, and to enable the besieged to
assail them from above.

CĂTEIA, a missile used in war by the Germans, Gauls, and some of the
Italian nations, supposed to resemble the ACLIS.

CĂTĒNA, dim. CĂTELLA (ἄλυσις, dim. ἀλύσιον, ἀλυσίδιον), a chain.
The chains which were of superior value, either on account of the
material or the workmanship, are commonly called _catellae_ (ἀλύσια),
the diminutive expressing their fineness and delicacy as well as
their minuteness. The specimens of ancient chains which we have in
bronze lamps, in scales, and in ornaments for the person, especially
necklaces, show a great variety of elegant and ingenious patterns.
Besides a plain circle or oval, the separate link is often shaped
like the figure 8, or is a bar with a circle at each end, or assumes
other forms, some of which are here shown. The links are also found
so closely entwined, that the chain resembles platted wire or thread,
like the gold chains now manufactured at Venice. This is represented
in the lowest figure of the woodcut.

[Illustration: Ancient Chains.]

CĂTERVĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.]

[Illustration: Cathedra. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]

CĂTHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more particularly applied to a soft
seat used by women, whereas _sella_ signified a seat common to both
sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt, of various forms and sizes; but
they usually appear to have had backs to them. On the cathedra in the
annexed cut is seated a bride, who is being fanned by a female slave
with a fan made of peacock’s feathers. Women were also accustomed to
be carried abroad in these cathedrae instead of in lecticae, which
practice was sometimes adopted by effeminate persons of the other
sex. The word cathedra was also applied to the chair or pulpit from
which lectures were read.

CĂTĪNUS, or CĂTĪNUM, a large dish, on which fish and meat were served
up at table. Hence Horace speaks of an _angustus catinus_ as an
indication of niggardliness on the part of the host.

CĂVAEDĬUM. [DOMUS.]

CĂVĔA. [THEATRUM.]

CAUPŌNA. (1) An inn, where travellers obtained food and lodging; in
which sense it answered to the Greek words πανδοκεῖον, καταγώγιον,
and κατάλυσις. Inns for the accommodation of persons of all classes
existed among the Greeks and Romans, although they were not equal
either in size or convenience to similar places in modern times.
An inn was also called _taberna_ and _taberna diversoria_, or
simply _diversorium_ or _deversorium_.--(2) A shop, where wine
and ready-dressed meat were sold, thus corresponding to the Greek
καπηλεῖον. The person who kept a caupona was called _caupo_. In
Greek κάπηλος signifies in general a retail trader, who sold goods
in small quantities; but the word is more particularly applied to
a person who sold ready-dressed provisions, and especially wine in
small quantities. In these καπηλεῖα only persons of the very lowest
class were accustomed to eat and drink. In Rome itself there were, no
doubt, inns to accommodate strangers; but these were probably only
frequented by the lower classes, since all persons in respectable
society could easily find accommodation in the houses of their
friends. There were, however, in all parts of the city, numerous
houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold. The houses
where persons were allowed to eat and drink were usually called
_popinae_ and not _cauponae_; and the keepers of them, _popae_. They
were principally frequented by slaves and the lower classes, and
were consequently only furnished with stools to sit upon instead of
couches. The _Thermopolia_, where the _calida_ or warm wine and water
was sold, appear to have been the same as the _popinae_. Many of
these popinae were little better than the _lupanaria_ or brothels;
whence Horace calls them _immundas popinas_. The _ganeae_, which are
sometimes mentioned in connection with the _popinae_, were brothels,
whence they are often classed with the _lustra_. Under the emperors
many attempts were made to regulate the popinae, but apparently
with little success. All persons who kept inns or houses of public
entertainment of any kind were held in low estimation both among
the Greeks and Romans. They appear to have fully deserved the bad
reputation which they possessed, for they were accustomed to cheat
their customers by false weights and measures, and by all the means
in their power.

CAUSĬA (καυσία), a hat with a broad brim, which was made of felt, and
worn by the Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in the annexed figure.
The Romans adopted it from the Macedonians.

[Illustration: Causia, Hat. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]

CAUTĬO, CĂVĒRE. These words are of frequent occurrence, and have a
great variety of significations, according to the matter to which
they refer. Their general signification is that of security given by
one person to another, or security which one person obtains by the
advice or assistance of another. The _cautio_ was most frequently a
writing, which expressed the object of the parties to it; accordingly
the word cautio came to signify both the instrument (_chirographum_
or _instrumentum_) and the object which it was the purpose of the
instrument to secure. Cicero uses the expression _cautio chirographi
mei_. The phrase _cavere aliquid alicui_ expressed the fact of one
person giving security to another as to some particular thing or act.
The word _cautio_ was also applied to the release which a debtor
obtained from his creditor on satisfying his demand; in this sense
cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; it is the debtor’s security
against the same demand being made a second time. Thus _cavere ab
aliquo_ signifies to obtain this kind of security. _Cavere_ is also
applied to express the professional advice and assistance of a lawyer
to his client for his conduct in any legal matter. _Cavere_ and its
derivatives are also used to express the provisions of a law, by
which any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the phrase, _Cautum
est lege_, &c. It is also used to express the words in a will, by
which a testator declares his wish that certain things should be done
after his death.

CĔADAS or CAEADAS (κεάδας or καιάδας), a deep cavern or chasm, like
the Barathron at Athens, into which the Spartans were accustomed to
thrust persons condemned to death.

CĔLĔRES, are said by Livy to have been three hundred horsemen,
who formed the body-guard of Romulus both in peace and war. There
can, however, be little doubt that these Celeres were not simply
the body-guard of the king, but were the same as the equites,
or horsemen, a fact which is expressly stated by some writers.
[EQUITES.] The etymology of Celeres is variously given. Some writers
derived it from their leader Celer, who was said to have slain Remus,
but most writers connected it with the Greek κέλης, in reference to
the quickness of their service. The Celeres were under the command
of a _Tribunus Celerum_, who stood in the same relation to the king
as the magister equitum did in a subsequent period to the dictator.
He occupied the second place in the state, and in the absence of the
king had the right of convoking the comitia. Whether he was appointed
by the king, or elected by the comitia, has been questioned, but the
former is the more probable.

CELLA, in its primary sense, means a store-room of any kind. Of these
there were various descriptions, which took their distinguishing
denominations from the articles they contained, as, for instance,
the _cella penuaria_ or _penaria_, the _cella olearia_ and _cella
vinaria_. The slave to whom the charge of these stores was intrusted,
was called _cellarius_, or _promus_, or _condus_, “quia _promit_ quod
_conditum est_,” and sometimes _promus condus_ and _procurator peni_.
This answers to our butler and housekeeper. Any number of small rooms
clustered together like the cells of a honeycomb were also termed
_cellae_; hence the dormitories of slaves and menials are called
_cellae_, and _cellae familiaricae_, in distinction to a bed-chamber,
which was _cubiculum_. Thus a sleeping-room at a public-house is
also termed _cella_. _Cella ostiarii_, or _janitoris_, is the
porter’s lodge. In the baths the _cella caldaria_, _tepidaria_, and
_frigidaria_, were those which contained respectively the warm,
tepid, and cold bath. [BALNEAE.] The interior of a temple, that is
the part included within the outside shell (σηκός), was also called
_cella_. There was sometimes more than one _cella_ within the same
peristyle or under the same roof, in which case each cell took
the name of the deity whose statue it contained, as _cella_ Jovis,
_cella_ Junonis, _cella_ Minervae, as in the temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline.

CĔNOTĂPHĬUM, a cenotaph (κενός and τάφος), was an empty or honorary
tomb, erected as a memorial of a person whose body was buried
elsewhere, or not found for burial at all.

CENSOR (τιμητής), the name of two magistrates of high rank in the
Roman republic. Their office was called _Censura_ (τιμητεία or
τιμητία). The _Census_, which was a register of Roman citizens and
of their property, was first established by Servius Tullius, the
fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings it was taken
by the consuls; and special magistrates were not appointed for the
purpose of taking it till the year B.C. 443. The reason of this
alteration was owing to the appointment in the preceding year of
tribuni militum with consular power in place of the consuls; and
as these tribunes might be plebeians, the patricians deprived the
consuls, and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of
the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates,
called _Censores_, who were to be chosen exclusively from the
patricians. The magistracy continued to be a patrician one till B.C.
351, when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian censor. Twelve
years afterwards, B.C. 339, it was provided by one of the Publilian
laws, that one of the censors must necessarily be a plebeian, but it
was not till B.C. 280 that a plebeian censor performed the solemn
purification of the people (_lustrum condidit_). In B.C. 131 the two
censors were for the first time plebeians.--The censors were elected
in the comitia centuriata held under the presidency of a consul. As
a general principle, the only persons eligible to the office were
those who had previously been consuls; but a few exceptions occur.
At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second
time; but the only person, who was twice elected to the office, was
C. Marcius Rutilus in B.C. 265; and he brought forward a law in this
year, enacting that no one should be chosen censor a second time, and
received in consequence the surname of Censorinus.--The censorship
is distinguished from all other Roman magistracies by the length of
time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen
for a whole lustrum, that is, a period of five years; but their
office was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after
its institution (B.C. 433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius
Mamercinus. The censors also held a very peculiar position with
respect to rank and dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon them,
and accordingly they had no lictors. The _jus censurae_ was granted
to them by a _lex centuriata_, and not by the curiae, and in that
respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. But
notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest
dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was
a _sanctus magistratus_, to which the deepest reverence was due.
They possessed of course the sella curulis. The funeral of a censor
was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a
_funus censorium_ was voted even to the emperors.--The censorship
continued in existence for 421 years, namely, from B.C. 443 to
B.C. 22; but during this period many lustra passed by without any
censor being chosen at all. Its power was limited by one of the
laws of the tribune Clodius (B.C. 58). After the year B.C. 22 the
emperors discharged the duties of the censorship under the name of
_Praefectura Morum_.--The duties of the censors may be divided into
three classes, all of which were however closely connected with
one another: I. _The Census_, or register of the citizens and of
their property, in which were included the _lectio senatus_, and
the _recognitio equitum_; II. _The Regimen Morum_; and III. _The
administration of the finances of the state_, under which were
classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection
of all new public works.--I. The CENSUS, the first and principal
duty of the censors, for which the proper expression is _censum
agere_, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year
B.C. 435 in a special building called _Villa Publica_. After the
auspicia had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier
(_praeco_) to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up
separately, and every paterfamilias had to appear in person before
the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs. The census was
conducted _ad arbitrium censoris_; but the censors laid down certain
rules, sometimes called _leges censui censendo_, in which mention
was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census,
and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these
laws each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family,
and of his property upon oath, _ex animi sententia_. First he had
to give his full name (_praenomen_, _nomen_, and _cognomen_) and
that of his father, or if he were a freedman that of his patron,
and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked,
_Tu, ex animi tui sententia, uxorem habes?_ and if married he had
to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and
ages of his children, if any. Single women (_viduae_) and orphans
(_orbi orbaeque_) were represented by their tutores; their names
were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the
sum total of capita. After a citizen had stated his name, age,
family, &c., he then had to give an account of all his property,
so far as it was subject to the census. In making this statement
he was said _censere_ or _censeri_, as a deponent, “to value or
estimate himself,” or as a passive “to be valued or estimated:”
the censor, who received the statement, was also said _censere_,
as well as _accipere censum_. Only such things were liable to the
census (_censui censendo_) as were property _ex jure Quiritium_. Land
formed the most important article in the census; next came slaves and
cattle. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return
of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing,
jewels, and carriages. We can hardly doubt that the censors possessed
the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the
citizens themselves had put. The tax (_tributum_) was usually one
per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors;
but on one occasion the censors, as a punishment, compelled a person
to pay eight per thousand (_octuplicato censu_, Liv. iv. 24). A
person who voluntarily absented himself from the census, and thus
became _incensus_, was subject to the severest punishment. It is
probable that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.
After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the
amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the
tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation
of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was
determined by the amount of his property. [COMITIA CENTURIATA.]
These lists formed a most important part of the _Tabulae Censoriae_,
under which name were included all the documents connected in any
way with the discharge of the censors’ duties. These lists, as far
at least as they were connected with the finances of the state,
were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn; but
the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in
earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, and
in later times the temple of the Nymphs. The censors had also to
make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing lustrum, or till
new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they
considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who
were qualified. [SENATUS.] In the same manner they held a review of
the equites equo publico, and added and removed names as they judged
proper. [EQUITES.] After the lists had been completed, the number of
citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced; and accordingly
we find that, in the account of a census, the number of citizens is
likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as _capita_,
sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and sometimes not;
and hence to be registered in the census was the same thing as _caput
habere_. [CAPUT.]--II. REGIMEN MORUM. This was the most important
branch of the censors’ duties, and the one which caused their office
to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state. It
naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding
unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. They were constituted
the conservators of public and private virtue and morality; they
were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality,
but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and
habits, the _mos majorum_. The proper expression for this branch of
their power was _regimen morum_, which was called in the times of
the empire _cura_ or _praefectura morum_. The punishment inflicted
by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was
called _Nota_ or _Notatio_, or _Animadversio Censoria_. In inflicting
it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of
duty; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through
partiality nor favour; and in addition to this, they were bound in
every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty
citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him,--_Subscriptio
censoria_. The consequence of such a nota was only _ignominia_ and
not infamia [INFAMIA], and the censorial verdict was not a _judicium_
or res _judicata_, for its effects were not lasting, but might be
removed by the following censors, or by a lex. A nota censoria was
moreover not valid, unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was
thus only a transitory capitis deminutio, which does not appear even
to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not
disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy,
for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the
Roman armies. This superintendence of the conduct of Roman citizens
extended so far, that it embraced the whole of the public and private
life of the citizens. Thus we have instances of their censuring
or punishing persons for not marrying, for breaking a promise of
marriage, for divorce, for bad conduct during marriage, for improper
education of children, for living in an extravagant and luxurious
manner, and for many other irregularities in private life. Their
influence was still more powerful in matters connected with the
public life of the citizens. Thus we find them censuring or punishing
magistrates who were forgetful of the dignity of their office or
guilty of bribery, as well as persons who were guilty of improper
conduct towards magistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their
duties both in civil and military life. The punishments inflicted
by the censors are generally divided into four classes:--1. _Motio_
or _ejectio e senatu_, or the exclusion of a man from the number of
senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the
list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded
from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. The censors
in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished
to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over
the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the
expression _praeteriti senatores_ is equivalent to _e senatu ejecti_.
2. The _ademptio equi_, or the taking away the equus publicus from
an eques. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined
with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank
of an aerarian. [EQUITES.] 3. The _motio e tribu_, or the exclusion
of a person from his tribe. If the further degradation to the rank
of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always
expressly stated. 4. The fourth punishment was called _referre in
aerarios_ or _facere aliquem aerarium_, and might be inflicted on any
person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. [AERARII.]--III.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE FINANCES OF THE STATE, was another part
of the censors’ office. In the first place the _tributum_, or
property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount
of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the
regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the
censors. [TRIBUTUM.] They also had the superintendence of all the
other revenues of the state, the _vectigalia_, such as the tithes
paid for the public lands, the salt-works, the mines, the customs,
&c. [VECTIGALIA.] All these branches of the revenue the censors
were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a
lustrum or five years. The act of letting was called _venditio_ or
_locatio_, and seems to have taken place in the month of March. The
censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the
concurrence of the senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even of
selling the land belonging to the state. The censors, however, did
not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid
into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the
senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which
employed the quaestors as its officers. [AERARIUM; SENATUS.]--In one
important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure
of the public money; though the actual payments were no doubt made
by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of
all the public buildings and works (_opera publica_); and to meet
the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate
voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which
they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ
according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and
all other public buildings were in a good state of repair (_aedes
sacras tueri_ and _sarta tecta exigere_), that no public places
were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (_loca
tueri_), and that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &c. were properly
attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them
in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to
the lowest bidder. The persons who undertook the contract were called
_conductores_, _mancipes_, _redemptores_, _susceptores_, &c.; and the
duties they had to discharge were specified in the _Leges Censoriae_.
The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the
worship of the gods. In these respects it is not easy to define
with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles:
but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the
aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had
reference to all financial matters.--After the censors had performed
their various duties and taken the census, the _lustrum_ or solemn
purification of the people followed. When the censors entered upon
their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this
purification (_lustrum facere_ or _condere_), but both censors were
obliged of course to be present at the ceremony. [LUSTRUM.]--In the
Roman and Latin colonies and in the municipia there were censors,
who likewise bore the name of _quinquennales_. They are spoken of
under COLONIA. A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even
under the republic; but there seems to have been no general census
taken in the provinces till the time of Augustus. At Rome the census
still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies
connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the
lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian.--The word
_census_, besides the meaning of “valuation” of a person’s estate,
has other significations, which must be briefly mentioned: 1. It
signified the amount of a person’s property, and hence we read of
_census senatorius_, the estate of a senator; _census equestris_, the
estate of an eques. 2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax which
depended upon the valuation in the census.

CENSUS.--(1) GREEK.--The Greek term for a man’s property as
ascertained by the census, as well as for the act of ascertaining
it, is τίμημα. The only Greek state concerning whose arrangement
of the census we have any satisfactory information, is Athens.
Previous to the time of Solon no census had been instituted at
Athens. According to his census, all citizens were divided into four
classes: 1. _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), or persons
possessing landed property which yielded an annual income of at least
500 medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς), i.e.
knights or persons able to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands
yielded an annual produce of at least 300 medimni, whence they are
also called τριακοσιομέδιμνοι. 3. _Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), i.e. persons
able to keep a yoke of oxen (ζεῦγος), were those whose annual income
consisted of at least 150 medimni. 4. The _Thetes_ (Θῆτες) contained
all the rest of the free population, whose income was below that of
the Zeugitae. The constitution of Athens, so long as it was based
upon these classes, was a timocracy (τιμοκρατία, or ἀπὸ τιμημάτων
πολιτεία). The highest magistracy at Athens, or the archonship,
was at first accessible only to persons of the first class,
until Aristides threw all the state offices open to all classes
indiscriminately. The maintenance of the republic mainly devolved
upon the first three classes, the last being exempted from all taxes.
As the land in the legislation of Solon was regarded as the capital
which yielded an annual income, he regulated his system of taxation
by the value of the land, which was treated as the taxable capital.
Lists of this taxable property (ἀπογραφαί) were kept at first by
the naucrari, who also had to conduct the census, and afterwards
by the demarchi.--As property is a fluctuating thing, the census
was repeated from time to time, but the periods differed in the
various parts of Greece, for in some a census was held every year,
and in others every two or four years. At Athens every person had to
state the amount of his property, and if there was any doubt about
his honesty, it seems that a counter-valuation (ἀντιτίμησις) might
be made. This system of taxation according to classes, and based
upon the possession of productive estates, underwent a considerable
change in the time of the Peloponnesian war, though the divisions
into classes themselves continued to be observed for a considerable
time after. As the wants of the republic increased, and as many
citizens were possessed of large property, without being landed
proprietors, the original land-tax was changed into a property-tax.
This property-tax was called εἰσφορά, concerning which see EISPHORA.
Compare LEITURGIAE; and for the taxes paid by resident aliens,
METOICI.--(2) ROMAN. [CENSOR.]

CENTESĬMA, namely _pars_, or the hundredth part, also called
_vectigal rerum venalium_, or _centesima rerum venalium_, was a tax
of one per cent. levied at Rome and in Italy upon all goods that were
exposed for public sale at auctions. It was collected by persons
called _coactores_. This tax was perhaps introduced after the civil
war between Marius and Sulla. Its produce was assigned by Augustus
to the _aerarium militare_. Tiberius reduced the tax to one half
per cent. (_ducentesima_), after he had changed Cappadocia into
a province, and had thereby increased the revenue of the empire.
Caligula in the beginning of his reign abolished the tax altogether
for Italy.

CENTUMVĬRI, were judices, who resembled other judices in this
respect, that they decided cases under the authority of a
magistratus; but they differed from other judices in being a definite
body or collegium. This collegium seems to have been divided into
four parts, each of which sometimes sat by itself. The origin of
the court is unknown. According to an ancient writer, three were
chosen out of each tribe, and consequently the whole number out of
the 35 tribes would be 105, who, in round numbers, were called the
hundred men. If the centumviri were chosen from the tribes, this
seems a strong presumption in favour of the high antiquity of the
court. It was the practice to set up a spear in the place where
the centumviri were sitting, and accordingly the word _hasta_, or
_hasta centumviralis_, is sometimes used as equivalent to the words
_judicium centumvirale_. The praetor presided in this court. The
jurisdiction of the centumviri was chiefly confined to civil matters,
but it appears that crimina sometimes came under their cognizance.
The younger Pliny, who practised in this court, makes frequent
allusions to it in his letters.

CENTŬRĬA. [EXERCITUS; COMITIA.]

CENTŬRĬĀTA CŎMĪTĬA. [COMITIA.]

CENTŬRĬO. [EXERCITUS.]

CENTUSSIS. [As.]

CĒRA (κηρός), wax. For its employment in painting, see PICTURA;
and for its application as a writing material, see TABULAE and
TESTAMENTUM.

CĔRĔĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Ceres, whose
wanderings in search of her lost daughter Proserpine were represented
by women, clothed in white, running about with lighted torches.
During its continuance, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus,
the spectators of which appeared in white; but on any occasion of
public mourning the games and festivals were not celebrated at all,
as the matrons could not appear at them except in white. The day
of the Cerealia is doubtful; some think it was the ides or 13th of
April, others the 7th of the same month.

CĔRĔVĪSĬA, CERVĪSĬA (ζύθος), ale or beer, was almost or altogether
unknown to the Greeks and Romans; but it was used very generally by
the surrounding nations, whose soil and climate were less favourable
to the growth of vines. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians
commonly drank “barley wine;” and Diodorus Siculus says that the
Egyptian beer was nearly equal to wine in strength and flavour. The
Iberians and Thracians, and the people in the north of Asia Minor,
instead of drinking their beer out of cups, placed it before them in
a large bowl or vase, which was sometimes of gold or silver. This
being full to the brim with the grains, as well as the fermented
liquor, the guests, when they pledged one another, drank together
out of the same bowl by stooping down to it, although, when this
token of friendship was not intended, they adopted the more refined
method of sucking up the fluid through tubes of cane. The Suevi and
other northern nations offered to their gods libations of beer, and
expected that to drink it in the presence of Odin would be among the
delights of Valhalla.

CĒRŌMA (κήρωμα), the oil mixed with wax (κηρός) with which wrestlers
were anointed; also the place where they were anointed, and, in later
times, the place where they wrestled.

CĔRŪCHI. [NAVIS.]

CESTRUM. [PICTURA.]

CESTUS. (1) The thongs or bands of leather, which were tied round
the hands of boxers, in order to render their blows more powerful
(ἱμάντες, or ἱμάντες πυκτικοί). The cestus was used by boxers in the
earliest times, and is mentioned in the Iliad; but in the heroic
times it consisted merely of thongs of leather, and differed from the
cestus used in later times in the public games, which was a most
formidable weapon, being frequently covered with knots and nails, and
loaded with lead and iron.--(2) A band or tie of any kind, but more
particularly the zone or girdle of Venus, on which was represented
every thing that could awaken love.

[Illustration: Cestus. (Fabretti, de Col. Traj., p. 261.)]

CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, _i.e._ a small round shield, made of the
hide of a quadruped. It formed part of the defensive armour of the
Osci, and of the people of Spain, Mauritania, and Britain, and seems
to have been much the same as the target of the Scotch Highlanders.
The Romans do not appear to have used the cetra; but we find mention
of _cetratae cohortes_ levied in the provinces. Livy compares it to
the _pelta_ of the Greeks and Macedonians, which was also a small
light shield.

CHALCĬOĒCĬA (χαλκιοίκια), an annual festival, with sacrifices, held
at Sparta in honour of Athena, surnamed _Chalcioecus_ (Χαλκίοικος),
i.e. the goddess of the brazen-house. Young men marched on the
occasion in full armour to the temple of the goddess; and the ephors,
although not entering the temple, but remaining within its sacred
precincts, were obliged to take part in the sacrifice.

CHALCUS (χαλκοῦς), a denomination of Greek copper-money. Bronze or
copper (χαλκός) was very little used by the Greeks for money till
after the time of Alexander the Great. The χαλκία πονηρὰ at Athens
issued in B.C. 406 were a peculiar exception; and they were soon
afterwards called in, and the silver currency restored. It is not
improbable, however, that the copper coin called χαλκοῦς was in
circulation in Athens still earlier. The smallest silver coin at
Athens was the quarter-obol, and the χαλκοῦς was the half of that, or
the eighth of an obol. Its value was somewhat more than 3-4ths of a
farthing. The χαλκοῦς in later times was divided into lepta, of which
it contained seven. In later times the obol was coined of copper as
well as silver.

CHĂRISTĬA (from χαρίζομαι, to grant a favour or pardon), a solemn
feast among the Romans, to which none but relations and members
of the same family were invited, in order that any quarrel or
disagreement which had arisen amongst them might be made up. The day
of celebration was the 19th of February.

CHEIRŎNŎMĬA (χειρονομία), a mimetic movement of the hands, which
formed a part of the art of dancing among the Greeks and Romans. In
gymnastics it was applied to the movements of the hands in pugilistic
combat.

CHEIRŎTŎNĬA (χειροτονία). In the Athenian assemblies two modes
of voting were practised, the one by pebbles (ψηφίζεσθαι), the
other by a show of hands (χειροτονεῖν). The latter was employed in
the election of those magistrates who were chosen in the public
assemblies, and who were hence called χειροτονητοί, in voting upon
laws, and in some kinds of trials on matters which concerned the
people. We frequently find, however, the word ψηφίζεσθαι used where
the votes were really given by show of hands. The manner of voting
by a show of hands was as follows:--The herald said: “Whoever thinks
that Meidias is guilty, let him lift up his hand.” Then those who
thought so stretched forth their hands. Then the herald said again:
“Whoever thinks that Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his
hand;” and those who were of this opinion stretched forth their
hands. The number of hands was counted each time by the herald; and
the president, upon the herald’s report, declared on which side the
majority voted. It is important to understand clearly the compounds
of this word. A vote condemning an accused person is καταχειροτονία:
one acquitting him, ἀποχειροτονία; ἐπιχειροτονεῖν is to confirm by
a majority of votes: ἐπιχειροτονία τῶν νομῶν was a revision of the
laws, which took place at the beginning of every year: ἐπιχειροτονία
τῶν ἀρχῶν was a vote taken in the first assembly of each prytany on
the conduct of the magistrates; in these cases, those who voted for
the confirmation of the law, or for the continuance in office of
the magistrate, were said ἐπιχειροτονεῖν, those on the other side
ἀποχειροτονεῖν: διαχειροτονία is a vote for one of two alternatives:
ἀντιχειροτονεῖν, to vote against a proposition. The compounds of
ψηφίζεσθαι have similar meanings.

CHĪRŎGRĂPHUM (χειρόγραφον), meant first, as its derivation implies, a
hand-writing or autograph. In this its simple sense, χείρ in Greek and
_manus_ in Latin are often substituted for it. From this meaning was
easily derived that of a signature to a will or other instrument,
especially a note of hand given by a debtor to his creditor.

CHITON (χιτών). [TUNICA.]

CHLAENA (χλαῖνα). [PALLIUM.]

[Illustration: Chlamys. (The Figure on the left from a Painting on a
Vase; that on the right from the Brit. Mus.)]

CHLĂMỸS (χλαμύς, _dim._ χλαμύδιον), a scarf, denoted an article of
the _amictus_, or outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for the most
part woollen; and it differed from the _himation_ (ἱμάτιον), or
cloak, the usual amictus of the male sex, in being smaller, finer,
and oblong instead of square, its length being generally about twice
its breadth. The scarf does not appear to have been much worn by
children. It was generally assumed on reaching adolescence, and was
worn by the ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years of age, and
hence was called χλαμὺς ἐφηβηική. It was also worn by the military,
especially of high rank, over their body armour, and by hunters and
travellers, more particularly on horseback. The usual mode of wearing
the scarf was to pass one of its shorter sides round the neck, and
to fasten it by means of a brooch (_fibula_), either over the breast
(cut, HASTA), in which case it hung down the back, or over the
right shoulder, so as to cover the left arm (cut, CAUSIA). In the
following cut it is worn again in another way. The aptitude of the
scarf to be turned in every possible form around the body, made it
useful even for defence. The hunter used to wrap his chlamys about
his left arm when pursuing wild animals, and preparing to fight with
them. The annexed woodcut exhibits a figure of Neptune armed with the
trident in his right hand, and having a chlamys to protect the left.
When Diana goes to the chase, as she does not require her scarf for
purposes of defence, she draws it from behind over her shoulders,
and twists it round her waist so that the belt of her quiver passes
across it. (See woodcut.) Among the Romans the scarf came more
into use under the emperors. Caligula wore one enriched with gold.
Severus, when he was in the country or on an expedition, wore a scarf
dyed with the coccus.

[Illustration: Chlamys. (Neptune from a Coin, and Diana from a Statue
in the Vatican.)]

CHOENIX (χοῖνιξ), a Greek measure of capacity, the size of which is
differently given; it was probably of different sizes in the several
states. Some writers make it equal to three cotylae (nearly 1½ pints
English); others to four cotylae (nearly 2 pints English); others
again make it eight cotylae (nearly 4 pints English).

CHŎRĒGUS (χορηγός), a person who had to bear the expenses of the
choregia (χορηγία), one of the regularly recurring state burthens
(ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι) at Athens. The choregus was appointed by his
tribe, though we are not informed according to what order. The same
person might serve as choregus for two tribes at once; and after B.C.
412 a decree was passed allowing two persons to unite and undertake a
choregia together. The duties of the choregia consisted in providing
the choruses for tragedies and comedies, the lyric choruses of men
and boys, the pyrrhicists, the cyclic choruses, and the choruses of
flute-players for the different religious festivals at Athens. When
a poet intended to bring out a play, he had to get a chorus assigned
him by the archon [CHORUS], who nominated a choregus to fulfil the
requisite duties. He had first to collect his chorus, and then to
procure a teacher (χοροδιδάσκαλος), whom he paid for instructing the
choreutae. The chorus were generally maintained, during the period
of their instruction, at the expense of the choregus. The choregus
who exhibited the best musical or theatrical entertainment received
as a prize a tripod, which he had the expense of consecrating, and
sometimes he had also to build the monument on which it was placed.
There was a whole street at Athens formed by the line of these
tripod-temples, and called “The Street of the Tripods.”

CHŎRUS (χορός) probably signified originally a company of dancers
dancing in a ring. In later times, a choric performance always
implies the singing or musical recitation of a poetical composition,
accompanied by appropriate dancing and gesticulation, or at least
by a measured march. In all the Dorian states, especially among the
Spartans, choral performances were cultivated with great assiduity.
Various causes contributed to this, as, for example, their universal
employment in the worship of Apollo, the fact that they were not
confined to the men, but that women also took part in them, and that
many of the dances had a gymnastic character given them, and were
employed as a mode of training to martial exercises. [SALTATIO.]
Hence Doric lyric poetry became almost exclusively choral, which
was not the case with the other great school of Greek lyric poetry,
the Aeolian; so that the Doric dialect came to be looked upon as
the appropriate dialect for choral compositions, and Doric forms
were retained by the Athenians even in the choral compositions
which were interwoven with their dramas. The instrument commonly
used in connection with the Doric choral poetry was the cithara.
A great impetus was given to choral poetry by its application to
the dithyramb. This ancient Bacchanalian performance seems to have
been a hymn sung by one or more of an irregular band of revellers,
to the music of the flute. Arion, a contemporary of Periander, was
the first who gave a regular choral form to the dithyramb. This
chorus, which ordinarily consisted of fifty men or youths, danced
in a ring round the altar of Dionysus. Hence such choruses were
termed _cyclic_ (κύκλιοι χοροί). With the introduction of a regular
choral character, Arion also substituted the cithara for the flute.
It was from the dithyramb that the Attic tragedy was developed. For
details see TRAGOEDIA. From the time of Sophocles onwards the regular
number of the chorus in a tragedy was 15; but it is impossible to
arrive at any definite conclusion with regard to the number of the
chorus in the early dramas of Aeschylus. The fact that the number
of the dithyrambic chorus was 50, and that the mythological number
of the Oceanides and Danaides was the same, tempts one to suppose
that the chorus in the Prometheus and the Supplices consisted of
50. Most writers, however, agree in thinking that such a number was
too large to have been employed. The later chorus of 15 was arranged
in a quadrangular form (τετράγωνος). It entered the theatre by the
passage to the right of the spectators. [THEATRUM.] Its entrance
was termed πάροδος; its leaving the stage in the course of the play
μετάστασις; its re-entrance ἐπιπάροδος; its exit ἄφοδος. As it
entered in three lines, with the spectators on its left, the stage on
its right, the middle choreutes of the left row (τρίτος ἀριστέρου)
was the Coryphaeus or Hegemon, who in early times at least was not
unfrequently the choregus himself. Of course the positions first
taken up by the choreutae were only retained till they commenced
their evolutions. To guide them in these, lines were marked upon
the boards with which the orchestra was floored. The flute as well
as the cithara was used as an accompaniment to the choric songs.
The dance of the tragic chorus was called ἐμμέλεια.--The ordinary
number of the chorus in a comedy was 24. Like the tragic chorus it
was arranged in a quadrangular form, and entered the orchestra from
opposite sides, according as it was supposed to come from the city
or from the country. It consisted sometimes half of male and half of
female choreutae. The dance of the comic chorus was the κόρδαξ. In
the Satyric drama the chorus consisted of Satyrs: its number is quite
uncertain. Its dance was called σίκιννις. When a poet intended to
bring forward a play, he had to apply for a chorus (χορὸν αἰτεῖν) to
the archons, to the king archon if the play was to be brought forward
at the Lenaea, to the archon eponymus if at the great Dionysia.
If the play were thought to deserve it, he received a chorus
(χορὸν λαμβάνειν), the expenses of which were borne by a choregus.
[CHOREGUS.] The poet then either trained (διδάσκειν) the chorus
himself, or entrusted that business to a professed chorus trainer
(χοροδιδάσκαλος), who usually had an assistant (ὑποδιδάσκαλος).
For training the chorus in its evolutions there was also an
ὀρχηστοδιδάσκαλος.

CHOUS, or CHOEUS (χοῦς or χοεῦς), was equal to the Roman congius,
and contained six ξέσται, or sextarii (nearly six pints English).
It seems that there was also a smaller measure of the same name,
containing two sextarii (nearly two pints English).

CHRŎNOLŎGĬA (χρονολογία), chronology. The Greeks reckoned their
years generally according to their magistrates, in the early times
according to the years of the reign of their kings, and afterwards
according to their annual magistrates. At Athens the year was called
by the name of one of the nine archons, who from this circumstance
was called ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος, or the archon par excellence; and at
Sparta the years were called after one of the five ephors, who for
this reason was likewise termed ἐπώνυμος. In Argos time was counted
according to the years of the high priestess of Hera, who held her
office for life (ἡρεσίς); and the inhabitants of Elis probably
reckoned according to the Olympic games, which were celebrated every
fifth year during the first full moon which followed after the summer
solstice. Thus there was no era which was used by _all_ the Greeks in
common for the ordinary purposes of life.--Timaeus, who flourished
about B.C. 260, was the first historian who counted the years by
Olympiads, each of which contained four years. The beginning of the
Olympiads is commonly fixed in the year 3938 of the Julian period, or
in B.C. 776. If we want to reduce any given Olympiad to years before
Christ, _e.g._ Ol. 87, we take the number of the Olympiads actually
elapsed, that is, 86, multiply it by 4, and deduct the number
obtained from 776, so that the first year of the 87th Ol. will be the
same as the year 432 B.C. If the number of Olympiads amounts to more
than 776 years, that is, if the Olympiad falls after the birth of
Christ, the process is the same as before, but from the sum obtained
by multiplying the Olympiads by 4, we must deduct the number 776, and
what remains is the number of the years after Christ. As the Olympic
games were celebrated 293 times, we have 293 Olympic cycles, that is,
1172 years, 776 of which fall before, and 396 after Christ.--Some
writers also adopted the Trojan era, the fall of Troy being placed
by Eratosthenes and those who adopted this era, in the year B.C.
1184. After the time of Alexander the Great, several other eras were
introduced in the kingdoms that arose out of his empire. The first
was the Philippic era, sometimes also called the era of Alexander or
the era of Edessa; it began on the 12th of November B.C. 324, the
date of the accession of Philip Arrhidaeus. The second was the era of
the Seleucidae, beginning on the 1st of October B.C. 312, the date
of the victory of Seleucus Nicator at Gaza, and of his re-conquest
of Babylonia. This era was used very extensively in the East. The
Chaldaean era differed from it only by six months, beginning in the
spring of B.C. 311. Lastly, the eras of Antioch, of which there were
three, but the one most commonly used began in November B.C. 49.--The
Romans during the time of the republic reckoned their years by the
names of the consuls, which were registered in the Fasti. Along
with this era there existed another, used only by the historians.
It reckoned the years from the foundation of the city (_ab urbe
condita_); but the year of the foundation of the city was a question
of uncertainty among the Romans themselves. M. Terentius Varro placed
it on the 21st of April in the third year of the 6th Olympiad, that
is, B.C. 753; and this is the era most commonly used. To find out
the year B.C. corresponding to the year A.U.C., subtract the year
A.U.C. from 754; thus 605 A.U.C. = 149 B.C. To find out the year A.D.
corresponding to the year A.U.C., subtract 753 from the year A.U.C.;
thus 767 A.U.C. = 14 A.D.

CHRȲSENDĔTA, costly dishes used by the Romans at their
entertainments, apparently made of silver, with golden ornaments.

CIDĂRIS. [TIARA.]

CINCTUS GABĪNUS. [TOGA.]

CINGŬLUM. [ZONA.]

CĬNĔRĀRĬUS. [CALAMISTRUM.]

CĬNĔRES. [FUNUS.]

CĬNĬFLO. [CALAMISTRUM.]

CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round, but more frequently
rectangular. Cippi were used for various purposes; the decrees of
the senate were sometimes inscribed upon them; and with distances
engraved upon them, they also served as mile-stones. They were,
however, more frequently employed as sepulchral monuments. It was
also usual to place at one corner of the burying-ground a cippus, on
which the extent of the burying-ground was marked, towards the road
(_in fronte_), and backwards to the fields (_in agrum_).

[Illustration: Cippus, in the Vatican.]

CIRCENSES LŪDI. [CIRCUS.]

CIRCĬTŌRES, or CIRCŬĬTŌRES. [CASTRA.]

[Illustration: Ground Plan of the Circus.]

CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had taken the town of Apiolae from
the Latins, he commemorated his success by an exhibition of races
and pugilistic contests in the Murcian valley, between the Palatine
and Aventine hills, around which a number of temporary platforms
were erected by the patres and equites, called _spectacula_,
_fori_, or _foruli_, from their resemblance to the deck of a ship;
each one raising a stage for himself, upon which he stood to view
the games. This course, with its surrounding scaffoldings, was
termed circus; either because the spectators stood round to see
the shows, or because the procession and races went round in a
circuit. Previously, however, to the death of Tarquin, a permanent
building was constructed for the purpose, with regular tiers of
seats in the form of a theatre. To this the name of Circus Maximus
was subsequently given, as a distinction from the Flaminian and
other similar buildings, which it surpassed in extent and splendour;
and hence it is often spoken of as _the_ Circus, without any
distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige now
remains; but this loss is fortunately supplied by the remains of a
small circus on the Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a state
of considerable preservation: it is represented in the annexed cut,
and may be taken as a model of all others. Around the double lines
(A, A) were arranged the seats (_gradus_, _sedilia_, _subsellia_), as
in a theatre, termed collectively the _cavea_; the lowest of which
were separated from the ground by a _podium_, and the whole divided
longitudinally by _praecinctiones_, and diagonally into _cunei_, with
their _vomitoria_ attached to each. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Towards the
extremity of the upper branch of the _cavea_, the general outline
is broken by an outwork (B), which was probably the _pulvinar_, or
station for the emperor, as it is placed in the best situation for
seeing both the commencement and end of the course, and in the most
prominent part of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed
another interruption to the uniform line of seats (C), betokening
also, from its construction, a place of distinction; which might have
been assigned to the person at whose expense the games were given
(_editor spectaculorum_). In the centre of the area was a low wall
(D) running lengthways down the course, which, from its resemblance
to the position of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was termed
_spina_. At each extremity of the spina were placed, upon a base (E,
E), three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape, like cypress trees,
which were called _metae_--the goals. Their situation is distinctly
seen in the cut on p. 89. The most remarkable objects upon the
_spina_ were two columns (F) supporting seven conical balls, which,
from their resemblance to eggs, were called _ova_. Their use was to
enable the spectators to count the number of rounds which had been
run; and they were seven in number, because seven was the number of
the circuits made in each race. As each round was run, one of the
_ova_ was either put up or taken down. An egg was adopted for this
purpose, in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the other extremity of
the spina were two similar columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed
_delphinae_, or _delphinarum columnae_, which do not appear to have
been intended to be removed, but only placed there as corresponding
ornaments to the _ova_; and the figure of the dolphin was selected in
honour of Neptune. These figures are also seen in the cut on p. 89.
At the extremity of the circus in which the two horns of the _cavea_
terminate, were placed the stalls for the horses and chariots (H,
H), commonly called _carceres_, but more anciently the whole line of
building at this end of the circus was termed _oppidum_: hence in the
circus, of which the plan is given above, we find two towers (I, I)
at each end of the _carceres_. The number of _carceres_ is supposed
to have been usually twelve, as in this plan.

[Illustration: Carceres opening of the Gates. (From a marble at
Velletri.)]

[Illustration: Carceres, with Gates open. (Marble in British Museum.)]

They were vaults, closed in front by gates of open wood-work
(_cancelli_), which were opened simultaneously upon the signal
being given, by removing a rope attached to pilasters of the kind
called _Hermae_, placed for that purpose between each stall, upon
which the gates were immediately thrown open by a number of men, as
represented in the preceding woodcut. The cut below represents a set
of four _carceres_, with their _Hermae_, and _cancelli_ open, as
left after the chariots had started; in which the gates are made to
open inwards. The preceding account and woodcuts will be sufficient
to explain the meaning of the various words by which the _carceres_
were designated in poetical language, namely, _claustra_, _crypta_,
_fauces_, _ostia_, _fores carceris_, _repagula_, _limina equorum_.
There were five entrances to the circus; one (L) in the centre of
the carceres, called _porta pompae_, because it was the one through
which the Circensian procession entered, and the others at M, M, N,
and O. At the entrance of the course, exactly in the direction of the
line (J, K), were two small pedestals (_hermuli_) on each side of
the _podium_, to which was attached a chalked rope (_alba linea_),
for the purpose of making the start fair, precisely as is practised
at Rome for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus, when the doors
of the _carceres_ were thrown open, if any of the horses rushed out
before the others, they were brought up by this rope until the whole
were fairly abreast, when it was loosened from one side, and all
poured into the course at once. This line was also called _calx_,
and _creta_. The _metae_ served only to regulate the turnings of
the course, the _alba linea_ answered to the starting and winning
post of modern days.--From this description the Circus Maximus
differed little, except in size and magnificence of embellishment.
The numbers which the Circus Maximus was capable of containing are
computed at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny, and 385,000 by
P. Victor, all of which are probably correct, but have reference
to different periods of its history. Its length, in the time of
Julius Caesar, was three stadia, the width one, and the depth of
the buildings occupied half a stadium. When the Circus Maximus was
permanently formed by Tarquinius Priscus, each of the thirty curiae
had a particular place assigned to it; but as no provision was made
for the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that the Circus
Flaminius was designed for the games of the commonalty, who in early
times chose their tribunes there, on the Flaminian field. However,
in the latter days of the republic, these invidious distinctions
were lost, and all classes sat promiscuously in the circus. The
seats were then marked off at intervals by a line or groove drawn
across them (_linea_), so that the space included between two lines
afforded sitting room for a certain number of spectators. Under the
empire, however, the senators and equites were separated from the
common people. The seat of the emperor (_pulvinar or cubiculum_)
was most likely in the same situation in the Circus Maximus as in
the one above described.--The Circensian games (_Ludi Circenses_)
were first instituted by Romulus, according to the legends, when he
wished to attract the Sabine population to Rome, for the purpose of
furnishing his own people with wives, and were celebrated in honour
of the god Consus, or Neptunus Equestris, from whom they were styled
_Consuales_. But after the construction of the Circus Maximus they
were called indiscriminately _Circenses_, _Romani_, or _Magni_. They
embraced six kinds of games:--I. CURSUS; II. LUDUS TROJAE; III. PUGNA
EQUESTRIS; IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM; V. VENATIO; VI. NAUMACHIA. The two
last were not peculiar to the circus, but were exhibited also in
the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated for them. The games
commenced with a grand procession (_Pompa Circensis_), in which all
those who were about to exhibit in the circus, as well as persons of
distinction, bore a part. The statues of the gods formed the most
conspicuous feature in the show, which were paraded upon wooden
platforms, called _fercula_ and _thensae_. The former were borne
upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints are carried in modern
processions; the latter were drawn along upon wheels.--I. CURSUS,
the races. The carriage usually employed in the circus was drawn
by two or four horses (_bigae_, _quadrigae_). [CURRUS.] The usual
number of chariots which started for each race was four. The drivers
(_aurigae_, _agitatores_) were also divided into four companies, each
distinguished by a different colour, to represent the four seasons of
the year, and called a _factio_: thus _factio prasina_, the green,
represented the spring; _factio russata_, red, the summer; _factio
veneta_, azure, the autumn; and _factio alba_ or _albata_, white,
the winter. Originally there were but two factions, _albata_ and
_russata_, and consequently only two chariots started at each race.
The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went round his
back. This enabled him to throw all his weight against the horses,
by leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced his danger in case
of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was
carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case
of emergency. When all was ready, the doors of the carceres were
flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the _alba linea_
by men called _moratores_ from their duty; the signal for the start
was then given by the person who presided at the games, sometimes by
sound of trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a napkin; whence
the Circensian games are called _spectacula mappae_. The _alba linea_
was then cast off, and the race commenced, the extent of which was
seven times round the _spina_, keeping it always on the left. A
course of seven circuits was termed _unus missus_, and twenty-five
was the number of races run in each day, the last of which was called
_missus aerarius_, because in early times the expense of it was
defrayed by a collection of money (_aes_) made amongst the people.
The victor descended from his car at the conclusion of the race, and
ascended the _spina_, where he received his reward (_bravium_, from
the Greek βραβεῖον), which consisted in a considerable sum of money.

[Illustration: Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)]

The horse-racing followed the same rules as the chariots. The
enthusiasm of the Romans for these races exceeded all bounds. Lists
of the horses (_libella_), with their names and colours, and those
of the drivers, were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each
faction; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out
into open violence and bloody quarrels, until at last the disputes
which originated in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Justinian
his crown.--II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said to have been
invented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback,
and often exhibited by the emperors.--III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET
PEDESTRIS, a representation of a battle, upon which occasions a camp
was formed in the circus.--IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. See ATHLETAE, and
the references to the articles there given.--V. [VENATIO.]--VI.
[NAUMACHIA.]

[Illustration: Cisium. (From monument at Igel, near Treves.)]

CĬSĬUM, a light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two
persons rapidly from place to place. The cisia were quickly drawn
by mules. Cicero mentions the case of a messenger who travelled 56
miles in 10 hours in such vehicles, which were kept for hire at the
stations along the great roads; a proof that the ancients considered
six Roman miles per hour as an extraordinary speed.

[Illustration: Cista. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]

[Illustration]

CISTA (κίστη). (1) A small box or chest, in which anything might
be placed, but more particularly applied to the small boxes which
were carried in procession in the festivals of Demeter and Dionysus.
These boxes, which were always kept closed in the public processions,
contained sacred things connected with the worship of these deities.
In the representations of Dionysiac processions on ancient vases
women carrying cistae are frequently introduced.--(2) The ballot-box,
into which those who voted in the comitia and in the courts of
justice cast their tabellae. It is represented in the annexed cut,
and should not be confounded with the _situla_ or _sitella_, into
which sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.]

CISTŎPHŎRUS (κιστοφόρος), a silver coin, which is supposed to belong
to Rhodes, and which was in general circulation in Asia Minor at the
time of the conquest of that country by the Romans. It took its name
from the device upon it, which was either the sacred chest (_cista_)
of Bacchus, or more probably a flower called κιστός. Its value is
extremely uncertain: some writers suppose it to have been worth in
our money about 7¼_d._

CĬTHĂRA. [LYRA.]

CĪVIS. [CIVITAS.]

CĪVĬTAS, citizenship. (1) GREEK (πολιτεία). Aristotle defines a
citizen (πολίτης) to be one who is a partner in the legislative
and judicial power (μέτοχος κρίσεως καὶ ἀρχῆς). No definition will
equally apply to all the different states of Greece, or to any single
state at different times; the above seems to comprehend more or less
properly all those whom the common use of language entitled to the
name. A state in the heroic ages was the government of a prince; the
citizens were his subjects, and derived all their privileges, civil
as well as religious, from their nobles and princes. The shadows
of a council and assembly were already in existence, but their
business was to obey. Upon the whole the notion of citizenship
in the heroic ages only existed so far as the condition of aliens
or of domestic slaves was its negative. The rise of a dominant
class gradually overthrew the monarchies of ancient Greece. Of
such a class, the chief characteristics were good birth and the
hereditary transmission of privileges, the possession of land, and
the performance of military service. To these characters the names
_gamori_ (γάμοροι), _knights_ (ἱππεῖς), _eupatridae_ (εὐπατρίδαι),
&c. severally correspond. Strictly speaking, these were the only
citizens; yet the lower class were quite distinct from bondmen or
slaves. It commonly happened that the nobility occupied the fortified
towns, while the _demus_ (δῆμος) lived in the country and followed
agricultural pursuits: whenever the latter were gathered within
the walls, and became seamen or handicraftsmen, the difference of
ranks was soon lost, and wealth made the only standard. The quarrels
of the nobility among themselves, and the admixture of population
arising from immigrations, all tended to raise the lower orders from
their political subjection. It must be remembered, too, that the
possession of domestic slaves, if it placed them in no new relation
to the governing body, at any rate gave them leisure to attend to
the higher duties of a citizen, and thus served to increase their
political efficiency. During the convulsions which followed the
heroic ages, naturalisation was readily granted to all who desired
it; as the value of citizenship increased, it was, of course, more
sparingly bestowed. The ties of hospitality descended from the prince
to the state, and the friendly relations of the Homeric heroes
were exchanged for the προξενίαι of a later period. In political
intercourse, the importance of these last soon began to be felt,
and the _Proxenus_ at Athens, in after times, obtained rights only
inferior to actual citizenship. [HOSPITIUM.] The isopolite relation
existed, however, on a much more extended scale. Sometimes particular
privileges were granted: as ἐπιγαμία, the right of intermarriage;
ἔγκτησις, the right of acquiring landed property; ἀτέλεια, immunity
from taxation, especially ἀτέλεια μετοικίου, from the tax imposed on
resident aliens. All these privileges were included under the general
term ἰσοτέλεια, or ἰσοπολίτεια, and the class who obtained them were
called ἰσοτελεῖς. They bore the same burthens with the citizens,
and could plead in the courts or transact business with the people,
without the intervention of a προστάτης, or patron. Respecting
the division of the Athenian citizens into tribes, phratriae and
demes, see the articles TRIBUS and DEMUS.--If we would picture to
ourselves the true notion which the Greeks embodied in the word
_polis_ (πόλις), we must lay aside all modern ideas respecting the
nature and object of a state. With us practically, if not in theory,
the _essential_ object of a state hardly embraces more than the
protection of life and property. The Greeks, on the other hand, had
the most vivid conception of the state as a whole, every part of
which was to co-operate to some great end to which all other duties
were considered as subordinate. Thus the aim of democracy was said to
be liberty; wealth, of oligarchy; and education, of aristocracy. In
all governments the endeavour was to draw the social union as close
as possible, and it seems to have been with this view that Aristotle
laid down a principle which answered well enough to the accidental
circumstances of the Grecian states, that a _polis_ must be of a
certain size. This unity of purpose was nowhere so fully carried out
as in the government of Sparta. The design of Spartan institutions
was evidently to unite the governing body among themselves against
the superior numbers of the subject population. The division of
lands, the syssitia, the education of their youth, all tended to
this great object. [HELOTES; PERIOECI.] In legal rights all Spartans
were equal: but there were yet several gradations, which, when once
formed, retained their hold on the aristocratic feelings of the
people. First, there was the dignity of the Heraclide families;
and, connected with this, a certain pre-eminence of the Hyllean
tribe. Another distinction was that between the _Homoioi_ (ὅμοιοι)
and _Hypomeiones_ (ὑπομείονες), which, in later times, appears
to have been considerable. The latter term probably comprehended
those citizens who, from degeneracy of manners or other causes, had
undergone some kind of civil degradation. To these the _Homoioi_
were opposed, although it is not certain in what the precise
difference consisted. All the Spartan citizens were included in the
three tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes or Dymanatae, and Pamphilians, each
of which was divided into ten obes or phratries. The citizens of
Sparta, as of most oligarchical states, were landowners, although
this does not seem to have been looked upon as an essential of
citizenship.--(2) ROMAN. _Civitas_ means the whole body of _cives_,
or members, of any given state, and the word is frequently used
by the Roman writers to express the rights of a Roman citizen, as
distinguished from those of other persons not Roman citizens, as
in the phrases, _dare civitatem_, _donare civitate_, _usurpare
civitatem_. Some members of a political community (_cives_) may have
more political rights than others; and this was the case at Rome
under the republic, in which we find a distinction made between
two great classes of Roman citizens, one that had, and another
that had not, a share in the sovereign power (_optimo jure_, _non
optimo jure cives_). That which peculiarly distinguished the higher
class, or the _optimo jure cives_, was the right to vote in a tribe
(_jus suffragiorum_), and the capacity of enjoying magistracy (_jus
honorum_). The inferior class, or the _non optimo jure cives_, did
not possess the above rights, which the Romans called _jus publicum_,
but they only had the _jus privatum_, which comprehended the _jus
connubii_ and _jus commercii_, and those who had not these had no
citizenship.--Under the empire we find the free persons who were
within the political limits of the Roman state divided into three
great classes. The same division probably existed in an early period
of the Roman state, and certainly existed in the time of Cicero.
These classes were, _Cives_, _Latini_, and _Peregrini_. _Civis_ is he
who possesses the complete rights of a Roman citizen. _Peregrinus_
was incapable of exercising the rights of _commercium_ and
_connubium_, which were the characteristic rights of a Roman citizen;
but he had a capacity for making all kinds of contracts which were
allowable by the jus gentium. The _Latinus_ was in an intermediate
state; he had not the _connubium_, and consequently he had not the
_patria potestas_ nor rights of agnatio; but he had the _commercium_
or the right of acquiring quiritarian ownership, and he had also a
capacity for all acts incident to quiritarian ownership, as the power
of making a will in Roman form, and of becoming heres under a will.
The rights of a Roman citizen were acquired in several ways, but most
commonly by a person being born of parents who were Roman citizens.
A slave might obtain the civitas by manumission (_vindicta_), by the
census, and by a testamentum, if there was no legal impediment; but
it depended on circumstances whether he became a _civis Romanus_,
a _Latinus_, or in the number of the _peregrini dediticii_.
[MANUMISSIO.] The civitas could be conferred on a foreigner by a lex,
as in the case of Archias, who was a civis of Heraclea, a civitas
which had a foedus with Rome, and who claimed the civitas Romana
under the provisions of a lex of Silvanus and Carbo, B.C. 89. By the
provisions of this lex, the person who chose to take the benefit of
it was required, within sixty days after the passing of the lex, to
signify to the praetor his wish and consent to accept the civitas
(_profiteri_). This lex was intended to give the civitas, under
certain limitations, to foreigners who were citizens of foederate
states (_foederatis civitatibus adscripti_). [FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.]
Thus the great mass of the Italians obtained the civitas, and the
privileges of the former civitates foederatae were extended to the
provinces, first to part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, under the name
of Jus Latii or Latinitas. This Latinitas gave a man the right of
acquiring the Roman citizenship by having exercised a magistratus
in his own civitas; a privilege which belonged to the foederatae
civitates of Italy before they obtained the Roman civitas.

CLĀRĬGĀTĬO. [FETIALES.]

CLASSĬCUM. [CORNU.]

CLĀVUS ANNĀLIS. In the early ages of Rome, when letters were yet
scarcely in use, the Romans kept a reckoning of their years by
driving a nail (_clavus_), on the ides of each September, into the
side walls of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which ceremony
was performed by the consul or a dictator.

CLĀVUS GŬBERNĀCŬLI. [NAVIS.]

CLĀVUS LĀTUS, CLĀVUS ANGUSTUS. The _clavus_, as an article of dress,
seems to have been a purple band worn upon the tunic and toga, and
was of two fashions, one broad and the other narrow, denominated
respectively _clavus latus_ and _clavus angustus_. The former was a
single broad band of purple, extending perpendicularly from the neck
down the centre of the tunic; the latter probably consisted of two
narrow purple slips, running parallel to each from the top to the
bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder. The _latus clavus_ was
a distinctive badge of the senatorian order; and hence it is used to
signify the senatorial dignity, and _laticlavius_, the person who
enjoys it. The _angustus clavus_ was the decoration of the equestrian
order; but the right of wearing the latus clavus was also given to
the children of equestrians, at least in the time of Augustus, as a
prelude to entering the senate-house. This, however, was a matter
of personal indulgence, and was granted only to persons of very
ancient family and corresponding wealth, and then by special favour
of the emperor. In such cases the latus clavus was assumed with the
toga virilis, and worn until the age arrived at which the young
equestrian was admissible into the senate, when it was relinquished
and the angustus clavis resumed, if a disinclination on his part, or
any other circumstances, prevented him from entering the senate, as
was the case with Ovid. But it seems that the latus clavus could be
again resumed if the same individual subsequently wished to become
a senator, and hence a fickle character is designated as one who is
always changing his clavus. The latus clavus is said to have been
introduced at Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and to have been adopted by
him after his conquest of the Etruscans; nor does it appear to have
been confined to any particular class during the earlier periods, but
to have been worn by all ranks promiscuously. It was laid aside in
public mourning.

CLEPSȲDRA. [HOROLOGIUM.]

CLĒRŪCHI (κληροῦχοι), the name of Athenian citizens who occupied
conquered lands; their possession was called _cleruchia_ (κληρουχία).
The Athenian Cleruchi differed from the ἄποικοι or ordinary
colonists. The only object of the earlier colonies was to relieve
surplus population, or to provide a home for those whom internal
quarrels had exiled from their country. Most usually they originated
in private enterprise, and became independent of, and lost their
interest in, the parent state. On the other hand, it was essential
to the very notion of a _cleruchia_ that it should be a public
enterprise, and should always retain a connection more or less
intimate with Athens herself. The connection with the parent state
subsisted in all degrees. Sometimes, as in the case of Lesbos, the
holders of land did not reside upon their estates, but let them to
the original inhabitants, while themselves remained at Athens. The
condition of these cleruchi did not differ from that of Athenian
citizens who had estates in Attica. All their political rights they
not only retained, but exercised as Athenians. Another case was where
the cleruchi resided on their estates, and either with or without
the old inhabitants, formed a new community. These still retained
the rights of Athenian citizens, which distance only precluded them
from exercising: they used the Athenian courts; and if they or their
children wished to return to Athens, naturally and of course they
regained the exercise of their former privileges. Sometimes, however,
the connection might gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi sink into
the condition of mere allies, or separate wholly from the mother
country. It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly indebted for the
extension and permanence of her colonial settlements. His principal
object was to provide for the redundancies of population, and raise
the poorer citizens to a fortune becoming the dignity of Athenian
citizens. It was of this class of persons that the settlers were
chiefly composed; the state provided them with arms, and defrayed the
expenses of their journey. The Cleruchiae were lost by the battle of
Aegospotami, but partially restored on the revival of Athenian power.

CLĒTĒRES or CLĒTORES (κλητῆρες, κλῆτορες), summoners, were at Athens
not official persons, but merely witnesses to the prosecutor that he
had served the defendant with a notice of the action brought against
him, and the day upon which it would be requisite for him to appear
before the proper magistrate.

CLĪBĂNĀRĬI. [CATAPHRACTI.]

CLĬENS is said to contain the same element as the verb _cluere_,
to “hear” or “obey,” and may be accordingly compared with the
German word _höriger_, “a dependant,” from _hören_, “to hear.” In
the earliest times of the Roman state we find a class of persons
called _clientes_, who must not be confounded with the plebeians,
from whom they were distinct. The clients were not slaves: they had
property of their own and freedom, and appear to have had votes in
the comitia centuriata, but they did not possess the full rights of
Roman citizens; and the peculiarity of their condition consisted in
every client being in a state of dependence upon or subjection to
some patrician, who was called his _patronus_, and to whom he owed
certain rights and duties. The patronus, on the other hand, likewise
incurred certain obligations towards his client. This relationship
between patronus and cliens was expressed by the word _clientela_,
which also expressed the whole body of a man’s clients. The relative
rights and duties of the patrons and the clients were, according
to Dionysius, as follows:--The patron was the legal adviser of
the cliens; he was the client’s guardian and protector, as he was
the guardian and protector of his own children; he maintained the
client’s suit when he was wronged, and defended him when another
complained of being wronged by him: in a word, the patron was the
guardian of the client’s interests, both private and public. The
client contributed to the marriage portion of the patron’s daughter,
if the patron was poor; and to his ransom, or that of his children,
if they were taken prisoners; he paid the costs and damages of a suit
which the patron lost, and of any penalty in which he was condemned;
he bore a part of the patron’s expenses incurred by his discharging
public duties, or filling the honourable places in the state. Neither
party could accuse the other, or bear testimony against the other,
or give his vote against the other. This relationship between patron
and client subsisted for many generations, and resembled in all
respects the relationship by blood. The relation of a master to his
liberated slave (_libertus_) was expressed by the word _patronus_,
and the libertus was the cliens of his patronus. Distinguished
Romans were also the protectors of states and cities, which were in
a certain relation of subjection or dependence to Rome. In the time
of Cicero we also find _patronus_ in the sense of adviser, advocate,
or defender, opposed to _cliens_ in the sense of the person defended
or the consultor,--a use of the word which must be referred to the
original character of the patronus.

CLĬENTĒLA. [CLIENS.]

CLĬPĔUS (ἀσπίς), the large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans,
which was originally of a circular form, and is said to have been
first used by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos, and therefore is called
_clipeus Argolicus_, and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is
often represented in Roman sculpture of an oblong oval, which makes
the distinction between the common buckler and that of Argos. The
outer rim was termed ἄντυξ by the Greeks; and in the centre was a
projection called ὀμφάλος or _umbo_, which served as a sort of weapon
by itself, or caused the missiles of the enemy to glance off from the
shield. In the Homeric times, the Greeks merely used a leather strap
(τελαμών) to support the shield, but subsequently a handle (ὄχανον or
ὀχάνη). The usual form of the clipeus is exhibited in the figure of
the Greek warrior on p. 41. When the census was instituted by Servius
Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the _clipeus_, and the
second were armed with the _scutum_ [SCUTUM]; but after the Roman
soldiery received pay, the _clipeus_ was discontinued altogether for
the _scutum_.

CLĪTELLAE, a pair of panniers, and therefore only used in the plural
number.

CLŎĀCA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was intersected by numerous sewers,
some of which were of an immense size: the most celebrated of them
was the _cloaca maxima_, the construction of which is ascribed to
Tarquinius Priscus. It was formed by three tiers of arches, one
within the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular vault
of 14 feet in diameter. The manner of its construction is shown in
the preceding cut. Under the republic, the administration of the
sewers was entrusted to the censors: but under the empire, particular
officers were appointed for that purpose, called _cloacarum
curatores_, who employed condemned criminals in cleansing and
repairing them.

[Illustration: Cloaca Maxima at Rome.]

CŌA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a transparent dress, chiefly worn by
women of loose reputation. It has been supposed to have been made of
silk, because in Cos silk was spun and woven at a very early period.

[Illustration: Coa Vestis. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]

CŎACTOR, the name of collectors of various sorts, _e.g._ the servants
of the publicani, or farmers of the public taxes, who collected
the revenues for them, and those who collected the money from the
purchasers of things sold at a public auction. Horace informs us that
his father was a coactor of this kind. Moreover, the servants of the
money-changers were so called, from collecting their debts for them.
The “coactores agminis” were the soldiers who brought up the rear of
a line of march.

CŎCHLĔA (κοχλίας), which properly means a snail, was also used to
signify other things of a spiral form. (1) A screw, used in working
clothes-presses, and oil and wine presses.--(2) A spiral pump for
raising water, invented by Archimedes, from whom it has ever since
been called the Archimedean screw.--(3) A peculiar kind of door
through which the wild beasts passed from their dens into the arena
of the amphitheatre.

COCHLĔAR. (κοχλιάριον), a kind of spoon, which appears to have
terminated with a point at one end, and at the other was broad and
hollow like our own spoons. The pointed end was used for drawing
snails (_cochleae_) out of their shells, and eating them, whence it
derived its name; and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. Cochlear
was also the name given to a small measure like our spoonful.

CŌDEX, identical with _caudex_, as _Claudius_ and _Clodius_,
_claustrum_ and _clostrum_, _cauda_ and _coda_, originally signified
the trunk or stem of a tree. The name codex was especially applied
to wooden tablets bound together and lined with a coat of wax, for
the purpose of writing upon them, and when, at a later age, parchment
or paper, or other materials were substituted for wood, and put
together in the shape of a book, the name of codex was still given
to them. In the time of Cicero we find it also applied to the tablet
on which a bill was written. At a still later period, during the
time of the emperors, the word was used to express any collection
of laws or constitutions of the emperors, whether made by private
individuals or by public authority, as the _Codex Gregorianus_,
_Codex Theodosianus_, and _Codex Justinianeus_.

COEMPTĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.]

COENA (δεῖπνον), the principal meal of the Greeks and Romans,
dinner. (1) GREEK. Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and
Odyssey--_ariston_ (ἄριστον), _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον), _dorpon_ (δόρπον).
The word _ariston_ uniformly means the early, as _dorpon_ does the
late meal; but _deipnon_, on the other hand, is used for either,
apparently without any reference to time. In the Homeric age it
appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes. Beef, mutton,
and goat’s flesh were the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted.
Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also formed part of the
Homeric meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and salt (ἃλς, to
which Homer gives the epithet θεῖος), are mentioned. The Greeks
of a later age usually partook of three meals, called _acratisma_
(ἀκράτισμα), _ariston_, and _deipnon_. The last, which corresponds
to the _dorpon_ of the Homeric poems, was the evening meal or
dinner; the _ariston_ was the luncheon; and the _acratisma_, which
answers to the _ariston_ of Homer, was the early meal or breakfast.
The _acratisma_ was taken immediately after rising in the morning.
It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed wine (ἄκρατος),
whence it derived its name. Next followed the _ariston_ or luncheon;
but the time at which it was taken is uncertain. It is frequently
mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, and appears to have been taken at
different times, as would naturally be the case with soldiers in
active service. We may conclude from many circumstances that this
meal was taken about the middle of the day, and that it answered
to the Roman _prandium_. The _ariston_ was usually a simple meal,
but of course varied according to the habits of individuals. The
principal meal was the _deipnon_. It was usually taken rather late
in the day, frequently not before sunset. The Athenians were a social
people, and were very fond of dining in company. Entertainments
were usually given, both in the heroic ages and later times, when
sacrifices were offered to the gods, either on public or private
occasions; and also on the anniversary of the birthdays of members
of the family, or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead.
When young men wished to dine together they frequently contributed
each a certain sum of money, called _symbole_ (συμβολή), or brought
their own provisions with them. When the first plan was adopted,
they were said ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν, and one individual was usually
entrusted with the money to procure the provisions, and make all the
necessary preparations. This kind of entertainment, in which each
guest contributed to the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the
name of ἔρανος. An entertainment in which each person brought his own
provisions with him, or at least contributed something to the general
stock, was called a δεῖπνον ἀπὸ σπυρίδος, because the provisions
were brought in baskets.--The most usual kind of entertainments,
however, were those in which a person invited his friends to his own
house. It was expected that they should come dressed with more than
ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the
guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals
were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After their feet
had been washed, the guests reclined on the couches. It has already
been remarked that Homer never describes persons as reclining, but
always as sitting at their meals; but at what time the change was
introduced is uncertain. The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the
other Greeks reclined. The Greek women and children, however, like
the Roman, continued to sit at their meals. [ACCUBATIO.] It was usual
for only two persons to recline on each couch. After the guests had
placed themselves on the couches, the slaves brought in water to
wash their hands. The dinner was then served up; whence we read of
τὰς τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν, by which expression we are to understand not
merely the dishes, but the tables themselves, which were small enough
to be moved with ease. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks,
but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other
liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon, called μυστίλη,
μύστρον, or μύστρος. It would exceed the limits of this work to give
an account of the different dishes which were introduced at a Greek
dinner, though their number is far below those which were usually
partaken of at a Roman entertainment. The most common food among
the Greeks was the μάζα, a kind of frumenty or soft cake, which was
prepared in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the second
most usual species of food; it was sometimes made at home, but more
usually bought at the market of the ἀρτοπῶλαι or ἀρτοπώλιδες. The
vegetables ordinarily eaten were mallows (μαλάχη), lettuces (θρίδαξ),
cabbages (ῥάφανοι), beans (κύαμοι), lentils (φακαῖ), &c. Pork was
the most favourite animal food, as was the case among the Romans.
It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read
in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however,
fish was one of the most favourite foods of the Greeks. A dinner
given by an opulent Athenian usually consisted of two courses, called
respectively πρῶται τράπεζαι and δεύτεραι τράπεζαι. The first course
embraced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish,
poultry, meat, &c.; the second, which corresponds to our dessert
and the Roman _bellaria_, consisted of different kinds of fruit,
sweetmeats, confections, &c. When the first course was finished, the
tables were taken away, and water was given to the guests for the
purpose of washing their hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers
were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes.
Wine was not drunk till the first course was finished; but as soon as
the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a
large goblet, of which each drank a little, after pouring out a small
quantity as a libation. This libation was said to be made to the
“good spirit” (ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος), and was usually accompanied with the
singing of the paean and the playing of flutes. After this libation
mixed wine was brought in, and with their first cup the guests
drank to Διὸς Σωτῆρος. With the libations the _deipnon_ closed; and
at the introduction of the dessert (δεύτεραι τράπεζαι) the πότος,
συμπόσιον or κῶμος commenced, of which an account is given under
SYMPOSIUM.--(2) ROMAN. As the Roman meals are not always clearly
distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most
important one; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of
the ordinary life of the middle ranks of society in the Augustan age,
noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with
which the Roman sometimes began the day was the _jentaculum_, which
was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An
irregular meal (if we may so express it) was not likely to have any
very regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however, seem to fix the
hour at about three or four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed the
substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried
fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the
_prandium_ or luncheon, with persons of simple habits a frugal meal,
usually taken about twelve or one o’clock. The _coena_, or principal
meal of the day, corresponding to our “dinner,” was usually taken
about three o’clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, though we
read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner
at the house of a wealthy man usually consisted of three courses.
The first was called _promulsis_, _antecoena_, or _gustatio_, and
was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs also
were so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a
name to it (_ab ovo usque ad mala_). The frugality of Martial only
allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us
that the _promulsis_ was a refinement of modern luxury. It would far
exceed our limits to mention all the dishes which formed the second
course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (_Afra avis_), the
pheasant (_phasiana_, so called from Phasis, a river of Colchis),
and the thrush, were most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped in
milk, and beccaficos (_ficedulae_) dressed with pepper, were held a
delicacy. The peacock, according to Macrobius, was first introduced
by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and acquired such
repute among the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold for fifty
denarii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck (_anas_), especially
its head and breast; the woodcock (_attagen_), the turtle, and
flamingo (_phoenicopterus_), the tongue of which, Martial tells us,
particularly commended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, the
variety was perhaps still greater; the charr (_scarus_), the turbot
(_rhombus_), the sturgeon (_acipenser_), the mullet (_mullus_), were
highly prized, and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid
meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking
pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in high repute: the former is
described by Juvenal as _animal propter convivia natum_. Condiments
were added to most of these dishes: such were the _muria_, a kind of
pickle made from the tunny fish; the _garum sociorum_, made from the
intestines of the mackerel (_scomber_), so called because brought
from abroad; _alec_, a sort of brine; _faex_, the sediment of wine,
&c. Several kinds of _fungi_ are mentioned, truffles (_boleti_),
mushrooms (_tuberes_), which either made dishes by themselves, or
formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that
the _artistes_ of imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves in the
preparation and arrangements of the table. In a large household, the
functionaries to whom this important duty was entrusted were four,
the butler (_promus_), the cook (_archimagirus_), the arranger of the
dishes (_structor_), and the carver (_carptor_ or _scissor_). Carving
was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with
appropriate gesticulations.

----“minimo sane discrimine refert,
Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.”

In the supper of Petronius, a large round tray (_ferculum_,
_repositorium_) is brought in, with the signs of the zodiac figured
all round it, upon each of which the _artiste_ (_structor_) had
placed some appropriate viand, a goose on Aquarius, a pair of scales
with tarts (_scriblitae_) and cheesecakes (_placentae_) in each scale
on Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive supported by delicate
herbage. Presently four slaves come forward dancing to the sound of
music, and take away the upper part of the dish; beneath appear all
kinds of dressed meats; a hare with wings to imitate Pegasus, in
the middle; and four figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring hot
sauce (_garum piperatum_) over the fish, that were swimming in the
Euripus below. So entirely had the Romans lost all shame of luxury,
since the days when Cincius, in supporting the Fannian law, charged
his own age with the enormity of introducing the _porcus Trojanus_, a
sort of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other animals.--The third
course was the _bellaria_ or dessert, to which Horace alludes when
he says of Tigellius _ab ovo usque ad mala citaret_; it consisted
of fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), such as almonds
(_amygdalae_), dried grapes (_uvae passae_), dates (_palmulae_,
_caryotae_, _dactyli_); of sweetmeats and confections, called _edulia
mellita_, _dulciaria_, such as cheesecakes (_cupediae_, _crustula_,
_liba_, _placentae_, _artolagani_), almond cakes (_coptae_),
tarts (_scriblitae_), whence the maker of them was called _pistor
dulciarius_, _placentarius_, _libarius_, &c. We will now suppose
the table spread and the guests assembled, each with his _mappa_ or
napkin, and in his dinner dress, called _coenatoria_ or _cubitoria_,
usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they
took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often
inlaid with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with cloth of gold.
Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and
supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on
the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honourable.
Around the tables stood the servants (_ministri_) clothed in a tunic,
and girt with napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables
with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands,
or cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind
his master’s couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while
others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests.
Dinner was set out in a room called _coenatio_ or _diaeta_ (which two
words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction
as our dining-room and parlour). The _coenatio_, in rich men’s
houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a
supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre,
with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of
the coenatio were set three couches (_triclinia_), answering in
shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches (_sigmata_) did
to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches,
and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article
TRICLINIUM.

[Illustration: A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)]

COENĀCŬLUM. [DOMUS.]

COENĀTĬO. [COENA.]

COGNĀTI, COGNĀTĬO. The _cognatio_ was the relationship of blood
which existed between those who were sprung from a common pair;
and all persons so related were called _cognati_. The foundation
of _cognatio_ is a legal marriage. The term _cognatus_ (with some
exceptions) comprehends _agnatus_; an _agnatus_ may be a _cognatus_,
but a _cognatus_ is only an _agnatus_ when his relationship by blood
is traced through males. Those who were of the same blood by both
parents were sometimes called _germani_; _consanguinei_ were those
who had a common father only; and _uterini_ those who had a common
mother only.

COGNĬTOR. [ACTIO.]

COGNŌMEN. [NOMEN.]

CŎHORS. [EXERCITUS.]

CŌLĂCRĔTAE (κωλακρέται, also called κωλαγρέται), the name of very
ancient magistrates at Athens, who had the management of all
financial matters in the time of the kings. Cleisthenes deprived them
of the charge of the finances, which he transferred to the Apodectae.
[APODECTAE.] From this time the Colacretae had only to provide for
the meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to pay the fees to the
dicasts, when the practice of paying the dicasts was introduced by
Pericles.

COLLĒGĬUM. The persons who formed a collegium were called _collegae_
or _sodales_. The word collegium properly expressed the notion
of several persons being united in any office or for any common
purpose; it afterwards came to signify a body of persons, and the
union which bound them together. The collegium was the ἑταιρία of
the Greeks. The legal notion of a collegium was as follows:--A
collegium or corpus, as it was also called, must consist of three
persons at least. Persons who legally formed such an association were
said _corpus habere_, which is equivalent to our phrase of being
incorporated; and in later times they were said to be _corporati_,
and the body was called a _corporatio_. Associations of individuals,
who were entitled to have a corpus, could hold property in common.
Such a body, which was sometimes also called a _universitas_, was
a legal unity. That which was due to the body, was not due to the
individuals of it; and that which the body owed, was not the debt
of the individuals. The common property of the body was liable
to be seized and sold for the debts of the body. It does not
appear how collegia were formed, except that some were specially
established by legal authority. Other collegia were probably formed
by voluntary associations of individuals under the provisions of
some general legal authority, such as those of the publicani. Some
of these corporate bodies resembled our companies or guilds; such
were the _fabrorum_, _pistorum_, &c. _collegia_. Others were of a
religious character; such as the _pontificum_, _augurum_, _fratrum
arvalium collegia_. Others were bodies concerned about government and
administration; as _tribunorum plebis_, _quaestorum_, _decurionum
collegia_. According to the definition of a collegium, the consuls
being only two in number were not a collegium, though each was called
collega with respect to the other, and their union in office was
called collegium. When a new member was taken into a collegium, he
was said _co-optari_, and the old members were said with respect to
him, _recipere in collegium_. The mode of filling up vacancies would
vary in different collegia. The statement of their rules belongs to
the several heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &c.

CŎLŌNĬA, a colony, contains the same element as the verb _colere_,
“to cultivate,” and as the word colonus, which probably originally
signified a “tiller of the earth.” (1) GREEK. The usual Greek words
for a colony are ἀποικία and κληρουχία. The latter word, which
signified a division of conquered lands among Athenian citizens,
and which corresponds in some respects to the Roman _colonia_, is
explained in the article CLERUCHI. The earlier Greek colonies, called
ἀποικίαι, were usually composed of mere bands of adventurers, who
left their native country, with their families and property, to
seek a new home for themselves. Some of the colonies, which arose
in consequence of foreign invasion or civil wars, were undertaken
without any formal consent from the rest of the community; but
usually a colony was sent out with the approbation of the mother
country, and under the management of a leader (οἰκιστής) appointed
by it. But whatever may have been the origin of the colony, it was
always considered in a political point of view independent of the
mother country, called by the Greeks _metropolis_ (μητρόπολις), the
“mother-city,” and entirely emancipated from its control. At the
same time, though a colony was in no political subjection to its
parent state, it was united to it by the ties of filial affection;
and, according to the generally received opinions of the Greeks, its
duties to the parent state corresponded to those of a daughter to
her mother. Hence, in all matters of common interest, the colony
gave precedence to the mother state; and the founder of the colony
(οἰκιστής), who might be considered as the representative of the
parent state, was usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero.
Also, when the colony became in its turn a parent, it usually sought
a leader for the colony which it intended to found from the original
mother country; and the same feeling of respect was manifested by
embassies which were sent to honour the principal festivals of the
parent state, and also by bestowing places of honour and other marks
of respect upon the ambassadors and other members of the parent
state, when they visited the colony at festivals and on similar
occasions. The colonists also worshipped in their new settlement
the same deities as they had been accustomed to honour in their
native country: the sacred fire, which was constantly kept burning
on their public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium of the parent
city; and sometimes the priests also were brought from the mother
state. In the same spirit, it was considered a violation of sacred
ties for a mother country and a colony to make war upon one another.
The preceding account of the relations between the Greek colonies
and the mother country is supported by the history which Thucydides
gives us of the quarrel between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was
a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Corcyra; but the
leader (οἰκιστής) of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who
was invited from the metropolis Corinth. In course of time, in
consequence of civil dissensions, and attacks from the neighbouring
barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to Corcyra, but their
request is rejected. They next apply to the Corinthians, who took
Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, says Thucydides, that the
colony was no less theirs than the Corinthians’: and also induced to
do so through hatred of the Corcyraeans, because they neglected them
though they were colonists; for they did not give to the Corinthians
the customary honours and deference in the public solemnities and
sacrifices, which the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother
country. The Corcyraeans, who had become very powerful by sea,
took offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under their
protection, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth.
The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask assistance; and in
reply to the objection that they were a colony of Corinth, they said,
“that every colony, as long as it is treated kindly, respects the
mother country: but when it is injured, is alienated from it; for
colonists are not sent out as subjects, but that they may have equal
rights with those that remain at home.” It is true that ambitious
states, such as Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over other states
on the ground of relationship; but as a general rule, colonies may be
regarded as independent states, attached to their metropolis by ties
of sympathy and common descent, but no further. The case of Potidaea,
to which the Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates
(δημιουργοί), appears to have been an exception to the general
rule.--(2) ROMAN. A kind of colonisation seems to have existed among
the oldest Italian nations, who, on certain occasions, sent out their
superfluous male population, with arms in their hands, to seek for a
new home. But these were apparently mere bands of adventurers, and
such colonies rather resembled the old Greek colonies, than those
by which Rome extended her dominion and her name. Colonies were
established by the Romans as far back as the annals or traditions
of the city extend, and the practice was continued, without
intermission, during the republic and under the empire. Colonies
were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to
repress hostile incursions; and their chief object was originally
the extension and preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy.
Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the _propugnacula imperii_.
Another object was to increase the power of Rome by increasing the
population. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry
off a number of turbulent and discontented persons. Colonies were
also established for the purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a
practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the emperors;
these coloniae were called militares. The old Roman colonies were in
the nature of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and the colonists
had a portion of the conquered territory (usually a third part)
assigned to them. The inhabitants retained the rest of their lands,
and lived together with the new settlers, who alone composed the
proper colony. The conquered people must at first have been quite
a distinct class from, and inferior to, the colonists. No colonia
was established without a lex, plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum;
a fact which shows that a Roman colony was never a mere body of
adventurers, but had a regular organisation by the parent state.
When a law was passed for founding a colony, persons were appointed
to superintend its formation (_coloniam deducere_). These persons
varied in number, but three was a common number (_triumviri ad
colonos deducendos_). We also read of _duumviri_, _quinqueviri_,
_vigintiviri_ for the same purpose. The law fixed the quantity of
land that was to be distributed, and how much was to be assigned to
each person. No Roman could be sent out as a colonist without his
free consent, and when the colony was not an inviting one, it was
difficult to fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia proceeded
to its place of destination in the form of an army (_sub vexillo_),
which is indicated on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs, if one
did not already exist, was a necessary part of a new colony, and
its limits were marked out by a plough, which is also indicated on
ancient coins. The colonia had also a territory, which, whether
marked out by the plough or not, was at least marked out by metes
and bounds. Thus the urbs and territory of the colonia respectively
corresponded to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious ceremonies
always accompanied the foundation of the colony, and the anniversary
was afterwards observed. It is stated that a colony could not be
sent out to the same place to which a colony had already been
sent in due form (_auspicato deducta_). This merely means, that
so long as the colony maintained its existence, there could be no
new colony in the same place; a doctrine that would hardly need
proof, for a new colony implied a new assignment of lands; but new
settlers (_novi adscripti_) might be sent to occupy colonial lands
not already assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a colony to
receive additions, and a colony might be re-established, if it seemed
necessary, from any cause. The commissioners appointed to conduct the
colony had apparently a profitable office, and the establishment of a
new settlement gave employment to numerous functionaries, among whom
Cicero enumerates--_apparitores_, _scribae_, _librarii_, _praecones_,
_architecti_. The foundation of a colony might then, in many cases,
not only be a mere party measure, carried for the purpose of gaining
popularity, but it would give those in power an opportunity of
providing places for many of their friends.--The colonies founded by
the Romans were divided into two great classes of colonies of Roman
citizens and Latin colonies; names which had no reference to the
persons who formed the colonies, but merely indicated their political
rights with respect to Rome as members of the colony. The members of
a Roman colony (_colonia civium Romanorum_) preserved all the rights
of Roman citizens. The members of a Latin colony (_colonia Latina_)
ceased to have the full rights of Roman citizens. Probably some of
the old Latin colonies were established by the Romans in conjunction
with other Latin states. After the conquest of Latium, the Romans
established colonies, called Latin colonies, in various parts of
Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to join such colonies, gave up their
civic rights for the more solid advantage of a grant of land, and
became LATINI. [CIVITAS.] Such colonies were subject to, and part of,
the Roman state; but they did not possess the Roman franchise, and
had no political bond among themselves.--The lex Julia, passed B.C.
90, gave the Roman franchise to the members of the Latin colonies and
the Socii; and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii were then
called _municipia_, and became complete members of the Roman state.
Thus there was then really no difference between these municipia and
the Roman coloniae, except in their historical origin: the members of
both were Roman citizens, and the Roman law prevailed in both.--In
the colonies, as at Rome, the popular assembly had originally the
sovereign power; they chose the magistrates, and could even make
laws. When the popular assemblies became a mere form in Rome, and the
elections were transferred by Tiberius to the senate, the same thing
happened in the colonies, whose senates then possessed whatever power
had once belonged to the community. The common name of this senate
was _ordo decurionum_; in later times, simply _ordo_ and _curia_; the
members of it were _decuriones_ or _curiales_. Thus, in the later
ages, _curia_ is opposed to _senatus_, the former being the senate of
a colony, and the latter the senate of Rome. But the terms senatus
and senator were also applied to the senate and members of the
senate of a colony. After the decline of the popular assemblies, the
senate had the whole internal administration of a city, conjointly
with the magistratus; but only a decurio could be a magistratus, and
the choice was made by the decuriones. The highest magistratus of
a colonia were the _duumviri_ or _quattuorviri_, so called, as the
members might vary, whose functions may be compared with those of the
consulate at Rome before the establishment of the praetorship. The
name _duumviri_ seems to have been the most common. Their principal
duties were the administration of justice, and accordingly we find
on inscriptions “Duumviri J. D.” (_juri dicundo_), “Quattuorviri
J. D.” The name consul also occurs in inscriptions to denote this
chief magistracy; and even dictator and praetor occur under the
empire and under the republic. The office of the duumviri lasted a
year.--In some Italian towns there was a _praefectus juri dicundo_;
he was in the place of, and not co-existent with, the duumviri. The
duumviri were, as we have seen, originally chosen by the people;
but the praefectus was appointed annually in Rome, and sent to the
town called a _praefectura_, which might be either a municipium or a
colonia, for it was only in the matter of the praefectus that a town
called a praefectura differed from other Italian towns. Arpinum is
called both a municipium and a praefectura; and Cicero, a native of
this place, obtained the highest honours that Rome could confer.--The
_censor_, _curator_, or _quinquennalis_, all which names denote the
same functionary, was also a municipal magistrate, and corresponded
to the censor at Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the quaestor
also. Censors are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the twelve
Latin colonies. The quinquennales were sometimes duumviri, sometimes
quattuorviri; but they are always carefully distinguished from the
duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their functions were those of
censors. They held their office for one year, and during the four
intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of
censor or quinquennalis was higher in rank than that of the duumviri
J. D., and it could only be filled by those who had discharged the
other offices of the municipality.

CŎLOSSUS (κολοσσός) is used both by the Greeks and Romans to signify
a statue larger than life; but as such statues were very common, the
word was more frequently applied to designate figures of gigantic
dimensions. Such figures were first executed in Egypt, and were
afterwards made by the Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal statues
of Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze _colossus_ at Rhodes,
dedicated to the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet.

[Illustration: Colum. (Museo Borbonico, vol. viii. pl. 14.)]

CŌLUM (ἠθμός), a strainer or colander, was used for straining
wine, milk, olive-oil, and other liquids. Those that were used as
articles of luxury for straining wine were frequently made of some
metal, such as bronze or silver. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth
(σάκκος, _saccus_) was placed over the τρύγοιπος or _colum_, and the
wine (σακκίας, _saccatus_) filtered through. The use of the _saccus_
was considered objectionable for all delicate wines, since it was
believed to injure, if not entirely to destroy their flavour, and
in every instance to diminish the strength of the liquor. For this
reason it was employed by the dissipated in order that they might be
able to swallow a greater quantity without becoming intoxicated. The
double purpose of cooling and weakening was effectually accomplished
by placing ice or snow in the filter, which under such circumstances
became a _colum nivarium_, or _saccus nivarius_. The preceding
woodcut shows the plan and profile of a silver colum.

CŎLUMBĀRĬUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house, also signified a sepulchral
chamber formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders, or
dependants of great families; and in the plural, the niches in which
the cinerary urns (_ollae_) were deposited.

[Illustration: Ancient Columns.]

CŎLUMNA (κίων, στύλος), a pillar or column. The use of the trunks
of trees placed upright for supporting buildings, unquestionably
led to the adoption of similar supports wrought in stone. As the
tree required to be based upon a flat square stone, and to have
a stone or tile of similar form fixed on its summit to preserve
it from decay, so the column was made with a square base, and was
covered with an _abacus_. [ABACUS.] Hence the principal parts of
which every column consists are three, the base (_basis_), the shaft
(_scapus_), and the capital (_capitulum_). In the Doric, which
is the oldest style of Greek architecture, we must consider all
the columns in the same row as having one common base (_podium_),
whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian each column has a separate base,
called _spira_. The capitals of these two latter orders show, on
comparison with the Doric, a much richer style of ornament; and
the character of lightness and elegance is further obtained in
them by their more slender shaft, its height being much greater in
proportion to its thickness. Of all these circumstances some idea
may be formed by the inspection of the three accompanying specimens
of pillars. The first on the left hand is Doric, the second Ionic,
and the third Corinthian. In all the orders the shaft tapers from
the bottom towards the top. The shaft was, however, made with a
slight swelling in the middle, which was called the _entasis_. It
was, moreover, almost universally channelled or fluted. Columns
were used in the interior of buildings, to sustain the beams which
supported the ceiling. Rows of columns were often employed within
a building, to enclose a space open to the sky. Beams supporting
ceilings passed from above the columns to the adjoining walls, so
as to form covered passages or ambulatories (στοαί). Such a circuit
of columns was called a _peristyle_ (περίστυλον), and the Roman
_atrium_ was built upon this plan. The largest and most splendid
temples enclosed an open space like an atrium, which was accomplished
by placing one peristyle upon another. In such cases, the lower
rows of columns being Doric, the upper were sometimes Ionic or
Corinthian, the lighter being properly based upon the heavier. A
temple so constructed was called _hypaethral_ (ὕπαιθρος). But it was
on the exterior of public buildings, and especially of temples, that
columns were displayed in the most beautiful combinations, either
surrounding the building entirely, or arranged in porticoes on one
or more of its fronts. [TEMPLUM.] Their original and proper use was,
of course, to support the roof of the building; and, amidst all the
elaborations of architectural design, this object was still kept in
view. On the summit of the row of columns rests the _architrave_,
i.e. _chief beam_ (ἐπιστύλιον, _epistylium_): above this is the
_frieze_ (ζωοφόρος, ζωφόρος, _zophorus_), in which the most ancient
order, namely the Doric, shows, in its triglyphs, what were
originally the ends of the cross-beams: in the other orders these
ends are generally concealed, and the frieze forms a flat surface,
which is frequently ornamented by figures in relief, whence its Greek
name. Above the frieze projects the cornice (κορωνίς, _coronis_ or
_corona_), forming a handsome finish to the entablature (for so these
three members taken together are called), and also, on the sides of
the building, serving to unite the ends of the rafters of the roof.
The triangular gable-end of the roof, above the entablature, is
called the _pediment_. [FASTIGIUM.]--Columns in long rows were used
in aquaeducts, and single pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring
ships.--Single columns were also erected to commemorate persons or
events. Among these, some of the most remarkable were the _columnae
rostratae_, called by that name because three ship-beaks proceeded
from each side of them, designed to record successful engagements at
sea. The most important and celebrated of those which yet remain,
is one erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, on occasion of
his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, B.C. 261. Columns were also
employed to commemorate the dead. The column on the right hand in the
last woodcut exhibits that which the senate erected to the honour of
the Emperor Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the memory of
many of the Roman emperors.

[Illustration: Columna Rostrata. Columna Trajana.]

CŎLUMNĀRĬUM, a tax imposed in the time of Julius Caesar upon the
pillars that supported a house. The _Ostiarium_ was a similar tax.
[OSTIARIUM.] The _columnarium_, levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in
B.C. 49-48, was a tax of a similar kind, but was simply an illegal
means of extorting money from the provincials.

CŎLUS, a distaff. [FUSUS.]

[Illustration: Greek Head-dresses. (From Ancient Vases.)

The left-hand figure on the top wears a κεκρύφαλος proper
(_reticulum_). Of the two bottom figures, the one on the left-hand
wears a μίτρα, and the one on the right a σάκκος.]

CŎMA (κόμη, κουρά), the hair. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times the
Greeks wore their hair long, and thus they are constantly called in
Homer καρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοί. The Spartan boys always had their hair
cut quite short (ἐν χρῷ κείροντες); but as soon as they reached
the age of puberty (ἔφηβοι), they let it grow long. Before going
to battle they combed and dressed it with especial care. It seems
that both Spartan men and women tied their hair in a knot over the
crown of the head. The custom of the Athenians was different. They
wore their hair long in childhood, and cut it off when they reached
the age of puberty. The cutting off of the hair, which was always
done when a boy became an ἔφηβος, was a solemn act, attended with
religious ceremonies. A libation was first offered to Hercules,
which was called οἰνιστήρια or οἰνιαστήρια, and the hair after being
cut off was dedicated to some deity, usually a river-god. But when
the Athenians passed into the age of manhood, they again let their
hair grow. In ancient times at Athens the hair was rolled up into
a kind of knot on the crown of the head, and fastened with golden
clasps in the shape of grasshoppers. This fashion of wearing the
hair was called κρωβύλος, and in the case of females κόρυμβος. The
heads of females were frequently covered with a kind of band or a
coif of net-work. Of these coiffures one was called σφενδόνη, which
was a broad band across the forehead, sometimes made of metal, and
sometimes of leather, adorned with gold. But the most common kind of
head-dress for females was called by the general name of κεκρύφαλος,
and this was divided into the three species of κεκρύφαλος, σάκκος,
and μίτρα. The κεκρύφαλος, in its narrower sense, was a caul or coif
of net-work, corresponding to the Latin _reticulum_. These hair-nets
were frequently made of gold threads, sometimes of silk, or the
Elean byssus, and probably of other materials. The σάκκος and the
μίτρα were, on the contrary, made of close materials. The σάκκος
covered the head entirely like a sack or bag; it was made of various
materials, such as silk, byssus, and wool. The μίτρα was a broad band
of cloth of different colours, which was wound round the hair, and
was worn in various ways. It was originally an Eastern head-dress,
and may, therefore, be compared to the modern turban. The Roman
_calautica_ or _calvatica_ is said by Servius to have been the same
as the _mitra_, but in a passage in the Digest they are mentioned as
if they were distinct.--With respect to the colour of the hair, black
was the most frequent, but _blonde_ (ξανθὴ κόμη) was the most prized.
In Homer, Achilles, Ulysses, and other heroes are represented with
blonde hair. At a later time it seems to have been not unfrequent
to dye hair, so as to make it either black or blonde, and this
was done by men as well as by women, especially when the hair was
growing gray.--(2) ROMAN. Besides the generic _coma_ we also find
the following words signifying the hair: _capillus_, _caesaries_,
_crines_, _cincinnus_, and _cirrus_, the two last words being used to
signify curled hair. In early times the Romans wore their hair long,
and hence the Romans of the Augustan age designated their ancestors
_intonsi_ and _capillati_. But after the introduction of barbers into
Italy about B.C. 300, it became the practice to wear the hair short.
The women, too, originally dressed their hair with great simplicity,
but in the Augustan period a variety of different head-dresses came
into fashion. Sometimes these head-dresses were raised to a great
height by rows of false curls. So much attention did the Roman ladies
devote to the dressing of the hair, that they kept slaves especially
for this purpose, called _ornatrices_, and had them instructed by a
master in the art. Most of the Greek head-dresses mentioned above
were also worn by the Roman ladies; but the _mitrae_ appear to
have been confined to prostitutes. One of the simplest modes of
wearing the hair was allowing it to fall down in tresses behind, and
only confining it by a band encircling the head. [VITTA.] Another
favourite plan was platting the hair, and then fastening it behind
with a large pin. Blonde hair was as much prized by the Romans as by
the Greeks, and hence the Roman ladies used a kind of composition or
wash to make it appear this colour (_spuma caustica_). False hair or
wigs (φενάκη, πηνίκη, _galerus_) were worn both by Greeks and Romans.
Among both people likewise in ancient times the hair was cut close in
mourning [FUNUS]; and among both the slaves had their hair cut close
as a mark of servitude.

CŌMISSĀTĬO (derived from κῶμος), the name of a drinking
entertainment, which took place after the coena, from which, however,
it must be distinguished. The comissatio was frequently prolonged to
a late hour at night, whence the verb _comissari_ means “to revel,”
and the substantive _comissator_ a “reveller,” or “debauchee.”

CŎMĬTĬA. This word is formed from _co_, _cum_, or _con_, and _ire_,
and therefore _comitium_ is a place of meeting, and _comitia_ the
meeting itself, or the assembled people. In the Roman constitution
the comitia were the ordinary and legal meetings or assemblies of the
people, and distinct from the _contiones_ and _concilia_. All the
powers of government were divided at Rome between the senate, the
magistrates, and the people in their assemblies. Properly speaking,
the people alone (the _populus_) was the real sovereign by whom the
power was delegated to the magistrates and the senate. The sovereign
people or populus, however, was not the same at all times. In the
earliest times of Rome the populus consisted of the patricians (or
patres) only, the plebs and the clients forming no part of the
populus, but being without the pale of the state. The original
populus was divided into thirty _curiae_, and the assembly of these
curiae (the _comitia curiata_) was the only assembly in which the
populus was represented. A kind of amalgamation of the patricians
and the plebs afterwards appeared in the comitia of the centuries,
instituted by king Servius Tullius, and henceforth the term populus
was applied to the united patricians and plebeians assembled in the
_comitia centuriata_. But Servius had also made a local division
of the whole Roman territory into thirty tribes, which held their
meetings in assemblies called _comitia tributa_, which, in the course
of time, acquired the character of national assemblies, so that the
people thus assembled were likewise designated by the term populus.

We shall examine in order the nature, power, and business of each of
these different comitia. (1) COMITIA CURIATA consisted of the members
of the thirty curiae, that is, the patricians, who formed exclusively
the populus in the early times. They were convened, in the kingly
period, by the king himself, or by his tribunus celerum, and in the
king’s absence by the praefectus urbi. After the death of a king the
comitia were held by the interrex. In the republican period, the
president was always one of the high patrician magistrates, viz. a
consul, praetor, or dictator. They were called together by lictors
or heralds. The votes were given by curiae, each curia having one
collective vote; but within a curia each citizen belonging to it
had an independent vote, and the majority of the members of a curia
determined the vote of the whole curia. The meeting was always held
in the comitium. The comitia curiata did not possess much power in
the kingly period. They could only be called together when the king
(or his representative) chose, and could only determine upon matters
which the king submitted to them. The main points upon which the
populus had to decide were the election of the king, the passing of
laws, declarations of war, the capital punishment of Roman citizens,
and, lastly, certain affairs of the curiae and gentes. The priestly
officers, such as the Curiones, Flamines Curiales, were likewise
either elected by the curiae, or at least inaugurated by them. The
right of finally deciding upon the life of Roman citizens (_judicia
de capite civis Romani_) is said to have been given to the populus
by king Tullus Hostilius. It must further be remarked, that when the
king had been elected, the populus held a second meeting, in which he
was formally inducted into his new office. This formality was called
_lex curiata de imperio_, whereby the king received his _imperium_,
together with the right of holding the comitia. Down to the time of
Servius Tullius, the comitia curiata were the only popular assemblies
of Rome, and remained of course in the undiminished possession of the
rights above described; but the constitution of that king brought
about a great change, by transferring the principal rights which
had hitherto been enjoyed by the curiae to a new national assembly
or the comitia centuriata. But while the patricians were obliged to
share their rights with the plebeians, they reserved for themselves
the very important right of sanctioning or rejecting any measure
which had been passed by the centuries. The sanction of decrees
passed by the centuries is often expressed by _patres auctores
fiunt_, and down to the time of the Publilian law no decree of the
centuries could become law without this sanction. By the Publilian
law (B.C. 339) it was enacted that the curiae should give their
assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata; so that the veto
of the curiae was thus virtually abolished. The comitia curiata thus
became a mere formality, and, instead of the thirty curiae themselves
giving their votes, the ceremony was performed by thirty lictors.
The comitia of the curiae were also called COMITIA CALATA or “the
summoned comitia” (from _calare_, i.e. _vocare_), when summoned for
the purposes mentioned below:--1. On the calends it was proclaimed
to the comitia calata on what day of the new month the nones fell,
and perhaps also the ides as well as the nature of the other days,
namely, whether they were fasti or nefasti, comitiales, feriae,
&c., because all these things were known in the early times to the
pontiffs exclusively. 2. The inauguration of the flamines, and after
the banishment of the kings, also that of the rex sacrorum. 3. The
_testamenti factio_, or the making of a will. 4. The _detestatio
sacrorum_, which was in all probability an act connected with the
testamenti factio, that is, a solemn declaration, by which the heir
was enjoined to undertake the sacra privata of the testator along
with the reception of his property. The comitia calata were summoned
by the college of pontiffs, who also presided in them.

(2) COMITIA CENTURIATA. The object of the legislation of Servius
Tullius was to unite the different elements of which the Roman
people consisted, into one great political body, in which power and
influence were to be determined by property and age. The whole people
was conceived as an army (_exercitus_), and was therefore divided
into two parts, the cavalry (_equites_), and infantry (_pedites_).
The infantry was divided into five classes, or, as Dionysius has
it, into six classes, for he regards the whole body of people,
whose property did not come up to the census of the fifth class,
as a sixth. The class to which a citizen belonged determined the
_tributum_, or war tax, he had to pay, as well as the kind of service
he had to perform in the army and the armour in which he had to
serve. But for the purpose of voting in the comitia, each class was
subdivided into a number of centuries (_centuriae_, probably because
each was conceived to contain 100 men, though the centuries may have
greatly differed in the number of men they contained). Hence the name
of _Comitia Centuriata_. Each century was divided into the _seniores_
and the _juniores_. Each century, further, was counted as one vote,
so that a class had as many votes as it contained centuries. In
like manner, the equites were divided into a number of centuries or
votes. The two principal authorities on these subdivisions are Livy
and Dionysius. The annexed table will show the census as well as the
number of centuries or votes assigned to each class.

_According to Livy._ _According to Dionysius._
I. Classis. Census: 100,000 asses. I. Classis. Census: 100 minae.
40 centuriae seniorum. 40 centuriae seniorum.
40 centuriae juniorum. 40 centuriae juniorum.
2 centuriae fabrum.
II. Classis. Census: 75,000 asses. II. Classis. Census: 75 minae.
10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae seniorum.
10 centuriae juniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum.
2 centuriae fabrum (one
voting with the seniores
and the other with the
juniores).
III. Classis. Census: 50,000 asses. III. Classis. Census: 50 minae.
10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae seniorum.
10 centuriae juniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum.
IV. Classis. Census: 25,000 asses. IV. Classis. Census: 25 minae.
10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae seniorum.
10 centuriae juniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum.
2 centuriae cornicinum and
tubicinum (one voting with
the seniores, and the
other with the juniores).
V. Classis. Census: 11,000 asses. V. Classis. Census: 12½ minae.
15 centuriae seniorum. 15 centuriae seniorum.
15 centuriae juniorum. 15 centuriae juniorum.
3 centuriae accensorum, VI. Classis. Census: below 12½
cornicinum, tubicinum. minae.
1 centuria capite censorum. 1 centuria capite censorum.

According to both Dionysius and Livy, the equites voted in eighteen
centuries before the seniores of the first class; and hence there
were, according to Livy, 194, and, according to Dionysius, 193
centuries or votes. The latter number is the more probable, since
Livy’s even number of 194 centuries would have rendered it impossible
to obtain an absolute majority. In this manner all Roman citizens,
whether patricians or plebeians, who had property to a certain
amount, were privileged to take part and vote in the centuriata
comitia, and none were excluded except slaves, peregrini, women and
the aerarii. The juniores were all men from the age of seventeen to
that of forty-six, and the seniores all men from the age of forty-six
upwards. The order of voting was arranged in such a manner, that if
the eighteen centuries of the equites and the eighty centuries of
the first class were agreed upon a measure, the question was decided
at once, there being no need for calling upon the other classes to
vote. Hence, although all Roman citizens appeared in these comitia
on a footing of equality, yet by far the greater power was thrown
into the hands of the wealthy.--As regards the functions of the
comitia centuriata, they were--(a.) _The election of magistrates._
The magistrates that were elected by the centuries are the consuls
(whence the assembly is called _comitia consularia_), the praetors
(hence _comitia praetoria_), the military tribunes with consular
power, the censors, and the decemvirs. (b.) _Legislation._ The
legislative power of the centuries at first consisted in their
passing or rejecting a measure which was brought before them by the
presiding magistrate in the form of a senatus consultum, so that
the assembly had no right of originating any legislative measure,
but voted only upon such as were brought before them as resolutions
of the senate. (c.) _The decision upon war_, on the ground of a
senatus consultum, likewise belonged to the centuries. Peace was
concluded by a mere senatus consultum, and without any co-operation
of the people. (d.) _The highest judicial power._ The comitia
centuriata were in the first place the highest court of appeal, and
in the second, they had to try all offences committed against the
state; hence, all cases of _perduellio_ and _majestas_: and no case
involving the life of a Roman citizen could be decided by any other
court. The sanction of the curiae to the measures of the centuriae
has been already explained.--The comitia centuriata could be held
only on _dies comitiales_ or _fasti_, on which it was lawful to
transact business with the people, and the number of such days in
every year was about 190; but on _dies nefasti_ (that is, _dies
festi_, _feriati_, comp. DIES), and, at first also on the nundinae,
no comitia could be held, until in B.C. 287 the Hortensian law
ordained that the nundinae should be regarded as dies fasti.--The
place where the centuries met was the Campus Martius, which contained
the septa for the voters, a tabernaculum for the president, and the
villa publica for the augurs.--The president at the comitia was the
same magistrate who convoked them, and this right was a privilege of
the consuls, and, in their absence, of the praetors. An interrex and
dictator also, or his representative, the magister equitum, might
likewise convene and preside at the comitia. One of the main duties
devolving upon the president, and which he had to perform before
holding the comitia, was to consult the auspices (_auspicari_). When
the auspices were favourable, the people were called together, which
was done by three successive and distinct acts: the first was quite
a general invitation to come to the assembly (_inlicium_). At the
same time when this invitation was proclaimed _circum moeros_ or
_de moeris_, a horn was blown, which being the more audible signal,
is mentioned by some writers alone, and without the inlicium. When
upon this signal the people assembled in irregular masses, there
followed the second call by the accensus, or the call _ad contionem_
or _conventionem_; that is, to a regular assembly, and the crowd
then separated, grouping themselves according to their classes and
ages. Hereupon the consul appeared, ordering the people to come _ad
comitia centuriata_; and led the whole _exercitus_--for, in these
comitia, the Roman people are always conceived as an exercitus--out
of the city, to the Campus Martius.--It was customary from the
earliest times for an armed force to occupy the Janiculum, when the
people were assembled in the Campus Martius, for the purpose of
protecting the city against any sudden attack of the neighbouring
people; and on the Janiculum a vexillum was hoisted during the whole
time that the assembly lasted. This custom continued to be observed
even at the time when Rome had no longer anything to fear from the
neighbouring tribes.--When the people were thus regularly assembled,
the business was commenced with a solemn sacrifice, and a prayer of
the president, who then took his seat on his tribunal. The president
then opened the business by explaining to the people the subject
for which they had been convened, and concluded his exposition with
the words, _velitis, jubeatis Quirites_, e.g. _bellum indici_, or
_ut M. Tullio aqua igni interdictum sit_, or whatever the subject
might be. This formula was the standing one in all comitia, and the
whole exposition of the president was called _rogatio_. When the
comitia were assembled for the purpose of an election, the presiding
magistrate had to read out the names of the candidates, and might
exercise his influence by recommending the one whom he thought most
fit for the office in question. If the assembly had been convened
for the purpose of passing a legislative measure, the president
usually recommended the proposal, or he might grant to others, if
they desired it, permission to speak about the measure, either in
its favour or against it (_Contionem dare_). When the comitia acted
as a court of justice, the president stated the crime, proposed the
punishment to be inflicted upon the offender, and then allowed others
to speak either in defence of the accused or against him. When the
subject brought before the assembly was sufficiently discussed, the
president called upon the people to prepare for voting by the words,
_ite in suffragium, bene juvantibus diis_. He then passed the stream
Petronia, and went to the _septa_.--Respecting the mode of voting,
it is commonly supposed that the people were always polled by word
of mouth, till the passing of the leges tabellariae about the middle
of the second century before Christ, when the ballot by means of
tabellae was introduced. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] It appears, however,
that the popular assemblies voted by ballot, as well as by word of
mouth, long before the passing of the leges tabellariae, but that
instead of using tabellae, they employed stones or pebbles (the Greek
ψῆφοι), and that each voter received two stones, one white and the
other black, the former to be used in the approval and the latter in
the condemnation of a measure. The voting by word of mouth seems to
have been adopted in elections and trials, and the use of pebbles to
have been confined to the enactment and repeal of laws. Previous to
the leges tabellariae, the rogatores, who subsequently collected the
written votes, stood at the entrance of the septa, and asked every
citizen for his vote, which was taken down, and used to determine
the vote of each century. After the introduction of the ballot, if
the business was the passing of a law, each citizen was provided
with two tabellae, one inscribed V. R. _i.e._ _Uti Rogas_, “I vote
for the law,” the other inscribed A. _i.e._ _Antiquo_, “I am for the
old law.” If the business was the election of a magistrate, each
citizen was supplied with only one tablet, on which the names of the
candidates were written, or the initials of their names; the voter
then placed a mark (_punctum_) against the one for whom he voted,
whence _puncta_ are spoken of in the sense of votes. For further
particulars respecting the voting in the comitia, see DIRIBITORES
and SITULA. In judicial assemblies every citizen was provided with
three tabellae, one of which was marked with A. _i.e._ _Absolvo_,
“I acquit;” the second with C. _i.e._ _Condemno_, “I condemn;” and
the third with N. L. _i.e._ _Non Liquet_, “It is not clear to me.”
The first of these was called _Tabella absolutoria_ and the second
_Tabella damnatoria_, and hence Cicero calls the former _litera
salutaris_, and the latter _litera tristis_.--There were in the
Campus Martius septa or inclosures (whether they existed from the
earliest times is unknown), into which one class of citizens was
admitted after another for the purpose of voting. The first that
entered were the eighteen centuries of the equites, then followed
the first class and so on. It very rarely happened that the lowest
class was called upon to vote, as there was no necessity for it,
unless the first class did not agree with the equites. After the time
when the comitia of the centuries became amalgamated with those of
the tribes, a large space near the villa publica was surrounded with
an enclosure, and divided into compartments for the several tribes.
The whole of this enclosure was called _ovile, septa, carceres_, or
_cancelli_; and in later times a stone building, containing the whole
people, was erected; it was divided into compartments for the classes
as well as the tribes and centuries; the access to these compartments
was formed by narrow passages called _pontes_ or _ponticuli_. On
entering, the citizens received their tablets, and when they had
consulted within the enclosures, they passed out of them again by a
_pons_ or _ponticulus_, at which they threw their vote into a chest
(_cista_) which was watched by _rogatores_. Hereupon the _rogatores_
collected the tablets, and gave them to the _diribitores_, who
classified and counted the votes, and then handed them over to the
_custodes_, who again checked them off by points marked on a tablet.
The order in which the centuries voted was determined in the Servian
constitution, in the manner described above; but after the union of
the centuries and tribes, the order was determined by lot; and this
was a matter of no slight importance, since it frequently happened
that the vote of the first determined the manner in which subsequent
ones voted. In the case of elections, the successful candidate was
proclaimed twice, first by the praeco, and then by the president, and
without this renuntiatio the election was not valid. After all the
business was done, the president pronounced a prayer, and dismissed
the assembly with the word _discedite_.--Cases are frequently
mentioned in which the proceedings of the assembly were disturbed,
so that it was necessary to defer the business till another day.
This occurred--1, when it was discovered that the auspices had been
unfavourable, or when the gods manifested their displeasure by rain,
thunder, or lightning; 2, when a tribune interceded; 3, when the sun
set before the business was over, for it was a principle that the
auspices were valid only for one day from sunrise to sunset; 4, when
a _morbus comitialis_ occurred, _i.e._ when one of the assembled
citizens was seized with an epileptic fit; 5, when the vexillum was
taken away from the Janiculum, this being a signal which all citizens
had to obey; 6, when any tumult or insurrection broke out in the city.

(3) COMITIA TRIBUTA. These assemblies likewise were called into
existence by the constitution of Servius Tullius, who divided the
Roman territory into thirty local tribes. It is a disputed question
whether the patricians were originally included in these tribes; but,
whether they were or not, it is certain, that by far the majority
of the people in the tribes were plebeians, and that, consequently,
the character of these assemblies was essentially plebeian. After
the decemvirate, the patricians had certainly the right of voting in
the assemblies of the tribes, which were then also convened by the
higher magistrates. The assemblies of the tribes had originally only
a local power; they were intended to collect the tributum, and to
furnish the contingents for the army; they may further have discussed
the internal affairs of each tribe, such as the making or keeping
up of roads, wells, and the like. But their influence gradually
increased, and they at length acquired the following powers:--1.
_The election of the inferior magistrates_, whose office it was to
protect the commonalty or to superintend the affairs of the tribes.
Hence the tribunes of the plebs were elected in the comitia tributa.
In like manner, the aediles were elected by them, though the curule
aediles were elected at a different time from the plebeian aediles
and under the presidency of a consul. At a still later time, the
quaestors and tribunes of the soldiers, who had before been appointed
by the consuls, were appointed in the assemblies of the tribes. The
proconsuls to be sent into the provinces, and the prolongation of
the imperium for a magistrate who was already in a province, were
likewise points which were determined by the tribes in later times.
The inferior magistrates elected by the tribes are:--the triumviri
capitales, triumviri monetales, the curatores viarum, decemviri
litibus judicandis, tribuni aerarii, magistri vicorum et pagorum,
praefecti annonae, duumviri navales, quinqueviri muris turribusque
reficiendis, triumviri coloniae deducendae, triumviri, quatuorviri,
&c., mensarii, and lastly, after the Domitian law, B.C. 104, also the
members of colleges of priests. The pontifex maximus had been elected
by the people from an earlier time. 2. _The legislative power_ of
the comitia tributa was at first very insignificant, for all they
could do was to make regulations concerning the local affairs of
the tribes. But after a time, when the tribes began to be the real
representatives of the people, matters affecting the whole people
also were brought before them by the tribunes, which, framed as
resolutions, were laid before the senate, where they might either
be sanctioned or rejected. This practice of the tributa comitia
gradually acquired for them the right of taking the initiative in
any measure, or the right of originating measures, until, in B.C.
449, this right was recognised and sanctioned by a law of L. Valerius
Publicola and M. Horatius Barbatus. This law gave to the decrees
passed by the tribes the power of a real _lex_, binding upon the
whole people, provided they obtained the sanction of the senate and
the populus, that is, the people assembled in the comitia curiata or
in the comitia centuriata. In B.C. 339, the Publilian law enacted
_ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent_. This law was either a
re-enactment of the one passed in B.C. 449, or contained a more
detailed specification of the cases in which plebiscita should be
binding upon the whole nation, or, lastly, it made their validity
independent of the sanction of other comitia, so that nothing would
be required except the assent of the senate. In B.C. 287, the
Hortensian law was passed, which seems to have been only a revival
and a confirmation of the two preceding laws, for it was framed in
almost the same terms; but it may also be, that the Hortensian law
made the plebiscita independent of the sanction of the senate, so
that henceforth the comitia tributa were quite independent in their
legislative character. 3. _The judicial power_ of the comitia tributa
was much more limited than that of the comitia centuriata, inasmuch
as they could take cognizance only of offences against the majesty of
the people, while all crimes committed against the state were brought
before the centuries. Even patricians, when they had offended against
the commonalty or its members, were tried and fined by the tribes.
This again constitutes a difference between the judicial power of
the centuries and that of the tribes, for the former could inflict
capital punishment, but the latter only fines. The comitia tributa
might assemble either within or without the city, but not farther
from it than 1000 paces, because the power of the tribunes did not
extend farther. For elections the Campus Martius was usually chosen,
but sometimes also the forum, the Capitol, or the Circus Flaminius.
The presidents were commonly the tribunes, who were supported by the
aediles, and no matter could be brought before the tribes without
the knowledge and consent of the tribunes. As the comitia tributa,
however, more and more assumed the character of national assemblies,
the higher magistrates also sometimes acted as presidents, though
perhaps not without previously obtaining the permission of the
tribunes. The preparations for the comitia tributa were less formal
and solemn than for those of the centuries. In the case of elections,
the candidates had to give in their names, and the president
communicated them to the people. When a legislative measure was to
be brought before the assembly, a tribune made the people acquainted
with it in _contiones_, and that on the three preceding nundines. The
same was the case when the people were to meet as a court of justice.
The auspicia were not consulted for the comitia of the tribes, but
the _spectio_ alone was sufficient, and the tribunes had the right
of _obnuntiatio_. In the comitia the tribune who had been chosen to
preside sat on the tribunal supported by his colleagues, and laid
before the people the subject of the meeting, concluding with the
words _velitis, jubeatis Quirites_. The bill was never read by the
tribune himself, but by a praeco, and then began the debates, in
which persons might either oppose or recommend the measure, though
private persons had to ask the tribunes for permission to speak.
When the discussion was over the president called upon the people
_ite in suffragium_, as at the comitia centuriata. They then formed
themselves into their tribes, which, like the centuries, ascertained
their own votes in enclosures (septa). Which of the 35 tribes was
to give its vote first, was determined by lot, and that tribe was
called _praerogativa_ or _principium_ (the others were termed _jure
vocatae_). The vote of the first tribe was given by some person of
distinction whose name was mentioned in the plebiscitum, if it was
of a legislative nature. The manner of collecting the votes was, on
the whole, the same as in the comitia centuriata. The announcing of
the result of the votes was the _renuntiatio_. If it so happened that
two candidates had the same number of votes, the question was decided
by drawing lots. The circumstances which might cause the meeting to
break up and defer its business till another day, are the same as
those which put an end to the comitia centuriata.

(4) _The comitia centuriata mixed with the comitia tributa._--The
Servian constitution was retained unaltered so long as no great
change took place in the republic; but when the coinage and the
standard of property had become altered, when the constitution of
the army had been placed on a different footing, and, above all,
when the plebeians began to be recognized as a great and essential
element in the Roman state, it must have been found inconvenient to
leave to the equites and the first class so great a preponderance in
the comitia of the centuries, and it became necessary to secure more
power and influence to the democratic element. A change, therefore,
took place, and the comitia centuriata became mixed with the comitia
tributa; but neither the time nor the exact nature of this change
is accurately ascertained. Some refer it to the censorship of C.
Flaminius, B.C. 220, others to that of Q. Fabius and P. Decius,
B.C. 304. But there is evidence that it must be assigned to even an
earlier date than this, for the (tribus) praerogativa is mentioned
as early as B.C. 396 in the election of the consular tribunes, where
the pure comitia tributa cannot be meant, and a centuria praerogativa
is a thing unknown. With regard to the manner of the change, the
most probable opinion is, that the citizens of each tribe were
divided into five property classes, each consisting of seniores and
juniores, so that each of the 35 tribes contained ten centuries,
and all the tribes together 350 centuries. According to this new
arrangement, the five ancient classes, divided into seniores and
juniores, continued to exist as before, but henceforth they were
most closely united with the tribes, whereas before the tribes had
been mere local divisions and entirely independent of property. The
union now effected was that the classes became subdivisions of the
tribes, and that accordingly centuries occur both in the classes
and in the tribes. Each tribe contained ten centuries, two of the
first class (one of the seniores and one of the juniores), two of
the second (likewise seniores and juniores), two of the third, two
of the fourth, and two of the fifth class. The equites were likewise
divided according to tribes and centuries, and they seem to have
voted with the first class, and to have been in fact included in it,
so as to be called centuries of the first class. The centuries of
the cornicines, tubicines and fabri, which are no longer mentioned,
probably ceased to exist as distinct centuries. The voting by tribes
can hardly be conceived, except in those cases in which the ten
centuries of every tribe were unanimous; this may have been the
case very often, and when it was so, the tribus praerogativa was
certainly the tribe chosen by lot to give its unanimous vote first.
But if there was any difference of opinion among the centuries making
up a tribe, the true majority could only be ascertained by choosing
by lot one of the 70 centuriae of the first class to give its vote
first, or rather it was decided by lot from which tribe the two
centuries of the first class were to be taken to give their vote
first. (Hence the plural _praerogativae_.) The tribe, moreover, to
which those centuries belonged which voted first, was itself likewise
called tribus praerogativa. Of the two centuries, again, that of
seniores gave its vote before the juniores, and in the documents
both were called by the name of their tribe, as _Galeria juniorum_,
_i.e._ the juniores of the first class in the tribus Galeria,
_Aniensis juniorum, Veturia juniorum_. As soon as the praerogativa
had voted, the renuntiatio took place, and the remaining centuries
then deliberated whether they should vote the same way or not. When
this was done all the centuries of the first tribe proceeded to vote
at once, for there would not have been time for the 350 centuries
to vote one after another, as was done by the 193 centuries in
the comitia centuriata.--These comitia of the centuries combined
with the tribes were far more democratical than the comitia of the
centuries; they continued to be held, and preserved their power along
with the comitia tributa, even after the latter had acquired their
supreme importance in the republic. During the time of the moral and
political corruption of the Romans, the latter appear to have been
chiefly attended by the populace, which was guided by the tribunes,
and the wealthier and more respectable citizens had little influence
in them. When the libertini and all the Italians were incorporated
in the old thirty-five tribes, and when the political corruption had
reached its height, no trace of the sedate and moderate character was
left by which the comitia tributa had been distinguished in former
times. Under Augustus the comitia still sanctioned new laws and
elected magistrates, but their whole proceedings were a mere farce,
for they could not venture to elect any other persons than those
recommended by the emperor. Tiberius deprived the people even of this
shadow of their former power, and conferred the power of election
upon the senate. When the elections were made by the senate the
result was announced to the people assembled as comitia centuriata
or tributa. Legislation was taken away from the comitia entirely,
and was completely in the hands of the senate and the emperor. From
this time the comitia may be said to have ceased to exist, as all the
sovereign power formerly possessed by the people was conferred upon
the emperor by the lex regia. [LEX REGIA.]

COMMĔĀTUS, a furlough, or leave of absence from the army for a
certain time.

COMMENTĀRĬUS or COMMENTĀRĬUM, a book of memoirs or memorandum-book,
whence the expression _Caesaris Commentarii_. It is also used for a
lawyer’s brief, the notes of a speech, &c.

COMMERCĬUM. [CIVITAS (ROMAN).]

CŌMOEDĬA (κωμῳδία), comedy. (1) GREEK. Comedy took its rise at the
vintage festivals of Dionysus. It originated with those who led
off the phallic songs of the band of revellers (κῶμος), who at the
vintage festivals of Dionysus gave expression to the feelings of
exuberant joy and merriment which were regarded as appropriate to
the occasion, by parading about, partly on foot, partly in waggons,
with the symbol of the productive powers of nature, singing a wild,
jovial song in honour of Dionysus and his companions. These songs
were commonly interspersed with, or followed by petulant, extemporal
witticisms with which the revellers assailed the bystanders. This
origin of comedy is indicated by the name κωμῳδία, which undoubtedly
means “the song of the κῶμος,” though it has sometimes been derived
from κώμη, as if the meaning were “a village song.” It was among the
Dorians that comedy first assumed any thing of a regular shape. The
Megarians, both in the mother country and in Sicily, claimed to be
considered as its originators, and so far as the comedy of Athens
is concerned, the claim of the former appears well founded. Among
the Athenians the first attempts at comedy were made at Icaria by
Susarion, a native of Megara, about B.C. 578. Susarion no doubt
substituted for the more ancient improvisations of the chorus and
its leader premeditated compositions. There would seem also to have
been some kind of poetical contest, for we learn that the prize for
the successful poet was a basket of figs and a jar of wine. It was
also the practice of those who took part in the comus to smear their
faces with wine-lees, either to prevent their features from being
recognised, or to give themselves a more grotesque appearance. Hence
comedy came to be called τρυγῳδία, or lee-song. Others connected
the name with the circumstance of a jar of new wine (τρύξ) being
the prize for the successful poet. It was, however, in Sicily, that
comedy was earliest brought to something like perfection. Epicharmus
was the first writer who gave it a new form, and introduced a
regular plot. In his efforts he appears to have been associated
with Phormis, a somewhat older contemporary. The Megarians in
Sicily claimed the honour of the invention of comedy, on account of
Epicharmus having lived in Megara before he went to Syracuse. In
Attica, the first comic poet of any importance whom we hear of after
Susarion is Chionides, who is said to have brought out plays in B.C.
488. Euetes, Euxenides, and Myllus were probably contemporaries
of Chionides; he was followed by Magnes and Ecphantides. Their
compositions, however, seem to have been little but the reproduction
of the old Megaric farce of Susarion, differing, no doubt, in
form, by the introduction of an actor or actors, separate from the
chorus, in imitation of the improvements that had been made in
tragedy.--That branch of the Attic drama which was called the _Old
Comedy_, begins properly with Cratinus, who was to comedy very much
what Aeschylus was to tragedy. The old comedy has been described as
the comedy of caricature, and such indeed it was, but it was also a
great deal more. As it appeared in the hands of its great masters
Cratinus, Hermippus, Eupolis, and especially Aristophanes, its main
characteristic was that it was throughout _political_. Everything
that bore upon the political or social interests of the Athenians
furnished materials for it. The old Attic comedy lasted from Ol. 80
to Ol. 94 (B.C. 458-404). From Cratinus to Theopompus there were
forty-one poets, fourteen of whom preceded Aristophanes. The later
pieces of Aristophanes belong to the Middle rather than to the Old
Comedy. The chorus in a comedy consisted of twenty-four. [CHORUS.]
The dance of the chorus was the κόρδαξ, the movements of which were
capricious and licentious, consisting partly in a reeling to and
fro, in imitation of a drunken man, and in various unseemly and
immodest gestures. Comedies have choric songs, but no στάσιμα, or
songs between acts. The most important of the choral parts was the
Parabasis, when the actors having left the stage, the chorus, which
was ordinarily divided into four rows, containing six each, and was
turned towards the stage, turned round, and advancing towards the
spectators delivered an address to them in the name of the poet,
either on public topics of general interest, or on matters which
concerned the poet personally, criticising his rivals and calling
attention to his merits; the address having nothing whatever to
do with the action of the play. The parabasis was not universally
introduced: three plays of Aristophanes, the Ecclesiazusae,
Lysistrata, and Plutus, have none. As the old Attic comedy was the
offspring of the political and social vigour and freedom of the age
during which it flourished, it naturally declined and ceased with the
decline and overthrow of the freedom and vigour which were necessary
for its development.--It was replaced by a comedy of a somewhat
different style, which was known as the _Middle Comedy_, the age of
which lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the overthrow
of liberty by Philip of Macedon. (Ol. 94-110.) The comedy of this
period found its materials in satirizing classes of people instead of
individuals, in criticising the systems and merits of philosophers
and literary men, and in parodies of the compositions of living and
earlier poets, and travesties of mythological subjects. It formed
a transition from the old to the new comedy, and approximated to
the latter in the greater attention to the construction of plots
which seem frequently to have been founded on amorous intrigues,
and in the absence of that wild grotesqueness which marked the
old comedy. As regards its external form, the plays of the middle
comedy, generally speaking, had neither parabasis nor chorus. The
most celebrated authors of the middle comedy were Antiphanes and
Alexis.--The _New Comedy_ was a further development of the last
mentioned kind. It answered as nearly as may be to the modern
comedy of manners or character. Dropping for the most part personal
allusions, caricature, ridicule, and parody, which, in a more general
form than in the old comedy, had maintained their ground in the
middle comedy, the poets of the new comedy made it their business
to reproduce in a generalized form a picture of the every-day life
of those by whom they were surrounded. There were various standing
characters which found a place in most plays, such as we find in the
plays of Plautus and Terence, the _leno perjurus_, _amator fervidus_,
_servulus callidus_, _amica illudens_, _sodalis opitulator_, _miles
proeliator_, _parasitus edax_, _parentes tenaces_, _meretrices
procaces_. In the new comedy there was no chorus. It flourished from
about B.C. 340 to B.C. 260. The poets of the new comedy amounted to
64 in number. The most distinguished was Menander.--(2) ROMAN.--The
accounts of the early stages of comic poetry among the Romans are
scanty. Scenic entertainments were introduced at Rome in B.C. 363
from Etruria, where it would seem they were a familiar amusement.
Tuscan players (_ludiones_), who were fetched from Etruria, exhibited
a sort of pantomimic dance to the music of a flute, without any
song accompanying their dance, and without regular dramatic
gesticulation. The amusement became popular, and was imitated by the
young Romans, who improved upon the original entertainment by uniting
with it extemporaneous mutual raillery, composed in a rude irregular
measure, a species of diversion which had been long known among the
Romans at their agrarian festivals under the name of _Fescennina_
[FESCENNINA]. It was 123 years after the first introduction of
these scenic performances before the improvement was introduced of
having a regular plot. This advance was made by Livius Andronicus,
a native of Magna Graecia, in B.C. 240. His pieces, which were both
tragedies and comedies, were merely adaptations of Greek dramas.
The representation of regular plays of this sort was now left to
those who were histriones by profession, and who were very commonly
either foreigners or slaves; the free-born youth of Rome confined
their own scenic performances to the older, irregular farces, which
long maintained their ground, and were subsequently called _exodia_.
[EXODIA; SATURA.] Livius, as was common at that time, was himself an
actor in his own pieces. The first imitator of the dramatic works
of Livius Andronicus was Cn. Naevius, a native of Campania. He
composed both tragedies and comedies, which were either translations
or imitations of those of Greek writers. The most distinguished
successors of Naevius were Plautus, who chiefly imitated Epicharmus,
and Terence, whose materials were drawn mostly from Menander,
Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The comedy of the Romans was
throughout but an imitation of that of the Greeks, and chiefly of
the new comedy. Where the characters were ostensibly Greek, and the
scene laid in Athens or some other Greek town, the comedies were
termed _palliatae_. All the comedies of Terence and Plautus belong to
this class. When the story and characters were Roman, the plays were
called _togatae_. But the fabulae togatae were in fact little else
than Greek comedies clothed in a Latin dress.

The togatae were divided into two classes, the _trabeatae_ and
_tabernariae_, according as the subject was taken from high or from
low life. In the comediae palliatae, the costume of the ordinary
actors was the Greek pallium. The plays which bore the name of
_praetextatae_, were not so much tragedies as historical plays. It
is a mistake to represent them as comedies. There was a species
of tragi-comedy, named from the poet who introduced that style
_Rhinthonica_. A tragedy the argument of which was Greek was termed
_crepidata_. The mimes are sometimes classed with the Latin comedies.
[MIMUS.] The mimes differed from the comedies in little more than
the predominance of the mimic representation over the dialogue. Latin
comedies had no chorus, any more than the dramas of the new comedy,
of which they were for the most part imitations. Like them, too, they
were introduced by a prologue, which answered some of the purposes
of the parabasis of the old comedy, so far as bespeaking the good
will of the spectators, and defending the poet against his rivals and
enemies. It also communicated so much information as was necessary to
understand the story of the play. The prologue was commonly spoken
by one of the players, or, perhaps, by the manager of the troop.
Respecting the _Atellanae fabulae_ see that article.

COMPĬTĀLĬA, also called LŪDI COMPĬTĀLĬCĬI, a festival celebrated
once a year in honour of the lares compitales, to whom sacrifices
were offered at the places where two or more ways met. In the time
of Augustus, the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, but were
restored by him. The compitalia belonged to the _feriae conceptivae_,
that is, festivals which were celebrated on days appointed annually
by the magistrates or priests. The exact day on which this festival
was celebrated appears to have varied, though it was always in the
winter, generally at the beginning of January.

COMPLŪVĬUM. [DOMUS.]

CONCĬLĬUM generally has the same meaning as _conventus_ or
_conventio_, but the technical import of concilium in the Roman
constitution was an assembly of a _portion_ of the people as
distinct from the general assemblies or comitia. Accordingly, as
the comitia tributa embraced only a portion of the Roman people,
viz. the plebeians, these comitia are often designated by the term
_concilia plebis_. Concilium is also used by Latin writers to denote
the assemblies or meetings of confederate towns or nations, at which
either their deputies alone or any of the citizens met who had time
and inclination, and thus formed a representative assembly. Such an
assembly or diet is commonly designated as _commune concilium_, or τὸ
κοινόν, e.g. _Achaeorum_, _Aetolorum_, _Boeotorum_, _Macedoniae_, and
the like.

CONFARRĔĀTĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.]

CONGĬĀRĬUM (_scil. vas_, from _congius_), a vessel containing a
_congius_. [CONGIUS.] In the early times of the Roman republic the
_congius_ was the usual measure of oil or wine which was, on certain
occasions, distributed among the people; and thus _congiarium_
became a name for liberal donations to the people, in general,
whether consisting of oil, wine, corn, money, or other things, while
donations made to the soldiers were called _donativa_, though they
were sometimes also termed _congiaria_. Many coins of the Roman
emperors were struck in commemoration of such congiaria. _Congiarium_
was, moreover, occasionally used simply to designate a present or a
pension given by a person of high rank, or a prince, to his friends.

[Illustration: Congiarium. (Coin of Trajan.)]

CONGĬUS, a Roman liquid measure, which contained six sextarii, or the
eighth part of the amphora (nearly six pints Eng.) It was equal to
the larger _chous_ of the Greeks.

CONNUBĬUM. [MATRIMONIUM.]

CŌNŌPĒUM (κωνωπεῖον), a gnat or musquito-curtain, _i.e._ a covering
made to be expanded over beds and couches to keep away gnats and
other flying insects, so called from κώνωψ, a gnat. _Conopeum_ is the
origin of the English word _canopy_.

CONQUĪSĪTŌRES, persons employed to go about the country and impress
soldiers, when there was a difficulty in completing a levy. Sometimes
commissioners were appointed by a decree of the senate for the
purpose of making a conquisitio.

CONSANGUĬNĔI. [COGNATI.]

CONSĔCRĀTĬO. [APOTHEOSIS.]

CONSĬLĬUM. [CONVENTUS.]

CONSUĀLĬA, a festival, with games, celebrated by the Romans,
according to Ovid and others, in honour of Consus, the god of secret
deliberations, or, according to Livy, of Neptunus Equestris. Some
writers, however, say that Neptunus Equestris and Consus were only
different names for one and the same deity. It was solemnised every
year in the circus, by the symbolical ceremony of uncovering an altar
dedicated to the god, which was buried in the earth. For Romulus,
who was considered as the founder of the festival, was said to
have discovered an altar in the earth on that spot. The solemnity
took place on the 21st of August with horse and chariot races, and
libations were poured into the flames which consumed the sacrifices.
During these festive games horses and mules were not allowed to do
any work, and were adorned with garlands of flowers. It was at their
first celebration that, according to the ancient legend, the Sabine
maidens were carried off.

CONSUL (ὕπατος), the title of the two chief officers or magistrates
of the Roman republic. The word is probably composed of _con_ and
_sul_, which contains the same root as the verb _salio_, so that
consules signifies “those who come together,” just as _praesul_
means “one who goes before,” and _exsul_, “one who goes out.” The
consulship is said to have been instituted upon the expulsion of
the kings in B.C. 509, when the kingly power was transferred to
two magistrates, whose office lasted only for one year, that it
might not degenerate into tyranny by being vested longer in the
same persons; and for the same reason two were appointed instead
of one king, as neither could undertake anything unless it was
sanctioned and approved by his colleague. Their original title was
_praetores_, or commanders of the armies, but this was changed into
that of _consules_ in B.C. 449, and the latter title remained in
use until the latest periods of the Roman empire.--The consuls were
at first elected from the patricians exclusively. Their office was
suspended in B.C. 451, and its functions were performed by ten high
commissioners (_decemviri_), appointed to frame a code of laws. On
the re-establishment of the consulship in B.C. 449, the tribunes
proposed that one of the consuls should be chosen from the plebeians,
but this was strenuously resisted by the patricians, and a compromise
effected by suspending the consular office, and creating in its stead
military tribunes (_tribuni militum_) with consular power, who might
be elected indifferently both from the patricians and plebeians.
They were first appointed in B.C. 444. The plebeians, however, were
not satisfied with this concession, and still endeavoured to attain
the higher dignity of the consulship. At length, after a serious and
long-protracted struggle between the two orders, it was enacted by
the Licinian law, in B.C. 367, that henceforth the consulship should
be divided between the patricians and plebeians, and that one of the
consuls should always be a plebeian. Accordingly, in B.C. 366 L.
Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul. This law, however,
was not always observed, and it still frequently happened that both
consuls were patricians, until, in later times, when the difference
between the two orders had entirely ceased, and the plebeians were
on a footing of perfect equality with the patricians, the consuls
were elected from both orders indiscriminately.--During the later
periods of the republic it was customary for persons to pass through
several subordinate magistracies before they were elected consuls,
though this rule was departed from in many particular cases. The age
at which a person was eligible to the consulship was fixed in B.C.
180, by the lex annalis [LEX ANNALIS], at 43.--The election of the
consuls always took place in the comitia of the centuries, some time
before the expiration of the official year of the actual consuls, and
the election was conducted either by the actual consuls themselves,
or by an interrex or a dictator, and the persons elected, until they
entered upon their office, were called _consules designati_. While
they were _designati_, they were in reality no more than private
persons, but still they might exercise considerable influence upon
public affairs, for in the senate they were asked for their opinion
first. If they had been guilty of any illegal act, either before or
during their election, such as bribery (_ambitus_), they were liable
to prosecution, and the election might be declared void.--The time
at which the old consuls laid down their office and the consules
designati entered upon theirs, differed at different times. The
first consuls are said to have entered upon their office in October,
then we find mention of the 1st of August, of the ides of December,
the 1st of July, and very frequently of the ides of March, until,
in B.C. 153, it became an established rule for the consuls to enter
upon their duties on the 1st of January; and this custom remained
down to the end of the republic. On that day the senators, equites,
and citizens of all classes conducted in a procession (_deductio_
or _processus consularis_) the new magistrates from their residence
to the capitol, where, if the auspices were favourable, the consuls
offered up sacrifices, and were inaugurated. From thence the
procession went to the curia, where the senate assembled, and where
the consuls returned thanks for their election. There they might
also speak on any subject that was of importance to the republic,
such as peace and war, the distribution of provinces, the general
condition of the state, the _feriae Latinae_, and the like. During
the first five days of their office they had to convoke a _contio_,
and publicly to take a solemn oath, by which, in the earliest times,
they pledged themselves not to allow any one to assume regal power
at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain the laws of the republic
(_in leges jurare_). On the expiration of their office they had to
take another oath, stating that they had faithfully obeyed the laws,
and not done anything against the constitution. The new consuls
on entering upon their office usually invited their friends to a
banquet. When a consul died during his year of office, his colleague
immediately convoked the comitia to elect a new one. A consul thus
elected to fill a vacancy was called _consul suffectus_, but his
powers were not equal to those of an ordinary consul, for he could
not preside at the elections of other magistrates, not even in the
case of the death of his colleague. In the latter case, as well as
when the consuls were prevented by illness or other circumstances,
the comitia were held by an interrex or a dictator.--The outward
distinctions of the consuls were, with few exceptions, the same
as those which had formerly belonged to the kings. The principal
distinction was the twelve lictors with the _fasces_, who preceded
the consuls; but the axes did not appear in the fasces within the
city. This outward sign of their power was taken by the consuls in
turn every month, and while one consul was preceded by the twelve
lictors with their fasces, the other was during the same month
preceded by an _accensus_, and followed by the lictors; and the
one was called during that month _consul major_, and the other
_consul minor_. Other distinctions of the consuls were the curule
chair (_sella curulis_), and the toga with the purple hem (_toga
praetexta_). The ivory sceptre (_scipio_ or _sceptrum_) and purple
toga were not distinctions of the consuls in general, but only when
they celebrated a triumph. Under the empire a consul was sometimes
distinguished by the senate with a sceptre bearing an eagle on the
top, but his regular ensigns consisted of the _toga picta_, the
_trabea_, and the fasces, both within and without the city.--The
consuls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome. Their power
was at first quite equal to that of the kings, except that it was
limited to one year, and that the office of high priest, which had
been vested in the king, was at the very beginning detached from the
consulship, and given to the _rex sacrorum_ or _rex sacrificulus_.
Yet the _auspicia majora_ continued to belong to the consuls. This
regal power of the consuls, however, was gradually curtailed by
various laws, especially by the institution of the tribunes of the
plebs, whose province it was to protect the plebeians against the
unjust or oppressive commands of the patrician magistrates. Nay,
in the course of time, whole branches of the consular power were
detached from it; the reason for which was, that, as the patricians
were compelled to allow the plebeians a share in the highest
magistracy, they stripped it of as much of its original power as
they could, and reserved these detached portions for themselves.
In this manner the censorship was detached from the consulship in
B.C. 443, and the praetorship in B.C. 367. But notwithstanding
all this, the consuls remained the highest magistrates, and all
other magistrates, except the tribunes of the plebs, were obliged
to obey their commands, and show them great outward respect. The
functions of the consuls during the time of the republic may be
conveniently described under the following heads:--1. They were in
all civil matters the heads of the state, being invested with the
imperium, which emanated from the sovereign people, and which they
held during the time of their office. In this capacity they had the
right of convoking both the senate and the assembly of the people;
they presided in each (in the comitia of the curies as well as in
those of the centuries), and they took care that the resolutions
of the senate and people were carried into effect. They might also
convoke _contiones_, whenever they thought it necessary. In the
senate they conducted the discussions, and put the questions to the
vote, thus exercising the greatest influence upon all matters which
were brought before the senate either by themselves or by others.
When a decree was passed by the senate, the consuls were usually
commissioned to see that it was carried into effect; though there are
also instances of the consuls opposing a decree of the senate. 2.
The supreme command of the armies belonged to the consuls alone by
virtue of their imperium. Accordingly, when a war was decreed, they
were ordered by a senatus consultum to levy the troops, whose number
was determined by the senate, and they appointed most of the other
military officers. While at the head of their armies they had full
power of life and death over their soldiers, who, on their enrolment,
had to take an oath (_sacramentum_) to be faithful and obedient to
the commands of the consuls. When the consuls had entered upon their
office, the senate assigned them their provinces, that is, their
spheres of action, and the consuls either settled between themselves
which province each was to have, or, which was more common, they drew
lots. Usually one consul remained at Rome, while the other went out
at the head of the army: sometimes both left the city, and carried
on war in different quarters; and sometimes, when the danger was
very pressing, both consuls commanded the armies against one and
the same enemy. If it was deemed advisable, the imperium of one or
of both consuls was prolonged for the particular province in which
they were engaged, in which case they had the title of proconsuls
[PROCONSUL], and their successors either remained at Rome, or were
engaged in other quarters. During the latter period of the republic
the consuls remained at Rome during the time of their office, and
on its expiration they had a foreign province (in the real sense
of the word) assigned to them, where they undertook either the
peaceful administration, or carried on war against internal or
external enemies. While in their provinces, both the consuls and
proconsuls had the power of life and death over the provincials, for
they were looked upon there as the chief military commanders; and
the provincials, being _peregrini_, did not enjoy the privileges
of Roman citizens. 3. The supreme jurisdiction was part of the
consular imperium, and as such vested in the consuls so long as
there were no praetors. In civil cases they administered justice
to the patricians as well as plebeians, either acting themselves
as _judices_, or appointing others as _judices_ and _arbitri_. In
criminal cases there appears from early times to have been this
difference: that patricians charged with capital offences were tried
by the curies, while the plebeians came under the jurisdiction of
the consuls, whose power, however, was in this case rather limited,
partly by the intercession of the tribunes of the people, and partly
by the right of appeal (_provocatio_) from the sentence of the
consuls. The consuls might, further, summon any citizen before their
tribunal, and, in case of disobedience, seize him (_prendere_),
and fine him up to a certain amount. After the institution of the
praetorship, the consuls no longer possessed any regular ordinary
jurisdiction; and whenever they exercised it, it was an exception
to the general custom, and only by a special command of the senate.
4. Previous to the institution of the censorship the consuls had to
perform all the functions which afterwards belonged to the censors:
they were accordingly the highest officers of finance, held the
census, drew up the lists of the senators, equites, &c. After the
establishment of the censorship they still retained the general
superintendence of the public economy, inasmuch as they had the
keys of the _aerarium_, and as the quaestors or paymasters were
dependent on them. But still in the management of the finances the
consuls were at all times under the control of the senate. 5. In all
relations with foreign states the consuls were the representatives
of the Roman republic. Hence they might conclude peace or treaties
with foreign nations, which had, however, to be sanctioned by the
senate and people at Rome; and unless this sanction was obtained a
treaty was void. They received foreign ambassadors, and introduced
them into the senate, and in short all negotiations with foreign
princes or nations passed through their hands. 6. In matters
connected with their own official functions, the consuls, like all
other magistrates, had the power of issuing proclamations or orders
(_edicta_), which might be binding either for the occasion only, or
remain in force permanently.--Although the consular power had been
gradually diminished, it was in cases of imminent danger restored to
its original and full extent, by a decree of the senate calling upon
the consuls _videant ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat_. In such
cases the consuls received sovereign power, but they were responsible
for the manner in which they had exercised it.--It has already been
observed, that to avoid collision and confusion, the two consuls did
not possess the same power at the same time, but that each had the
imperium every other month. The one who possessed it, as the _consul
major_, exercised all the rights of the office, though he always
consulted his colleague. In the earliest times it was customary for
the elder of the two consuls to take the imperium first, afterwards
the one who had had the greater number of votes at the election, and
had therefore been proclaimed (_renuntiare_) first. In the time of
Augustus it was enacted that the consul who had most children should
take precedence of the other; and some distinction of rank continued
to be observed down to the latest times of the empire.--Towards the
end of the republic the consulship lost its power and importance. The
first severe blow it received was from Julius Caesar, the dictator,
for he received the consulship in addition to his dictatorship, or
he arbitrarily ordered others to be elected, who were mere nominal
officers, and were allowed to do nothing without his sanction. He
himself was elected consul at first for five, then for ten years, and
at last for life. Under Augustus the consulship was a mere shadow
of what it had been: the consuls no longer held their office for a
whole year, but usually for a few months only; and hence it happened
that sometimes one year saw six, twelve, or even twenty-five consuls.
Those who were elected the first in the year ranked higher than the
rest, and their names alone were used to mark the year, according to
the ancient custom of the Romans of marking the date of an event by
the names of the consuls of the year in which the event occurred.
During the last period of the empire it became the practice to have
titular or honorary consuls, who were elected by the senate and
confirmed by the emperor. Constantine appointed two consuls, one
for Rome and another for Constantinople, who held their office for a
whole year, and whose functions were only those of chief justices.
All the other consuls were designated as _honorarii_ or _consulares_.
But though the consulship had thus become almost an empty title, it
was still regarded as the highest dignity in the empire, and as the
object of the greatest ambition. It was connected with very great
expenses, partly on account of the public games which a consul had
to provide, and partly on account of the large donations he had to
make to the people. The last consul at Rome was Decimus Theodorus
Paulinus, A.D. 536, and at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius junior,
A.D. 541.

CONSŬLARIS, signified, under the republic, a person who had held the
office of consul; but under the empire, it was the title of many
magistrates and public officers, who enjoyed the insignia of consular
dignity, without having filled the office of consul. Thus we find
commanders of armies and governors of provinces called _Consulares_
under the empire.

CONTĬO, a contraction for _conventio_, that is, a meeting, or a
_conventus_. In the technical sense, however, a contio was an
assembly of the people at Rome convened by a magistrate for the
purpose of making the people acquainted with measures which were
to be brought before the next comitia, and of working upon them
either to support or oppose the measure. But no question of any kind
could be decided by a contio, and this constitutes the difference
between contiones and comitia. Still contiones were also convened
for other purposes, _e.g._ of persuading the people to take part in
a war, or of bringing complaints against a party in the republic.
Every magistrate had the right to convene contiones, but it was most
frequently exercised by the consuls and tribunes, and the latter more
especially exercised a great influence over the people in and through
these contiones. A magistrate who was higher in rank than the one who
had convened a contio, had the right to order the people to disperse,
if he disapproved of the object. It should be remarked, that the term
contio is also used to designate the speeches and harangues addressed
to the people in an assembly, and that in a loose mode of speaking,
contio denotes any assembly of the people.

CONTŬBERNĀLES (σύσκηνοι), signified originally men who served in
the same army and lived in the same tent. The word is derived from
_taberna_ (afterwards _tabernaculum_), which was the original name
for a military tent, as it was made of boards (_tabulae_). Each tent
was occupied by ten soldiers (_contubernales_), with a subordinate
officer at their head, who was called _decanus_, and in later times
_caput contubernii_. Young Romans of illustrious families used to
accompany a distinguished general on his expeditions, or to his
province, for the purpose of gaining under his superintendence a
practical training in the art of war, or in the administration of
public affairs, and were, like soldiers living in the same tent,
called his _contubernales_. In a still wider sense, the name
_contubernales_ was applied to persons connected by ties of intimate
friendship, and living under the same roof; and hence, when a freeman
and a slave, or two slaves, who were not allowed to contract a legal
marriage, lived together as husband and wife, they were called
_contubernales_; and their connection, as well as their place of
residence, _contubernium_.

CONTŬBERNĬUM. [CONTUBERNALES.]

CONVĔNĪRE IN MĂNUM. [MATRIMONIUM.]

CONVENTUS, was the name applied to the whole body of Roman citizens
who were either permanently or for a time settled in a province. In
order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was
divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was
called _conventus_, _forum_, or _jurisdictio_. Roman citizens living
in a province were entirely under the jurisdiction of the proconsul;
and at certain times of the year, fixed by the proconsul, they
assembled in the chief town of the district, and this meeting bore
the name of _conventus_ (σύνοδος). Hence the expressions--_conventus
agere_, _peragere_, _convocare_, _dimittere_. At this conventus
litigant parties applied to the proconsul, who selected a number of
judges from the conventus to try their causes. The proconsul himself
presided at the trials, and pronounced the sentence according to
the views of the judges, who were his assessors (_consilium_ or
_consiliarii_). These conventus appear to have been generally held
after the proconsul had settled the military affairs of the province;
at least, when Caesar was proconsul of Gaul, he made it a regular
practice to hold the conventus after his armies had retired to their
winter quarters.

CONVĪVĬUM. [SYMPOSIUM.]

CŎPHĬNUS (κόφινος, Engl. _coffin_), a large kind of wicker basket,
made of willow branches. It would seem that it was used by the Greeks
as a basket or cage for birds. The Romans used it for agricultural
purposes, and it sometimes formed a kind of portable hot-bed.
Juvenal, when speaking of the Jews, uses the expression _cophinus et
foenum_ (a truss of hay), figuratively to designate their poverty.

CORBIS, _dim_. CORBŬLA, CORBĬCŬLA, a basket of very peculiar form
and common use among the Romans, both for agricultural and other
purposes. It was made of osiers twisted together, and was of a
conical or pyramidal shape. A basket answering precisely to this
description, both in form and material, is still to be seen in
every-day use among the Campanian peasantry, which is called in the
language of the country “la corbella.”

CORBĪTAE, merchantmen of the larger class, so called because they
hung out a _corbis_ at the mast-head for a sign. They were also
termed _onerariae_; and hence Plautus, in order to designate the
voracious appetites of some women, says, “Corbitam cibi comesse
possunt.”

[Illustration: Cornu. (Bartholini de Tibiis.)]

[Illustration: Altar of Julius Victor. (Bartoli, Pict. Ant., p. 76.)]

CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently made of horn, but afterwards
of brass. Like the _tuba_, it differed from the _tibia_ in being a
larger and more powerful instrument, and from the _tuba_ itself, in
being curved nearly in the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to steady
the instrument for the convenience of the performer. Hence Ovid says
(_Met._ i. 98):

“Non tuba _directi_, non aeris cornua _flexi_.”

The _classicum_, which originally meant a signal, rather than the
musical instrument which gave the signal, was usually sounded with
the _cornu_.

“Sonuit reflexo classicum cornu,
Lituusque _adunco_ stridulos cantus
Elisit aere.”
(Sen. _Oed._ 734.)

The _Cornicines_ and _Liticines_, the persons who blew the _Cornu_
and _Lituus_, formed a collegium. In the preceding cut, M. Julius
Victor, a member of the Collegium, holds a lituus in his right hand,
and touches with his left a cornu on the ground. See engraving under
TUBA.

[Illustration: Corona Civica, on a Coin of the Emperor Galba.

SPQR OB CS = Senatus Populusque Romanus ob civem servatum.]

CŎRŌNA (στέφανος), a crown, that is, a circular ornament of metal,
leaves, or flowers, worn by the ancients round the head or neck,
and used as a festive as well as funereal decoration, and as a
reward of talent, military or naval prowess, and civil worth. Its
first introduction as an honorary reward is attributable to the
athletic games, in some of which it was bestowed as a prize upon
the victor. It was the only reward contended for by the Spartans in
their gymnic contests, and was worn by them when going to battle.
The Romans refined upon the practice of the Greeks, and invented a
great variety of crowns formed of different materials, each with a
separate appellation, and appropriated to a particular purpose.--I.
CORONA OBSIDIONALIS. Amongst the honorary crowns bestowed by the
Romans for military achievements, the most difficult of attainment,
and the one which conferred the highest honour, was the _corona
obsidionalis_, presented by a beleaguered army after its liberation
to the general who broke up the siege. It was made of grass, or weeds
and wild flowers, thence called _corona graminea_, and _graminea
obsidionalis_, gathered from the spot on which the beleaguered
army had been enclosed.--II. CORONA CIVICA, the second in honour
and importance, was presented to the soldier who had preserved the
life of a Roman citizen in battle. It was made of the leaves of the
oak. The soldier who had acquired this crown had a place reserved
next to the senate at all the public spectacles; and they, as well
as the rest of the company, rose up upon his entrance. He was freed
from all public burthens, as were also his father, and his paternal
grandfather; and the person who owed his life to him was bound, ever
after, to cherish his preserver as a parent, and afford him all such
offices as were due from a son to his father.--III. CORONA NAVALIS or
ROSTRATA, called also CLASSICA. It is difficult to determine whether
these were two distinct crowns, or only two denominations for the
same one. It seems probable that the _navalis corona_, besides being
a generic term, was inferior in dignity to the latter, and given to
the sailor who first boarded an enemy’s ship; whereas the _rostrata_
was given to a commander who destroyed the whole fleet, or gained
any very signal victory. At all events, they were both made of gold;
and one at least (_rostrata_) decorated with the beaks of ships like
the _rostra_ in the forum. The Athenians likewise bestowed golden
crowns for naval services; sometimes upon the person who got his
trireme first equipped, and at others upon the captain who had his
vessel in the best order.--IV. CORONA MURALIS, was presented by the
general to the first man who scaled the wall of a besieged city. It
was made of gold, and decorated with turrets.--V. CORONA CASTRENSIS
or VALLARIS, was presented to the first soldier who surmounted the
_vallum_, and forced an entrance into the enemy’s camp. This crown
was made of gold, and ornamented with the palisades (_valli_) used
in forming an entrenchment.--VI. CORONA TRIUMPHALIS. There were
three sorts of triumphal crowns: the first was made of laurel or
bay leaves, and was worn round the head of the commander during his
triumph; the second was of gold, which, being too large and massive
to be worn, was held over the head of the general during his triumph,
by a public officer. This crown, as well as the former one, was
presented to the victorious general by his army. The third kind,
likewise of gold and of great value, was sent as a present from the
provinces to the commander. [AURUM CORONARIUM.]--VII. CORONA OVALIS,
was given to a commander who obtained only an ovation. It was made
of myrtle.--VIII. CORONA OLEAGINA, was made of the olive leaf,
and conferred upon the soldiers as well as their commanders.--The
Greeks in general made but little use of crowns as rewards of valour
in the earlier periods of their history, except as prizes in the
athletic contests; but previous to the time of Alexander, crowns of
gold were profusely distributed, amongst the Athenians at least,
for every trifling feat, whether civil, naval, or military, which,
though lavished without much discrimination as far as regards the
character of the receiving parties, were still subjected to certain
legal restrictions in respect of the time, place, and mode in which
they were conferred. They could not be presented but in the public
assemblies, and with the consent, that is by suffrage, of the people,
or by the senators in their council, or by the tribes to their own
members, or by the δημόται to members of their own δῆμος. According
to the statement of Aeschines, the people could not lawfully present
crowns in any place except in their assembly, nor the senators
except in the senate-house; nor, according to the same authority,
in the theatre, which is, however, denied by Demosthenes; nor at
the public games, and if any crier there proclaimed the crowns he
was subject to _atimia_. Neither could any person holding an office
receive a crown whilst he was ὑπεύθυνος, that is, before he had
passed his accounts.--The second class of crowns were emblematical
and not honorary, and the adoption of them was not regulated by
law, but custom. Of these there were also several kinds.--I. CORONA
SACERDOTALIS, was worn by the priests (_sacerdotes_), with the
exception of the pontifex maximus and his minister (_camillus_),
as well as the bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice. It
does not appear to have been confined to any one material.--II.
CORONA FUNEBRIS and SEPULCHRALIS. The Greeks first set the example
of crowning the dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers, which was
imitated by the Romans. Garlands of flowers were also placed upon
the bier, or scattered from the windows under which the procession
passed, or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a decoration to
the tomb. In Greece these crowns were commonly made of parsley.--III.
CORONA CONVIVIALIS. The use of chaplets at festive entertainments
sprung likewise from Greece. They were of various shrubs and flowers,
such as roses (which were the choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy,
_philyra_, and even parsley.--IV. CORONA NUPTIALIS. The bridal wreath
was also of Greek origin, among whom it was made of flowers plucked
by the bride herself, and not bought, which was of ill omen. Amongst
the Romans it was made of _verbena_, also gathered by the bride
herself, and worn under the _flammeum_, with which the bride was
always enveloped. The bridegroom also wore a chaplet. The doors of
his house were likewise decorated with garlands, and also the bridal
couch.--V. CORONA NATALITIA, the chaplet suspended over the door of
the vestibule, both in the houses of Athens and Rome, in which a
child was born. At Athens, when the infant was male, the crown was
made of olive; when female, of wool. At Rome it was of laurel, ivy,
or parsley.

[Illustration: Females with Crowns. (From an ancient Painting.)]

CŎRŌNIS (κορωνίς), the cornice of an entablature, is properly a Greek
word signifying anything curved. It is also used by Latin writers,
but the genuine Latin word for a _cornice_ is _corona_ or _coronix_.

CORTĪNA, the name of the table or hollow slab, supported by a tripod,
upon which the priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her responses; and
hence the word is used for the oracle itself. The Romans made tables
of marble or bronze after the pattern of the Delphian tripod, which
they used as we do our sideboards, for the purpose of displaying
their plate at an entertainment. These were termed _cortinae
Delphicae_, or _Delphicae_ simply.

CŎRỸBANTĬCA (κορυβαντικά), a festival and mysteries celebrated at
Cnossus in Crete, by the Corybantes. (See _Class. Dict._, CORYBANTES.)

CŎRYMBUS (κόρυμβος). [COMA.]

CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Duilius against the Carthaginian
fleet in the battle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (B.C. 260). The
Romans, we are told, being unused to the sea, saw that their only
chance of victory was by bringing a sea-fight to resemble one on
land. For this purpose they invented a machine, of which Polybius
has left a minute description. In the fore part of the ship a round
pole was fixed perpendicularly, twenty-four feet in height and about
nine inches in diameter; at the top of this was a pivot, upon which
a ladder was set, thirty-six feet in length and four in breadth.
The ladder was guarded by cross-beams, fastened to the upright pole
by a ring of wood, which turned with the pivot above. Along the
ladder a rope was passed, one end of which took hold of the _corvus_
by means of a ring. The _corvus_ itself was a strong piece of iron,
with a spike at the end, which was raised or lowered by drawing in
or letting out the rope. When an enemy’s ship drew near, the machine
was turned outwards, by means of the pivot, in the direction of the
assailant. Another part of the machine was a breast-work, let down
from the ladder, and serving as a bridge, on which to board the
enemy’s vessel. By means of these cranes the Carthaginian ships were
either broken or closely locked with the Roman, and Duilius gained a
complete victory.

CŌRȲTOS or CŌRȲTUS (γωρυτός, κωρυτός), [ARCUS.]

COSMĒTAE, a class of slaves among the Romans, whose duty it was to
dress and adorn ladies.

COSMI (κοσμοί), the supreme magistrates in Crete, were ten in number,
and were chosen, not from the body of the people, but from certain
γένη or houses, which were probably of more pure Doric or Achaean
descent than their neighbours. The first of them in rank was called
_protocosmus_, and gave his name to the year. They commanded in war,
and also conducted the business of the state with the representatives
and ambassadors of other cities. Their period of office was a year;
but any of them during that time might resign, and was also liable
to deposition by his colleagues. In some cases, too, they might be
indicted for neglect of their duties. On the whole, we may conclude
that they formed the executive and chief power in most of the cities
of Crete.

[Illustration: Cothurnus. (From Statues of Artemis--Diana.)]

CŎTHURNUS (κόθορνος), a boot. Its essential distinction was its
height; it rose above the middle of the leg, so as to surround
the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as the knees. It was
worn principally by horsemen, by hunters, and by men of rank and
authority. The sole of the cothurnus was commonly of the ordinary
thickness; but it was sometimes made much thicker than usual,
probably by the insertion of slices of cork. The object was, to add
to the apparent stature of the wearer; and this was done in the case
of the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had the soles made unusually
thick as one of the methods adopted in order to magnify their whole
appearance. Hence tragedy in general was called _cothurnus_. As the
cothurnus was commonly worn in hunting, it is represented as part of
the costume of Artemis (Diana).

COTTĂBUS (κότταβος), a social game which was introduced from Sicily
into Greece, where it became one of the favourite amusements of young
people after their repasts. The simplest way in which it originally
was played was this:--One of the company threw out of a goblet a
certain quantity of wine, at a certain distance, into a metal basin.
While he was doing this, he either thought of or pronounced the name
of his mistress; and if all the wine fell in the basin, and with a
full sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This simple amusement
soon assumed a variety of different characters, and became, in
some instances, a regular contest, with prizes for the victor. One
of the most celebrated modes in which it was carried on is called
δι’ ὀξυβάφων. A basin was filled with water, with small empty cups
(ὀξύβαφα) swimming upon it. Into these the young men, one after
another, threw the remnant of the wine from their goblets, and he who
had the good fortune to drown most of the bowls obtained the prize,
consisting either of simple cakes, sweetmeats, or sesame-cakes.

CŎTYTTĬA (κοττύτια), a festival which was originally celebrated by
the Edonians of Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys, or
Cotytto. It was held at night. The worship of Cotys, together with
the festival of the Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek states,
chiefly those which were induced by their commercial interest to
maintain friendly relations with Thrace. The festivals of this
goddess were notorious among the ancients for the dissolute manner
and the debaucheries with which they were celebrated.

CŎTỸLA (κοτύλη), a measure of capacity among the Romans and Greeks:
by the former it was also called _hemina_; by the latter, τρυβλίον
and ἡμίνα or ἡμίμνα. It was the half of the sextarius or ξέστης, and
contained 6 cyathi, or nearly half a pint English.

CŎVĪNUS (Celtic, _kowain_), a kind of car, the spokes of which were
armed with long sickles, and which was used as a scythe-chariot
chiefly by the ancient Belgians and Britons. The Romans designated,
by the name of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, which seems
to have been covered on all sides with the exception of the front.
It had no seat for a driver, but was conducted by the traveller
himself, who sat inside. The _covinarii_ (this word occurs only in
Tacitus) seem to have constituted a regular and distinct part of a
British army. Compare ESSEDUM.

CRĀTER (κρατήρ, Ionic κρητήρ, from κεράννυμι, I mix), a vessel in
which the wine, according to the custom of the ancients, who very
seldom drank it pure, was mixed with water, and from which the cups
were filled. Craters were among the first things on the embellishment
of which the ancient artists exercised their skill; and the number of
craters dedicated in temples seems everywhere to have been very great.

CRĔPĬDA (κρηπίς), a slipper. Slippers were worn with the pallium, not
with the toga, and were properly characteristic of the Greeks, though
adopted from them by the Romans.

CRĪMEN. Though this word occurs so frequently, it is not easy to fix
its meaning. _Crimen_ is often equivalent to _accusatio_ (κατηγορία);
but it frequently means an act which is legally punishable. Those
delicta which were punishable according to special leges, senatus
consulta, and constitutiones, and were prosecuted in judicia publica
by an accusatio publica, were more especially called crimina; and
the penalties in case of conviction were loss of life, of freedom,
of civitas, and the consequent infamia, and sometimes pecuniary
penalties also.

CRISTA. [GALEA.]

CRĬTES (κριτής), a judge, was the name applied by the Greeks to any
person who did not judge of a thing like a δικαστής, according to
positive laws, but according to his own sense of justice and equity.
But at Athens a number of κριταί was chosen by ballot from a number
of selected candidates at every celebration of the Dionysia: they
were called οἱ κριταί, κατ’ ἐξοχήν. Their office was to judge of the
merit of the different choruses and dramatic poems, and to award the
prizes to the victors. Their number was five for comedy and the same
number for tragedy, one being taken from every tribe.

CRŌBỸLUS. [COMA.]

CRŎCŌTA (sc. _vestis_, κροκωτὸν sc. ἱμάτιον, or κροκωτὸς sc. χιτών),
was a kind of gala-dress, chiefly worn by women on solemn occasions,
and in Greece especially, at the festival of the Dionysia. Its name
was derived from _crocus_, one of the favourite colours of the Greek
ladies.

CRŎTĂLUM. [CYMBALUM.]

CRUSTA. [CAELATURA.]

CRUX (σταυρός, σκόλοψ), an instrument of capital punishment, used by
several ancient nations, especially the Romans and Carthaginians.
Crucifixion was of two kinds, the less usual sort being rather
impalement than what we should describe by the word crucifixion, as
the criminal was transfixed by a pole, which passed through the back
and spine and came out at the mouth. The cross was of several kinds;
one in the shape of an X, called _crux Andreana_, because tradition
reports St. Andrew to have suffered upon it; another was formed like
a T. The third, and most common sort, was made of two pieces of wood
crossed, so as to make four right angles. It was on this, according
to the unanimous testimony of the fathers, that our Saviour suffered.
The punishment, as is well known, was chiefly inflicted on slaves,
and the worst kind of malefactors. The criminal, after sentence
pronounced, carried his cross to the place of execution; a custom
mentioned in the Gospels. Scourging appears to have formed a part
of this, as of other capital punishments among the Romans; but the
scourging of our Saviour is not to be regarded in this light, for
it was inflicted before sentence was pronounced. The criminal was
next stripped of his clothes and nailed or bound to the cross. The
latter was the more painful method, as the sufferer was left to die
of hunger. Instances are recorded of persons who survived nine days.
It was usual to leave the body on the cross after death. The breaking
of the legs of the thieves, mentioned in the Gospels, was accidental;
because, by the Jewish law, it is expressly remarked, the bodies
could not remain on the cross during the Sabbath-day.

CRYPTA (from κρύπτειν, to conceal), a crypt. Amongst the Romans,
any long narrow vault, whether wholly or partially below the level
of the earth, is expressed by this term. The specific senses of the
word are:--(1) A covered portico or arcade; called more definitely
_crypto-porticus_, because it was not supported by open columns like
the ordinary portico, but closed at the sides, with windows only for
the admission of light and air.--(2) A grotto, particularly one open
at both extremities, forming what in modern language is denominated a
“tunnel.” A subterranean vault used for any secret worship was also
called _crypta_.--(3) When the practice of consuming the body by fire
was relinquished [FUNUS], and a number of bodies was consigned to one
place of burial, as the catacombs for instance, this common tomb was
called _crypta_.

CRYPTEIA (κρυπτεία), the name of an atrocious practice at Sparta,
said to have been introduced by Lycurgus. The following is the
description given of the crypteia. The ephors, at intervals, selected
from among the young Spartans, those who appeared to be best
qualified for the task, and sent them in various directions all over
the country, provided with daggers and their necessary food. During
the day-time, these young men concealed themselves; but at night they
broke forth into the high-roads, and massacred those of the helots
whom they met, or whom they thought proper.

CŬBĬCŬLĀRĬI, slaves who had the care of the sleeping and dwelling
rooms. Faithful slaves were always selected for this office, as they
had, to a certain extent, the care of their master’s person. It was
the duty of the cubicularii to introduce visitors to their master.

CŬBĬCŬLUM usually means a sleeping and dwelling room in a Roman house
[DOMUS], but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent in which
the Roman emperors were accustomed to witness the public games. It
appears to have been so called, because the emperors were accustomed
to recline in the cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently the
practice, in a sella curulis.

CŬBĬTUS (πῆχυς), a Greek and Roman measure of length, originally
the length of the human arm from the elbow to the wrist, or to the
knuckle of the middle finger. It was equal to a foot and a half,
which gives 1 foot 5·4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and 1 foot
6·2016 inches for the Greek cubit.

CŬCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was intended to be used in the open
air, and to be drawn over the head to protect it from the injuries
of the weather, instead of a hat or cap, it was attached only to
garments of the coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used by persons
in the higher circles of society, when they wished to go abroad
without being known.

CŪDO or CŪDON, a skull-cap made of leather or of the rough shaggy fur
of any wild animal, such as were worn by the _velites_ of the Roman
armies, and apparently synonymous with _galerus_ or _galericulus_.

CŪLĔUS, or CULLĔUS, a Roman measure, which was used for estimating
the produce of vineyards. It was the largest liquid measure used by
the Romans, containing 20 amphorae, or 118 gallons, 7·546 pints.

CŬLĪNA. [DOMUS, p. 143.]

[Illustration: Cultri (From Tombstone of a Cultrarius.)]

CULTER (μάχαιρα, κοπίς, or σφαγίς), a knife with only one edge, which
formed a straight line. The blade was pointed, and its back curved.
It was used for a variety of purposes, but chiefly for killing
animals either in the slaughter-house, or in hunting, or at the
altars of the gods. The priest who conducted a sacrifice never killed
the victim himself; but one of his ministri, appointed for that
purpose, who was called either by the general name _minister_, or the
more specific _popa_ or _cultrarius_.

CULTRĀRĬUS. [CULTER.]

CŬNĔUS was the name applied to a body of foot soldiers, drawn up in
the form of a wedge, for the purpose of breaking through an enemy’s
line. The common soldiers called it a _caput porcinum_, or pig’s
head. The name _cuneus_ was also applied to the compartments of
seats in circular or semi-circular theatres, which were so arranged
as to converge to the centre of the theatre, and diverge towards
the external walls of the building, with passages between each
compartment.

CŬNĪCŬLUS (ὑπόνομος), a mine or passage underground, was so called
from its resemblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. Fidenae and Veii
are said to have been taken by mines, which opened, one of them into
the citadel, the other into the temple of Juno.

CŪPA, a wine-vat, a vessel very much like the _dolium_, and used for
the same purpose, namely, to receive the fresh must, and to contain
it during the process of fermentation. The inferior wines were drawn
for drinking from the _cupa_, without being bottled in _amphorae_,
and hence the term _vinum de cupa_. The _cupa_ was either made of
earthenware, like the _dolium_, or of wood, and covered with pitch.
It was also used for fruits and corn, forming rafts, and containing
combustibles in war, and even for a sarcophagus.

CŪRĀTOR. Till a Roman youth attained the age of puberty, which was
generally fixed at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of any
legal act, and was under the authority of a _tutor_ or guardian;
but with the attainment of the age of puberty, he became capable of
performing every legal act, and was freed from the control of his
_tutor_. As, however, a person of that tender age was liable to be
imposed upon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that every person between
the time of puberty and twenty-five years of age should be under
the protection of a _curator_. The date of this lex is not known,
though it is certain that the law existed when Plautus wrote (about
B.C. 200), who speaks of it as the _lex quina vicemaria_. This law
established a distinction of age, which was of great practical
importance, by forming the citizens into two classes, those above
and those below twenty-five years of age (_minores viginti quinque
annis_). A person under the last-mentioned age was sometimes simply
called _minor_. The object of the lex was to protect persons under
twenty-five years of age against all fraud (_dolus_). A person who
wasted his property (_prodigus_), and a person of unsound mind
(_furiosus, demens_), were also placed under the care of a _curator_.

CŪRĀTŌRES were public officers of various kinds under the Roman
empire, such as the _curatores annonae_, the _curatores ludorum_, the
_curatores regionum_, &c.

CŪRĬA, signifies both a division of the Roman people and the place
of assembly for such a division. Each of the three ancient Romulian
tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was subdivided into 10
curiae, so that the whole body of the populus or the patricians was
divided into 30 curiae. The plebeians had no connection whatever
with the curiae. All the members of the different gentes belonging
to one curia were called, in respect of one another, _curiales_.
The division into curiae was of great political importance in the
earliest times of Rome, for the curiae alone contained the citizens,
and their assembly alone was the legitimate representative of the
whole people. [COMITIA CURIATA.] Each curia as a corporation had its
peculiar sacra, and besides the gods of the state, they worshipped
other divinities and with peculiar rites and ceremonies. For such
religious purposes each curia had its own place of worship, called
curia, in which the curiales assembled for the purpose of discussing
political, financial, religious and other matters. The religious
affairs of each curia were taken care of by a priest, _Curio_, who
was assisted by another called curialis Flamen. As there were 30
curiae, there were likewise 30 curiones, who formed a college of
priests, presided over by one of them, called _Curio Maximus_. The
30 curiae had each its distinct name, which are said to have been
derived from the names of the Sabine women who had been carried off
by the Romans, though it is evident that some derived their names
from certain districts or from ancient eponymous heroes. Curia
is also used to designate the place in which the senate held its
meetings, such as curia Hostilia, curia Julia, curia Pompeii, and
from this there gradually arose the custom of calling the senate
itself in the Italian towns curia, but never the senate of Rome. The
official residence of the Salii, which was dedicated to Mars, was
likewise styled curia.

CŪRIĀTA CŎMĬTĬA. [COMITIA.]

CŪRĬO. [CURIA.]

CŪRĬUS (κύριος), signified generally at Athens the person responsible
for the welfare of such members of a family as the law presumed to
be incapable of protecting themselves; as, for instance, minors and
slaves, and women of all ages.

[Illustration: Currus. (Ancient Chariot preserved in the Vatican.)]

CURRUS (ἅρμα), a chariot, a car. These terms appear to have denoted
those two-wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons, which were
open overhead, thus differing from the _carpentum_, and closed in
front, in which they differed from the _cisium_. The most essential
articles in the construction of the currus were, 1. The rim (ἄντυξ)
[ANTYX]. 2. The axle (ἄξων, _axis_). 3. The wheels (κύκλα, τροχοί,
_rotae_), which revolved upon the axle, and were prevented from
coming off by the insertion of pins (ἔμβολοι) into the extremities
of the axles. The parts of the wheel were:--(_a_) The nave (πλήμνη,
_modiolus_). (_b_) The spokes (κνῆμαι, literally, the _legs, radii_.)
(_c_) The felly (ἴτυς). (_d_) The tire (ἐπίσωτρον, _canthus_). 4.
The pole (ῥυμός, _temo_). All the parts above mentioned are seen
in the preceding cut of an ancient chariot. The Greeks and Romans
appear never to have used more than one pole and one yoke, and the
currus thus constructed was commonly drawn by two horses, which were
attached to it by their necks, and therefore called δίζυγες ἵπποι,
συνωρίς, _gemini jugales_, _equi bijuges_, &c. If a third horse was
added, as was not unfrequently the case, it was fastened by traces.
The horse so attached was called παρήορος, παράσειρος, σειραφόρος,
in Latin, _funalis_, and is opposed to the ζυγῖται or ζύγιοι, the
yoke-horses. The ἵππος παρήορος is placed on the right of the two
yoke-horses. (See woodcut.) The Latin name for a chariot and pair
was _biga_, generally _bigae_. When a third horse was added, it was
called _triga_.

[Illustration: Triga. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]

[Illustration: Quadrigae. (From Paintings on a Vase and a
Terra-cotta.)]

A chariot and four was called _quadriga_, generally _quadrigae_; in
Greek, τετραορία or τέθριππος. The horses were commonly harnessed in
a quadriga after the manner already represented, the two strongest
horses being placed under the yoke, and the two others fastened
on each side by means of ropes. This is clearly seen in the two
quadrigae figured below, especially in the one on the right hand. It
represents a chariot overthrown in passing the goal at the circus.
The charioteer having fallen backwards, the pole and yoke are thrown
upwards into the air; the two trace-horses have fallen on their
knees, and the two yoke-horses are prancing on their hind legs.--The
currus was adapted to carry two persons, and on this account was
called in Greek δίφρος. One of the two was of course the driver. He
was called ἡνίοχος, because he held the reins, and his companion
παραβάτης, from going by his side or near him. In the Homeric ages,
chariots were commonly employed on the field of battle. The men of
rank all took their chariots with them, and in an engagement placed
themselves in front. Chariots were not much used by the Romans. The
most splendid kind were the quadrigae, in which the Roman generals
and emperors rode when they triumphed. The body of the triumphal car
was cylindrical, as we often see it represented on medals. It was
enriched with gold and ivory. The utmost skill of the painter and
the sculptor was employed to enhance its beauty and splendour. The
triumphal car had in general no pole, the horses being led by men who
were stationed at their heads.

[Illustration: Marble Chariot in the Vatican.]

CURSŌRES, slaves whose duty it was to run before the carriage of
their masters. They first came into fashion in the first century
of the Christian aera. The word _cursores_ was also applied to all
slaves whom their masters employed in carrying letters, messages, &c.

CURSUS. [CIRCUS.]

CŬRŪLIS SELLA. [SELLA CURULIS.]

CUSTŌDES. [COMITIA.]

CUSTŌDES, CUSTŌDĬAE. [CASTRA.]

CUSTOS URBIS. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.]

[Illustration: Cyathi. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 12.)]

CỸĂTHUS (κύαθος), a Greek and Roman liquid measure, containing
one-twelfth of the sextarius, or ·0825 of a pint English. The form
of the cyathus used at banquets was that of a small ladle, by means
of which the wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups from the large
vessel (_crater_) in which it was mixed. Two of these cyathi are
represented in the preceding woodcut. The cyathus was also the name
given to a cup holding the same quantity as the measure. Hence Horace
says (_Carm._ iii. 8. 13):

“Sume, Maecenas, cyathos amici
Sospitis centum.”

CYCLAS (κυκλάς), a circular robe worn by women, to the bottom of
which a border was affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to have been
usually made of some thin material.

CȲMA (κῦμα), in architecture, an _ogee_, a wave-shaped moulding,
consisting of two curves, the one concave and the other convex.
There were two forms, the _cyma recta_, which was concave above, and
convex below, thus, [Illustration], and the _cyma reversa_, which was
convex above and concave below, thus [Illustration]. The diminutive
_cymatium_ or _cumatium_ (κυμάτιον) is also used, and is indeed the
more common name.

CYMBA (κύμβη) is derived from κύμβος, a hollow, and is employed to
signify any small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. It appears
to have been much the same as the _acatium_ and _scapha_.

[Illustration: Cymbala. (From a Bas-relief in the Vatican.)]

CYMBĂLUM (κύμβαλον), a musical instrument, in the shape of two half
globes, which were held one in each hand by the performer, and
played by being struck against each other. The word is derived from
κύμβος, a hollow. The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, being
used in the worship of Cybelé, Bacchus, Juno, and all the earlier
deities of the Grecian and Roman mythology. It probably came from the
East. The crotalum (κρόταλον) was a kind of cymbal. It appears to
have been a split reed or cane, which clattered when shaken with the
hand. Women who played on the crotalum were termed _crotalistriae_.
Such was Virgil’s Copa:

“Crispum sub crotalo docta movere latus.”

The line alludes to the dance with crotala (similar to
castanets).--For _sistrum_, which some have referred to the class of
_cymbala_, see SISTRUM.

[Illustration: Crotala. (Borghese Vase now in the Louvre.)]

DACTỸLUS (δάκτυλος), a Greek measure, answering to the Roman
_digitus_, each signifying a _finger-breadth_, and being the
sixteenth part of a foot. [PES.]

DAEDALA or DAEDĂLEIA (δαίδαλα, δαιδάλεια), names used by the Greeks
to signify those early works of art which were ascribed to the age of
Daedalus, and especially the ancient wooden statues, ornamented with
gilding and bright colours and real drapery, which were the earliest
known forms of the images of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood
or stone, which were at first used for symbols of them.

DAEDĂLA (δαίδαλα), the name of two festivals, celebrated in Boeotia
in honour of Hera, and called respectively the _Great_ and the
_Lesser Daedala_. The latter were celebrated by the Plataeans alone;
in the celebration of the former, which took place only every
sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined by the other Boeotians.

DAMARĔTĪON (δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον), a Sicilian coin, respecting which
there is much dispute; but it was probably a gold coin, equal in
value to fifty litrae or ten Attic drachmae of silver; that is, a
half stater.

DAMIURGI. [DEMIURGI.]

DAMŎSĬA. [EXERCITUS.]

DANĂCE (δανάκη), properly the name of a foreign coin, was also the
name given to the obolos, which was placed in the mouth of the dead
to pay the ferryman in Hades.

DAPHNĒPHŎRĬA (δαφνηφόρια), a festival celebrated every ninth year at
Thebes in honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or Galaxius. Its name
was derived from the laurel branches (δάφναι) which were carried by
those who took part in its celebration.

DĀREICUS (δαρεικός), or to give the name in full, the Stater of
Dareius, a gold coin of Persia, stamped on one side with the figure
of an archer crowned and kneeling upon one knee, and on the other
with a sort of quadrata incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed to have
derived its name from the first Dareius, king of Persia. It is equal
to about 1_l._ 1_s._ 10_d._ 1·76 farthings.

[Illustration: Dareicus. (British Museum.)]

DĔCĂDŪCHI (δεκαδοῦχοι), the members of a council of Ten, who
succeeded the Thirty in the supreme power at Athens, B.C. 403. They
were chosen from the ten tribes, one from each; but, though opposed
to the Thirty, they sent ambassadors to Sparta to ask for assistance
against Thrasybulus and the exiles. They remained masters of Athens
till the party of Thrasybulus obtained possession of the city and the
democracy was restored.

DĔCARCHĬA or DĔCĂDARCHĬA (δεκαρχία, δεκαδαρχία), a supreme council
established in many of the Grecian cities by the Lacedaemonians, who
entrusted to it the whole government of the state under the direction
of a Spartan harmost. It always consisted of the leading members of
the aristocratical party.

DĔCASMUS (δεκασμός), bribery. There were two actions for bribery at
Athens: one, called δεκασμοῦ γραφή, lay against the person who gave
the bribe; and the other, called δώρων or δωροδοκίας γραφή, against
the person who received it. These actions applied to the bribery of
citizens in the public assemblies of the people (συνδεκάζειν τὴν
ἐκκλησίαν), of the Heliaea or any of the courts of justice, of the
βουλή, and of the public advocates. Actions for bribery were under
the jurisdiction of the thesmothetae. The punishment on conviction
of the defendant was death, or payment of ten times the value of the
gift received, to which the court might add a further punishment
(προστίμημα).

DĔCĂTE (δεκάτη). [DECUMAE.]

DĔCEMPĔDA, a pole ten feet long, used by the agrimensores
[AGRIMENSORES] in measuring land. Thus we find that the agrimensores
were sometimes called _decempedatores_.

DĔCEMPRĪMI. [SENATUS.]

DĔCEMVĬRI, or the “ten-men,” the name of various magistrates and
functionaries at Rome, of whom the most important were:--(1)
DECEMVIRI LEGIBUS SCRIBENDIS, ten commissioners, who were appointed
to draw up a code of laws. They were entrusted with supreme power
in the state, and all the other magistracies were suspended. They
entered upon their office at the beginning of the year B.C. 451; and
they discharged their duties with diligence, and dispensed justice
with impartiality. Each administered the government day by day in
succession as during an interregnum; and the fasces were only carried
before the one who presided for the day. They drew up a body of laws,
distributed into ten sections; which, after being approved of by
the senate and the comitia, were engraven on tables of metal, and
set up in the comitium. On the expiration of their year of office,
all parties were so well satisfied with the manner in which they
had discharged their duties, that it was resolved to continue the
same form of government for another year; more especially as some
of the decemvirs said that their work was not finished. Ten new
decemvirs were accordingly elected, of whom App. Claudius alone
belonged to the former body. These magistrates framed several new
laws, which were approved of by the centuries, and engraven on two
additional tables. They acted, however, in a most tyrannical manner.
Each was attended by twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only,
but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty. They made common cause
with the patrician party, and committed all kinds of outrages upon
the persons and property of the plebeians and their families. When
their year of office expired they refused to resign or to appoint
successors. At length, the unjust decision of App. Claudius, in the
case of Virginia, which led her father to kill her with his own
hands to save her from prostitution, occasioned an insurrection of
the people. The decemvirs were in consequence obliged to resign
their office, B.C. 449; after which the usual magistracies were
re-established. The ten tables of the former, and the two tables of
the latter decemvirs, form together the laws of the Twelve Tables,
which were the groundwork of the Roman laws. This, the first attempt
to make a code, remained also the only attempt for near one thousand
years, until the legislation of Justinian.--(2) DECEMVIRI LITIBUS or
STLITIBUS JUDICANDIS, were magistrates forming a court of justice,
which took cognizance of civil cases. The history as well as the
peculiar jurisdiction of this court during the time of the republic
is involved in inextricable obscurity. In the time of Cicero it
still existed, and the proceedings in it took place in the ancient
form of the sacramentum. Augustus transferred to these decemvirs
the presidency in the courts of the centumviri. During the empire,
this court had jurisdiction in capital matters, which is expressly
stated in regard to the decemvirs.--(3) DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS,
sometimes called simply DECEMVIRI SACRORUM, were the members of an
ecclesiastical collegium, and were elected for life. Their chief duty
was to take care of the Sibylline books, and to inspect them on all
important occasions by command of the senate. Under the kings the
care of the Sibylline books was committed to two men (_duumviri_) of
high rank. On the expulsion of the kings, the care of these books was
entrusted to the noblest of the patricians, who were exempted from
all military and civil duties. Their number was increased about the
year 367 B.C. to ten, of whom five were chosen from the patricians
and five from the plebeians. Subsequently their number was still
further increased to fifteen (_quindecemviri_), probably by Sulla. It
was also the duty of the decemviri to celebrate the games of Apollo,
and the secular games.

DĔCENNĀLĬA or DĔCENNĬA, a festival celebrated with games every ten
years by the Roman emperors. This festival owed its origin to the
fact that Augustus refused the supreme power when offered to him for
his life, and would only consent to accept it for ten years, and when
these expired, for another period of ten years, and so on to the end
of his life.

DĔCĬMĀTĬO, the selection, by lot, of every tenth man for punishment,
when any number of soldiers in the Roman army had been guilty of
any crime. The remainder usually had barley allowed to them instead
of wheat. This punishment appears not to have been inflicted in the
early times of the republic.

DĒCRĒTUM seems to mean that which is determined in a particular case
after examination or consideration. It is sometimes applied to a
determination of the consuls, and sometimes to a determination of
the senate. A _decretum_ of the senate would seem to differ from
a _senatus-consultum_, in the way above indicated: it was limited
to the special occasion and circumstances, and this would be true
whether the decretum was of a judicial or a legislative character.
But this distinction in the use of the two words, as applied to an
act of the senate, was, perhaps, not always observed.

DĔCŬMAE (sc. _partes_) formed a portion of the _vectigalia_ of the
Romans, and were paid by subjects whose territory, either by conquest
or _deditio_, had become the property of the state (_ager publicus_).
They consisted, as the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the
produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators (_aratores_) or
occupiers (_possessores_) of the lands, which, from being subject to
this payment, were called _agri decumani_. The tax of a tenth was,
however, generally paid by corn lands: plantations and vineyards, as
requiring no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the produce. A
similar system existed in Greece also. Peisistratus, for instance,
imposed a tax of a tenth on the lands of the Athenians, which the
Peisistratidae lowered to a twentieth. At the time of the Persian
war the confederate Greeks made a vow, by which all the states
who had surrendered themselves to the enemy were subjected to the
payment of tithes for the use of the god at Delphi. The tithes of
the public lands belonging to Athens were farmed out as at Rome to
contractors, called δεκατώναι: the term δεκατηλόγοι was applied to
the collectors; but the callings were, as we might suppose, often
united in the same person. The title δεκατευταί is applied to both.
A δεκάτη, or tenth of a different kind, was the arbitrary exaction
imposed by the Athenians (B.C. 410) on the cargoes of all ships
sailing into or out of the Pontus. They lost it by the battle of
Aegospotami (B.C. 405); but it was re-established by Thrasybulus
about B.C. 391. The tithe was let out to farm.

DĔCUNCIS, another name for the Dextans. [AS.]

DĔCŬRĬA. [EXERCITUS.]

DĔCŬRĬŌNES. [COLONIA: EXERCITUS.]

DĔCUSSIS. [AS.]

DĒDĬCĀTĬO. [INAUGURATIO.]

DĒDĬTĬCĬI, were those who had taken up arms against the Roman people,
and being conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such people did not
individually lose their freedom, but as a community all political
existence, and of course had no other relation to Rome than that of
subjects.

DĒDUCTŌRES. [AMBITUS.]

DEIGMA (δεῖγμα), a particular place in the Peiraeeus, as well as
in the harbours of other states, where merchants exposed samples
of their goods for sale. The samples themselves were also called
_deigmata_.

DEIPNON. [COENA.]

DĒLĀTOR, an informer. The delatores, under the emperors, were a
class of men who gained their livelihood by informing against their
fellow-citizens. They constantly brought forward false charges to
gratify the avarice or jealousy of the different emperors, and were
consequently paid according to the importance of the information
which they gave.

DĒLECTUS. [EXERCITUS.]

DĒLĬA (δήλια), the name of festivals and games celebrated in the
island of Delos, to which the Cyclades and the neighbouring Ionians
on the coasts belonged. The Delia had existed from very early times,
and were celebrated every fifth year. That the Athenians took part
in these solemnities at a very early period, is evident from the
_Deliastae_ (afterwards called θεωροί) mentioned in the laws of
Solon; the sacred vessel (θεωρίς), moreover, which they sent to Delos
every year, was said to be the same which Theseus had sent after
his return from Crete. In the course of time the celebration of
this ancient panegyris in Delos had ceased, and it was not revived
until B.C. 426, when the Athenians, after having purified the island
in the winter of that year, restored the ancient solemnities, and
added horse-races, which had never before taken place at the Delia.
After this restoration, Athens, being at the head of the Ionian
confederacy, took the most prominent part in the celebration of the
Delia; and though the islanders, in common with Athens, provided
the choruses and victims, the leader (ἀρχιθέωρος), who conducted
the whole solemnity, was an Athenian, and the Athenians had the
superintendence of the common sanctuary. From these solemnities,
belonging to the great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish the
_lesser Delia_, which were mentioned above, and which were celebrated
every year, probably on the 6th of Thargelion. The Athenians on
this occasion sent the sacred vessel (θεωρίς), which the priest of
Apollo adorned with laurel branches, to Delos. The embassy was called
θεωρία; and those who sailed to the island, θεωροί; and before they
set sail a solemn sacrifice was offered in the Delion, at Marathon,
in order to obtain a happy voyage. During the absence of the vessel
the city of Athens was purified, and no criminal was allowed to be
executed.

DELPHĪNĬA (δελφίνια), a festival of the same expiatory character as
the Apollonia, which was celebrated in various towns of Greece, in
honour of Apollo, surnamed Delphinius.

DELPHIS (δελφίς), an instrument of naval warfare. It consisted of a
large mass of iron or lead suspended on a beam, which projected from
the mast of the ship like a yard-arm. It was used to sink, or make a
hole in, an enemy’s vessel, by being dropped upon it when alongside.

DĒLŪBRUM. [TEMPLUM.]

DĒMARCHI (δήμαρχοι), officers, who were the head-boroughs or chief
magistrates of the demi in Attica, and are said to have been first
appointed by Cleisthenes. Their duties were various and important.
Thus, they convened meetings of the demus, and took the votes upon
all questions under consideration; they made and kept a register of
the landed estates in their districts, levied the monies due to the
demus for rent, &c. They succeeded to the functions which had been
discharged by the _naucrari_ of the old constitution.

DĒMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given to Roman slaves monthly or
daily. It usually consisted of four or five modii of corn a month.

DĒMĬNŪTIO CĂPĬTIS. [CAPUT.]

DĒMĬURGI (δημιουργοί), magistrates, whose title is expressive of
their doing the service of the people, existed in several of the
Peloponnesian states. Among the Eleans and Mantineans they seem to
have been the chief executive magistracy. We also read of _demiurgi_
in the Achaean league, who probably ranked next to the _strategi_,
and put questions to the vote in the general assembly of the
confederates. Officers named _epidemiurgi_, or upper demiurgi, were
sent by the Corinthians to manage the government of their colony at
Potidaea.

DĒMŎCRĂTĬA (δημοκρατία), that form of constitution in which the
sovereign political power is in the hands of the demus (δῆμος) or
commonalty. In a passage of Herodotus (iii. 80), the characteristics
of a democracy are specified to be--1. Equality of legal rights
(ἰσονομίη). 2. The appointment of magistrates by lot. 3. The
accountability of all magistrates and officers. 4. The reference
of all public matters to the decision of the community at large.
Aristotle remarks--“The following points are characteristic of a
democracy; that all magistrates should be chosen out of the whole
body of citizens; that all should rule each, and each in turn rule
all; that either all magistracies, or those not requiring experience
and professional knowledge, should be assigned by lot; that there
should be no property qualification, or but a very small one, for
filling any magistracy; that the same man should not fill the same
office twice, or should fill offices but few times, and but few
offices, except in the case of military commands; that all, or as
many as possible of the magistracies, should be of brief duration;
that all citizens should be qualified to serve as dicasts; that the
supreme power in everything should reside in the public assembly,
and that no magistrate should be entrusted with irresponsible power
except in very small matters.” It is somewhat curious that neither
in practice nor in theory did the representative system attract any
attention among the Greeks. That diseased form of a democracy, in
which from the practice of giving pay to the poorer citizens for
their attendance in the public assembly, and from other causes,
the predominant party in the state came to be in fact the lowest
class of the citizens, was by later writers termed an _Ochlocracy_
(ὀχλοκρατία--the dominion of the mob).

DĒMŎSĬI (δημόσιοι), public slaves at Athens, who were purchased by
the state. The public slaves, most frequently mentioned, formed
the city guard; it was their duty to preserve order in the public
assembly, and to remove any person whom the prytaneis might order.
They are generally called bowmen (τοξόται); or from the native
country of the majority, Scythians (Σκύθαι); and also Speusinians,
from the name of the person who first established the force. They
originally lived in tents in the market-place, and afterwards upon
the Areiopagus. Their officers had the name of toxarchs (τόξαρχοι).
Their number was at first 300, purchased soon after the battle of
Salamis, but was afterwards increased to 1200.

DĒMUS (δῆμος), originally indicated a district or tract of land;
and in this meaning of a country district, inhabited and under
cultivation, it is contrasted with πόλις. When Cleisthenes, at
Athens, broke up the four tribes of the old constitution, he
substituted in their place ten local tribes (φυλαὶ τοπικαί),
each of which he subdivided into ten _demi_ or country parishes,
possessing each its principal town; and in some one of these demi
were enrolled all the Athenian citizens resident in Attica, with
the exception, perhaps, of those who were natives of Athens itself.
These subdivisions corresponded in some degree to the _naucrariae_
(ναυκραρίαι) of the old tribes, and were originally one hundred in
number. These demi formed independent corporations, and had each
their several magistrates, landed and other property, with a common
treasury. They had likewise their respective convocations or “parish
meetings,” convened by the _demarchi_, in which was transacted the
public business of the demus, such as the leasing of its estates,
the elections of officers, the revision of the registers or lists
of δημόται, and the admission of new members. Independent of these
bonds of union, each demus seems to have had its peculiar temples and
religious worship. There were likewise judges, called δικασταὶ κατα
δημους, who decided cases where the matter in dispute was of less
value than ten drachmae. Admission into a demus was necessary before
any individual could enter upon his full rights and privileges as
an Attic citizen. The register of enrolment was called ληξιαρχικὸν
γραμματεῖον.

DĒNĀRĬUS, the principal silver coin among the Romans, was so called
because it was originally equal to ten asses; but on the reduction
of the weight of the as [AS], it was made equal to sixteen asses,
except in military pay, in which it was still reckoned as equal to
ten asses. The denarius was first coined five years before the first
Punic war, B.C. 269. [ARGENTUM.] The average value of the denarii
coined at the end of the commonwealth is about 8½_d._, and those
under the empire about 7½_d._ If the denarius be reckoned in value
8½_d._, the other Roman coins of silver will be of the following
value:

| Pence. | Farth.
| |
Teruncius | -- | ·53125
Sembella | -- | 1·0625
Libella | -- | 2·125
Sestertius | 2 | ·5
Quinarius or Victoriatus | 4 | 1
Denarius | 8 | 2

[Illustration: Denarius. (British Museum.)]

Some denarii were called _serrati_, because their edges were notched
like a saw, which appears to have been done to prove that they were
solid silver, and not plated; and others _bigati_ and _quadrigati_,
because on their reverse were represented chariots drawn by two and
four horses respectively.

DĒSIGNĀTOR. [FUNUS.]

DĒSULTOR, a rider in the Roman games, who generally rode two horses
at the same time, sitting on them without a saddle, and vaulting upon
either of them at his pleasure.

DĔUNX. [As, LIBRA.]

DEXTANS. [As, LIBRA.]

DĬĂDĒMA, originally a white fillet, used to encircle the head. It is
represented on the head of Dionysus, and was, in an ornamented form,
assumed by kings as an emblem of sovereignty.

DĬAETĒTAE (διαιτηταί), or arbitrators, at Athens, were of two kinds;
the one public and appointed by lot (κληρωτοί), the other private,
and chosen (αἱρετοί) by the parties who referred to them the decision
of a disputed point, instead of trying it before a court of justice;
the judgments of both, according to Aristotle, being founded on
equity rather than law. The number of public arbitrators seems to
have been 40, four for each tribe. Their jurisdiction was confined to
civil cases.

DĬĀLIS FLĀMEN. [FLAMEN.]

DĬĂMASTĪGŌSIS (διαμαστίγωσις), a solemnity performed at Sparta at
the festival of Artemis Orthia. Spartan youths were scourged on
the occasion at the altar of Artemis, by persons appointed for the
purpose, until their blood gushed forth and covered the altar. Many
anecdotes are related of the courage and intrepidity with which young
Spartans bore the lashes of the scourge; some even died without
uttering a murmur at their sufferings, for to die under the strokes
was considered as honourable a death as that on the field of battle.

DĬĂPSĔPHĬSIS (διαψήφισις), a political institution at Athens, the
object of which was to prevent aliens, or such as were the offspring
of an unlawful marriage, from assuming the rights of citizens. By
this method a trial of spurious citizens was to be held by the
demotae, within whose deme intruders were suspected to exist.

DĪĂSĬA (διάσια), a great festival celebrated at Athens, without
the walls of the city, in honour of Zeus, surnamed Μειλίχιος. The
whole people took part in it, and the wealthier citizens offered
victims, while the poorer classes burnt such incense as their country
furnished. The diasia took place in the latter half of the month of
Anthesterion with feasting and rejoicings, and was, like most other
festivals, accompanied by a fair.

DĬCASTĒS (δικαστής), the name of a judge, or rather juryman, at
Athens. The conditions of his eligibility were, that he should be a
free citizen, in the enjoyment of his full franchise (ἐπιτιμία), and
not less than thirty years of age, and of persons so qualified 6,000
were selected by lot for the service of every year. Their appointment
took place annually under the conduct of the nine archons and their
official scribe; each of these ten personages drew by lot the names
of 600 persons of the tribe assigned to him; the whole number so
selected was again divided by lot into ten sections of 500 each,
together with a supernumerary one, consisting of 1000 persons, from
among whom the occasional deficiencies in the sections of 500 might
be supplied. To each of the ten sections one of the ten first letters
of the alphabet was appropriated as a distinguishing mark, and a
small tablet (πινάκιον), inscribed with the letter of the section
and the name of the individual, was delivered as a certificate of
his appointment to each dicast. Before proceeding to the exercise of
his functions, the dicast was obliged to swear the official oath.
This oath being taken, and the divisions made as above mentioned, it
remained to assign the courts to the several sections of dicasts in
which they were to sit. This was not, like the first, an appointment
intended to last during the year, but took place under the conduct
of the thesmothetae, _de novo_, every time that it was necessary
to impanel a number of dicasts. As soon as the allotment had taken
place, each dicast received a staff, on which was painted the letter
and the colour of the court awarded him, which might serve both as a
ticket to procure admittance, and also to distinguish him from any
loiterer that might endeavour clandestinely to obtain a sitting after
business had begun. While in court, and probably from the hand of
the presiding magistrate (ἡγέμων δικαστηρίου), he received the token
or ticket that entitled him to receive his fee (δικαστικόν). This
payment is said to have been first instituted by Pericles, and was
originally a single obolus; it was increased by Cleon to thrice that
amount about the 88th Olympiad.

DĬCĒ (δίκη), signifies generally any proceedings at law by one
party directly or mediately against others. The object of all
such actions is to protect the body politic, or one or more of
its individual members, from injury and aggression; a distinction
which has in most countries suggested the division of all causes
into two great classes, the public and the private, and assigned to
each its peculiar form and treatment. At Athens the first of these
was implied by the terms public δίκαι, or ἀγῶνες, or still more
peculiarly by γραφαί; causes of the other class were termed private
δίκαι, or ἀγῶνες, or simply δίκαι in its limited sense. In a δίκη,
only the person whose rights were alleged to be affected, or the
legal protector (κύριος) of such person, if a minor or otherwise
incapable of appearing _suo jure_, was permitted to institute an
action as plaintiff; in public causes, with the exception of some few
in which the person injured or his family were peculiarly bound and
interested to act, any free citizen, and sometimes, when the state
was directly attacked, almost any alien, was empowered to do so.
The court fees, called _prytaneia_, were paid in private but not in
public causes, and a public prosecutor that compromised the action
with the defendant was in most cases punished by a fine of a thousand
drachmae and a modified disfranchisement, while there was no legal
impediment at any period of a private lawsuit to the reconciliation
of the litigant parties.--The proceedings in the δίκη were commenced
by a summons (πρόσκλησις) to the defendant to appear on a certain
day before the proper magistrate (εἰσαγωγεύς), and there answer
the charges preferred against him. This summons was often served
by the plaintiff in person, accompanied by one or two witnesses
(κλητῆρες), whose names were endorsed upon the declaration (λῆξις
or ἔγκλημα). Between the service of the summons and appearance of
the parties before the magistrate, it is very probable that the law
prescribed the intervention of a period of five days. If both parties
appeared, the proceedings commenced by the plaintiff putting in his
declaration, and at the same time depositing his share of the court
fees (πρυτανεῖα), which were trifling in amount, but the non-payment
of which was a fatal objection to the further progress of a cause.
When these were paid, it became the duty of the magistrate, if no
manifest objection appeared on the face of the declaration, to cause
it to be written out on a tablet, and exposed for the inspection
of the public on the wall or other place that served as the cause
list of his court. The magistrate then appointed a day for the
further proceedings of the _anacrisis_ [ANACRISIS]. If the plaintiff
failed to appear at the anacrisis, the suit, of course, fell to
the ground; if the defendant made default, judgment passed against
him. An affidavit might at this, as well as at other periods of the
action, be made in behalf of a person unable to attend upon the
given day, and this would, if allowed, have the effect of postponing
further proceedings (ὑπωμοσία); it might, however, be combated by
a counter-affidavit, to the effect that the alleged reason was
unfounded or otherwise insufficient (ἀνθυπωμοσία); and a question
would arise upon this point, the decision of which, when adverse to
the defendant, would render him liable to the penalty of contumacy.
The plaintiff was in this case said ἐρήμην ἑλεῖν; the defendant,
ἐρήμην ὀφλεῖν, δίκην being the word omitted in both phrases. The
anacrisis began with the affidavit of the plaintiff (προωμοσία),
then followed the answer of the defendant (ἀντωμοσία or ἀντιγραφή),
then the parties produced their respective witnesses, and reduced
their evidence to writing, and put in originals, or authenticated
copies, of all the records, deeds, and contracts that might be
useful in establishing their case, as well as memoranda of offers
and requisitions then made by either side (προκλήσεις). The whole of
the documents were then, if the cause took a straightforward course
(εὐθυδικία), enclosed on the last day of the anacrisis in a casket
(ἐχῖνος), which was sealed, and entrusted to the custody of the
presiding magistrate, till it was produced and opened at the trial.
During the interval no alteration in its contents was permitted, and
accordingly evidence that had been discovered after the anacrisis
was not producible at the trial.--In some causes, the trial before
the dicasts was by law appointed to come on within a given time; in
such as were not provided for by such regulations, we may suppose
that it would principally depend upon the leisure of the magistrate.
Upon the court being assembled, the magistrate called on the cause,
and the plaintiff opened his case. At the commencement of the speech,
the proper officer (ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ) filled the clepsydra with water. As
long as the water flowed from this vessel the orator was permitted
to speak; if, however, evidence was to be read by the officer of
the court, or a law recited, the water was stopped till the speaker
recommenced. The quantity of water, or, in other words, the length
of the speeches, was different in different causes. After the
speeches of the advocates, which were in general two on each side,
and the incidental reading of the documentary and other evidence,
the dicasts proceeded to give their judgment by ballot.--When the
principal point at issue was decided in favour of the plaintiff,
there followed in many cases a further discussion as to the fine or
punishment to be inflicted on the defendant (παθεῖν ἢ ἀποτῖσαι). All
actions were divided into two classes,--ἀγῶνες ἀτίμητοι, _suits not
to be assessed_, in which the fine, or other penalty, was determined
by the laws; and ἀγῶνες τιμητοί, _suits to be assessed_, in which
the penalty had to be fixed by the judges. If the suit was an ἀγῶν
τιμητος, the plaintiff generally mentioned in the pleadings the
punishment which he considered the defendant deserved (τίμημα); and
the defendant was allowed to make a counter-assessment (ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι
or ὑποτιμᾶσθαι), and to argue before the judges why the assessment of
the plaintiff ought to be changed or mitigated. In certain causes,
which were determined by the laws, any of the judges was allowed
to propose an additional assessment (προστίμημα); the amount of
which, however, appears to have been usually fixed by the laws.
Thus, in certain cases of theft, the additional penalty was fixed
at five days’ and nights’ imprisonment. Upon judgment being given
in a private suit, the Athenian law left its execution very much in
the hands of the successful party, who was empowered to seize the
moveables of his antagonist as a pledge for the payment of the money,
or institute an action of ejectment (ἐξούλης) against the refractory
debtor. The judgment of a court of dicasts was in general decisive
(δίκη αὐτοτελής); but upon certain occasions, as, for instance,
when a gross case of perjury or conspiracy could be proved by the
unsuccessful party to have operated to his disadvantage, the cause,
upon the conviction of such conspirators or witnesses, might be
commenced _de novo_.

DICTĀTOR, an extraordinary magistrate at Rome. The name is of
Latin origin, and the office probably existed in many Latin towns
before it was introduced into Rome. We find it in Lanuvium even
in very late times. At Rome this magistrate was originally called
_magister populi_ and not _dictator_, and in the sacred books he
was always designated by the former name down to the latest times.
On the establishment of the Roman republic the government of the
state was entrusted to two consuls, that the citizens might be the
better protected against the tyrannical exercise of the supreme
power. But it was soon felt that circumstances might arise in
which it was of importance for the safety of the state that the
government should be vested in the hands of a single person, who
should possess for a season absolute power, and from whose decision
there should be no appeal to any other body. Thus it came to pass
that in B.C. 501, nine years after the expulsion of the Tarquins,
the dictatorship (_dictatura_) was instituted. By the original law
respecting the appointment of a dictator (_lex de dictatore creando_)
no one was eligible for this office unless he had previously been
consul. We find, however, a few instances in which this law was not
observed.--When a dictator was considered necessary, the senate
passed a senatus consultum, that one of the consuls should nominate
(_dicere_) a dictator; and without a previous decree of the senate
the consuls had not the power of naming a dictator. The nomination or
proclamation of the dictator was always made by the consul, probably
without any witnesses, between midnight and morning, and with the
observance of the auspices (_surgens_ or _oriens nocte silentio
dictatorem dicebat_). The technical word for this nomination or
proclamation was _dicere_ (seldom _creare_ or _facere_). Originally
the dictator was of course a patrician. The first plebeian dictator
was C. Marcius Rutilus, nominated in B.C. 356 by the plebeian consul
M. Popillius Laenas. The reasons which led to the appointment of
a dictator, required that there should be only one at a time. The
dictators that were appointed for carrying on the business of the
state were said to be nominated _rei gerundae causa_, or sometimes
_seditionis sedandae causa_; and upon them, as well as upon the
other magistrates, the imperium was conferred by a _Lex Curiata_.
The dictatorship was limited to six months, and no instances occur
in which a person held this office for a longer time, for the
dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar are of course not to be taken into
account. On the contrary, though a dictator was appointed for six
months, he often resigned his office long previously, immediately
after he had dispatched the business for which he had been appointed.
As soon as the dictator was nominated, a kind of suspension took
place with respect to the consuls and all the other magistrates,
with the exception of the tribuni plebis. The regular magistrates
continued, indeed, to discharge the duties of their various offices
under the dictator, but they were no longer independent officers,
but were subject to the higher imperium of the dictator, and obliged
to obey his orders in every thing. The superiority of the dictator’s
power to that of the consuls consisted chiefly in the three following
points--greater independence of the senate, more extensive power of
punishment without any appeal (_provocatio_) from their sentence
to the people, and irresponsibility. To these three points, must
of course be added that he was not fettered by a colleague. We may
naturally suppose that the dictator would usually act in unison with
the senate; but it is expressly stated that in many cases where the
consuls required the co-operation of the senate, the dictator could
act on his own responsibility. That there was originally no appeal
from the sentence of the dictator is certain, and accordingly the
lictors bore the axes in the fasces before them even in the city,
as a symbol of their absolute power over the lives of the citizens,
although by the Valerian law the axes had disappeared from the fasces
of the consuls. Whether, however, the right of _provocatio_ was
afterwards given cannot be determined. It was in consequence of the
great and irresponsible power possessed by the dictatorship, that we
find it frequently compared with the regal dignity, from which it
only differed in being held for a limited time.--There were however
a few limits to the power of the dictator. 1. The most important was
that which we have mentioned above, that the period of his office was
only six months. 2. He had not power over the treasury, but could
only make use of the money which was granted him by the senate. 3.
He was not allowed to leave Italy, since he might thus easily become
dangerous to the republic; though the case of Atilius Calatinus in
the first Punic war forms an exception to this rule. 4. He was not
allowed to ride on horseback at Rome, without previously obtaining
the permission of the people; a regulation apparently capricious,
but perhaps adopted that he might not bear too great a resemblance
to the kings, who were accustomed to ride.--The insignia of the
dictator were nearly the same as those of the kings in earlier times;
and of the consuls subsequently. Instead however of having only
twelve lictors, as was the case with the consuls, he was preceded by
twenty-four bearing the secures as well as the fasces. The _sella
curulis_ and _toga praetexta_ also belonged to the dictator.--The
preceding account of the dictatorship applies more particularly to
the dictator rei gerundae causa; but dictators were also frequently
appointed, especially when the consuls were absent from the city,
to perform certain acts, which could not be done by any inferior
magistrate. These dictators had little more than the name; and as
they were only appointed to discharge a particular duty, they had to
resign immediately that duty was performed. The occasions on which
such dictators were appointed, were principally:--1. For the purpose
of holding the comitia for the elections (_comitiorum habendorum
causa_). 2. For fixing the _clavus annalis_ in the temple of Jupiter
(_clavi figendi causa_) in times of pestilence or civil discord,
because the law said that this ceremony was to be performed by the
_praetor maximus_, and after the institution of the dictatorship
the latter was regarded as the highest magistracy in the state. 3.
For appointing holidays (_feriarum constituendarum causa_) on the
appearance of prodigies, and for officiating at the public games
(_ludorum faciendorum causa_), the presidency of which belonged
to the consuls or praetors. 4. For holding trials (_quaestionibus
exercendis_.) 5. And on one occasion, for filling up vacancies in
the senate (_legendo senatui_).--Along with the dictator there was
always a _magister equitum_, the nomination of whom was left to the
choice of the dictator, unless the senatus consultum specified,
as was sometimes the case, the name of the person who was to be
appointed. The magister equitum had, like the dictator, to receive
the imperium by a lex curiata. The dictator could not be without
a magister equitum, and, consequently, if the latter died during
the six months of the dictatorship, another had to be nominated
in his stead. The magister equitum was subject to the imperium of
the dictator, but in the absence of his superior he became his
representative, and exercised the same powers as the dictator. The
magister equitum was originally, as his name imports, the commander
of the cavalry, while the dictator was at the head of the legions,
the infantry; and the relation between them was in this respect
similar to that which subsisted between the king and the tribunus
celerum. Dictators were only appointed so long as the Romans had
to carry on wars in Italy. A solitary instance of the nomination
of a dictator for the purpose of carrying on war out of Italy has
been already mentioned. The last dictator rei gerundae causa was M.
Junius Pera, in B.C. 216. From that time dictators were frequently
appointed for holding the elections down to B.C. 202, but after
that year the dictatorship disappears altogether.--After a lapse of
120 years, Sulla caused himself to be appointed dictator in B.C.
82, _reipublicae constituendae causa_, but neither his dictatorship
nor that of Caesar is to be compared with the genuine office. Soon
after Caesar’s death the dictatorship was abolished for ever by a
lex proposed by the consul Antonius. During the time, however, that
the dictatorship was in abeyance, a substitute was invented for it,
whenever the circumstances of the republic required the adoption of
extraordinary measures, by the senate investing the consuls with
dictatorial power. This was done by the well-known formula, _Videant_
or _dent operam consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti capiat_.

DICTYNNĬA (δικτύννια), a festival with sacrifices, celebrated
at Cydonia in Crete, in honour of Artemis, surnamed Δίκτυννα or
Δικτύνναια, from δίκτυον, a hunter’s net.

DĬES (ἡμέρα), a day. The name _dies_ was applied, like our word day,
to the time during which, according to the notions of the ancients,
the sun performed his course around the earth, and this time they
called the civil day (_dies civilis_, in Greek νυχθήμερον, because
it included both night and day). The natural day (_dies naturalis_),
or the time from the rising to the setting of the sun, was likewise
designated by the name dies. The civil day began with the Greeks
at the setting of the sun, and with the Romans at midnight. At the
time of the Homeric poems the natural day was divided into three
parts. The first, called ἠώς, began with sunrise, and comprehended
the whole space of time during which light seemed to be increasing,
_i.e._ till mid-day. The second part was called μέσον ἦμαρ or mid-day,
during which the sun was thought to stand still. The third part bore
the name of δείλη or δείελον ἦμαρ, which derived its name from the
increased warmth of the atmosphere. Among the Athenians the first
and last of the divisions made at the time of Homer were afterwards
subdivided into two parts. The earlier part of the morning was termed
πρωΐ or πρῲ τῆς ἡμέρας: the latter, πληθούσης τῆς ἀγορᾶς, or περὶ
πλήθουσαν ἀγοράν. The μέσον ἦμαρ of Homer was afterwards expressed
by μεσημβρία, μέσον ἡμέρας, or μέση ἡμέρα, and comprehended, as
before, the middle of the day, when the sun seemed neither to rise
nor to decline. The two parts of the afternoon were called δείλη
πρωΐη or πρωΐα, and δείλη ὀψίη or ὀψία. This division continued to
be observed down to the latest period of Grecian history, though
another more accurate division was introduced at an early period;
for Anaximander, or, according to others, his disciple Anaximenes,
is said to have made the Greeks acquainted with the use of the
Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial (called πόλος, or ὡρολόγιον), by
means of which the natural day was divided into twelve equal spaces
of time. The division of the day most generally observed by the
Romans, was that into _tempus antemeridianum_ and _pomeridianum_,
the _meridies_ itself being only considered as a point at which the
one ended and the other commenced. But as it was of importance that
this moment should be known, an especial officer [ACCENSUS] was
appointed, who proclaimed the time of mid-day. The division of the
day into twelve equal spaces, which were shorter in winter than in
summer, was first adopted when artificial means of measuring time
were introduced among the Romans from Greece. This was about the
year B.C. 291, when L. Papirius Cursor, after the war with Pyrrhus
in southern Italy, brought to Rome an instrument called _solarium
horologium_, or simply _solarium_. But as the solarium had been
made for a different latitude, it showed the time at Rome very
incorrectly. Scipio Nasica, therefore, erected in B.C. 159 a public
clepsydra, which indicated the hours of the night as well as of the
day. Even after the erection of this clepsydra it was customary
for one of the subordinate officers of the praetor to proclaim the
third, sixth, and ninth hours; which shows that the day was, like the
night, divided into four parts, each consisting of three hours.--All
the days of the year were, according to different points of view,
divided by the Romans into different classes. For the purpose of the
administration of justice all days were divided into _dies fasti_
and _dies nefasti_. DIES FASTI were the days on which the praetor
was allowed to administer justice in the public courts; they derived
their name from _fari_ (_fari tria verba_; _do_, _dico_, _addico_).
On some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, but not on all. The
regular _dies fasti_ were marked in the Roman calendar by the letter
F, and their number in the course of the year was 38.--Besides these
there were certain days called _dies intercisi_, on which the praetor
might hold his courts, but not at all hours, so that sometimes one
half of such a day was _fastus_, while the other half was _nefastus_.
Their number was 65 in the year.--DIES NEFASTI were days on which
neither courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held, and
which were dedicated to other purposes. The term _dies nefasti_,
which originally had nothing to do with religion, but simply
indicated days on which no courts were to be held, was in subsequent
times applied to religious days in general, as _dies nefasti_ were
mostly dedicated to the worship of the gods.--In a religious point
of view all days of the year were either _dies festi_, or _dies
profesti_, or _dies intercisi_. According to the definition given by
Macrobius, _dies festi_ were dedicated to the gods, and spent with
sacrifices, repasts, games, and other solemnities; _dies profesti_
belonged to men for the administration of their private and public
affairs. _Dies intercisi_ were common between gods and men, that is,
partly devoted to the worship of the gods, partly to the transaction
of ordinary business. _Dies profesti_ were either _dies fasti_, or
_dies comitiales_, that is, days on which comitia were held, or _dies
comperendini_, that is, days to which any action was allowed to be
transferred; or _dies stati_, that is, days set apart for causes
between Roman citizens and foreigners; or _dies proeliales_, that is,
all days on which religion did not forbid the commencement of a war.

DIFFARRĔĀTĬO. [DIVORTIUM.]

DĬĬPŎLEIA (διιπόλεια), also called Διπόλεια or Διπόλια, a very ancient
festival celebrated every year on the acropolis of Athens in honour
of Zeus, surnamed Πολιεύς.

DĬMĂCHAE (διμάχαι), Macedonian horse-soldiers, who also fought on
foot when occasion required, like our dragoons.

DĪMĬNŪTĬO CĂPĬTIS. [CAPUT.]

DĬŎCLEIA (διόκλεια), a festival celebrated by the Megarians in honour
of an ancient Athenian hero, Diocles, around whose grave young men
assembled on the occasion, and amused themselves with gymnastic and
other contests. We read that he who gave the sweetest kiss obtained
the prize, consisting of a garland of flowers.

DĬŎNȲSĬA (διονύσια), festivals celebrated in various parts of Greece
in honour of Dionysus, and characterised by extravagant merriment
and enthusiastic joy. Drunkenness, and the boisterous music of
flutes, cymbals, and drums, were likewise common to all Dionysiac
festivals. In the processions called θίασοι (from θείαζω), with
which they were celebrated, women also took part in the disguise
of Bacchae, Lenae, Thyades, Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned with
garlands of ivy, and bearing the thyrsus in their hands, so that
the whole train represented a population inspired, and actuated by
the powerful presence of the god. The choruses sung on the occasion
were called dithyrambs, and were hymns addressed to the god in the
freest metres and with the boldest imagery, in which his exploits
and achievements were extolled. [CHORUS.] The phallus, the symbol
of the fertility of nature, was also carried in these processions.
The indulgence in drinking was considered by the Greeks as a duty
of gratitude which they owed to the giver of the vine; hence in
some places it was thought a crime to remain sober at the Dionysia.
The Attic festivals of Dionysus were four in number: the _Rural_ or
_Lesser Dionysia_ (Διονύσια κατ’ ἀγρούς, or μικρά), the _Lenaea_
(Λήναια), the _Anthesteria_ (Ἀνθεστήρια), and the _City_ or _Great
Dionysia_ (Διονύσια ἐν ἄστει, ἀστικά, or μεγάλα). The season of
the year sacred to Dionysus was during the months nearest to the
shortest day; and the Attic festivals were accordingly celebrated
in Poseideon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, and Elaphebolion.--The _Rural_
or _Lesser Dionysia_, a vintage festival, were celebrated in the
various demes of Attica in the month of Poseideon, and were under
the superintendence of the several local magistrates, the demarchs.
This was doubtless the most ancient of all, and was held with the
highest degree of merriment and freedom; even slaves enjoyed full
freedom during its celebration, and their boisterous shouts on the
occasion were almost intolerable. It is here that we have to seek
for the origin of comedy, in the jests and the scurrilous abuse with
which the peasants assailed the bystanders from a waggon in which
they rode about. The Dionysia in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of
the other demes of Attica, belonged to the lesser Dionysia.--The
second festival, the _Lenaea_ (from ληνός, the wine-press, from which
also the month of Gamelion was called by the Ionians Lenaeon), was
celebrated in the month of Gamelion; the place of its celebration
was the ancient temple of Dionysus Limnaeus (from λίμνη, as the
district was originally a swamp). This temple was called the Lenaeon.
The Lenaea were celebrated with a procession and scenic contests in
tragedy and comedy. The procession probably went to the Lenaeon,
where a goat (τράγος, whence the chorus and tragedy which arose out
of it were called τραγικὸς χορός, and τραγῳδία) was sacrificed, and a
chorus standing around the altar sang the dithyrambic ode to the god.
As the dithyramb was the element out of which, by the introduction of
an actor, tragedy arose [CHORUS], it is natural that, in the scenic
contests of this festival, tragedy should have preceded comedy. The
poet who wished his play to be brought out at the Lenaea applied to
the second archon, who had the superintendence of this festival, and
who gave him a chorus if the piece was thought to deserve it.--The
third festival, the _Anthesteria_, was celebrated on the 11th,
12th, and 13th days of the month of Anthesterion. The second archon
likewise superintended the celebration of the Anthesteria, and
distributed the prizes among the victors in the various games which
were carried on during the season. The first day was called πιθοιγία:
the second, χόες: and the third, χύτροι. The first day derived its
name from the opening of the casks to taste the wine of the preceding
year; the second from χοῦς, the cup, and seems to have been the day
devoted to drinking. The third day had its name from χύτρος, a pot,
as on this day persons offered pots with flowers, seeds, or cooked
vegetables, as a sacrifice to Dionysus and Hermes Chthonius. It is
uncertain whether dramas were performed at the Anthesteria; but it
is supposed that comedies were represented, and that tragedies which
were to be brought out at the great Dionysia were perhaps rehearsed
at the Anthesteria. The mysteries connected with the celebration
of the Anthesteria were held at night.--The fourth festival, the
_City_ or _Great Dionysia_, was celebrated about the 12th of the
month of Elaphebolion; but we do not know whether they lasted more
than one day or not. The order in which the solemnities took place
was as follows:--the great public procession, the chorus of boys,
the _comus_ [CHORUS], comedy, and, lastly, tragedy. Of the dramas
which were performed at the great Dionysia, the tragedies at least
were generally new pieces; repetitions do not, however, seem to have
been excluded from any Dionysiac festival. The first archon had
the superintendence, and gave the chorus to the dramatic poet who
wished to bring out his piece at this festival. The prize awarded to
the dramatist for the best play consisted of a crown, and his name
was proclaimed in the theatre of Dionysus. As the great Dionysia
were celebrated at the beginning of spring, when the navigation was
re-opened, Athens was not only visited by numbers of country people,
but also by strangers from other parts of Greece, and the various
amusements and exhibitions on this occasion were not unlike those
of a modern fair.--The worship of Dionysus, whom the Romans called
Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic mysteries and orgies (_Bacchanalia_),
are said to have been introduced from southern Italy into Etruria,
and from thence to Rome, where for a time they were carried on in
secret, and, during the latter period of their existence, at night.
The initiated, according to Livy, not only indulged in feasting and
drinking at their meetings, but when their minds were heated with
wine they indulged in the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural
vices. The time of initiation lasted ten days; on the tenth, the
person who was to be initiated took a solemn meal, underwent a
purification by water, and was led into the sanctuary (_Bacchanal_).
At first only women were initiated, and the orgies were celebrated
every year during three days. But Pacula Annia, a Campanian matron,
pretending to act under the direct influence of Bacchus, changed the
whole method of celebration: she admitted men to the initiation,
and transferred the solemnisation, which had hitherto taken place
during the daytime, to the night. Instead of three days in the year,
she ordered that the Bacchanalia should be held during five days in
every month. It was from that time that these orgies were carried
on with frightful licentiousness and excesses of every kind. The
evil at length became so alarming, that, in B.C. 186, the consuls,
by the command of the senate, instituted an investigation into the
nature and object of these new rites. The result was that numerous
persons were arrested, and some put to death; and that a decree of
the senate was issued, commanding that no Bacchanalia should be held
either in Rome or Italy; that if any one should think such ceremonies
necessary, or if he could not neglect them without scruples or making
atonements, he should apply to the praetor urbanus, who might then
consult the senate. If the permission should be granted to him in
an assembly of the senate, consisting of not less than one hundred
members, he might solemnise the Bacchic sacra; but no more than five
persons were to be present at the celebration; there should be no
common fund, and no master of the sacra or priest. A brazen table
containing this important document was discovered near Bari, in
southern Italy, in the year 1640, and is at present in the imperial
Museum of Vienna. While the _Bacchanalia_ were thus suppressed,
another more simple and innocent festival of Bacchus, the _Liberalia_
(from _Liber_, or _Liber Pater_, a name of Bacchus), continued to
be celebrated at Rome every year on the 16th of March. Priests and
aged priestesses, adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through the
city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats, together with an altar with
a handle (_ansata ara_), in the middle of which there was a small
fire-pan (_foculus_), in which from time to time sacrifices were
burnt. On this day Roman youths who had attained their sixteenth year
received the _toga virilis_.

DĬŎSCŪRĬA (διοσκούρια), festivals celebrated in various parts of
Greece in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). Their worship
was very generally adopted in Greece, especially in the Doric and
Achaean states; but little is known of the manner in which their
festivals were celebrated. At Athens the festival was called Anaceia.

DĬŌTA, a vessel having two ears (ὦτα) or handles, used for holding
wine. It appears to have been much the same as the amphora. [AMPHORA.]

DIPHTHĔRA (διφθέρα), a kind of cloak made of the skins of animals,
and worn by herdsmen and country people. It had a covering for the
head (ἐπικράνον), in which respect it would correspond to the Roman
_cucullus_.

DIPLŌMA, a writ or public document, which conferred upon a person
any right or privilege. During the republic, it was granted by the
consuls and senate; and under the empire, by the emperor and the
magistrates whom he authorised to do so. It consisted of two leaves,
whence it derived its name.

DIPTỸCHA (δίπτυχα), two writing tablets, which could be folded
together. They were commonly made of wood and covered over with wax.

DĬRĬBĬTŌRES. [COMITIA.]

DISCUS (δίσκος), a circular plate of stone, or metal, made for
throwing to a distance as an exercise of strength and dexterity. It
was one of the principal gymnastic exercises of the ancients, being
included in the _Pentathlum_.

[Illustration: Discobolus. (Osterley, Denk. der alt Kunst, vol. 1.
No. 139)]

DISPENSĀTOR. [CALCULATOR.]

DITHỸRAMBUS. [CHORUS.]

DĪVERSŌRĬUM. [CAUPONA.]

DĪVĪNĀTĬO (μαντική), a power in man which foresees future things
by means of those signs which the gods throw in his way. Among the
Greeks the _manteis_ (μάντεις), or seers, who announced the future,
were supposed to be under the direct influence of the gods, chiefly
that of Apollo. In many families of seers the inspired knowledge of
the future was considered to be hereditary, and to be transmitted
from father to son. To these families belonged the Iamids, who from
Olympia spread over a considerable part of Greece; the Branchidae,
near Miletus; the Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis; the Telliads,
the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along with the seers we may also
mention the Bacides and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a very remote
time, and were distinct from the manteis so far as they pretended
to derive their knowledge of the future from sacred books (χρησμοί)
which they consulted, and which were in some places, as at Athens
and Rome, kept by the government or some especial officers, in the
acropolis and in the most revered sanctuary. The Bacides are said to
have been descended from one or more prophetic nymphs of the name of
Bacis. The Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably of Asiatic origin,
whose peculiar custom seems to have been to wander with their sacred
books from place to place. The Sibylla, whose books gained so great
an importance at Rome, is reported to have been the Erythraean: the
books which she was said to have sold to one of the Tarquins were
carefully concealed from the public, and only accessible to the
duumvirs. Besides these more respectable prophets and prophetesses,
there were numbers of diviners of an inferior order (χρησμολόγοι),
who made it their business to explain all sorts of signs, and to
tell fortunes. They were, however, more particularly popular with
the lower orders, who are everywhere most ready to believe what is
most marvellous and least entitled to credit. No public undertaking
of any consequence was ever entered upon by the Greeks and Romans
without consulting the will of the gods, by observing the signs
which they sent, especially those in the sacrifices offered for the
purpose, and by which they were thought to indicate the success
or the failure of the undertaking. For this kind of divination no
divine inspiration was thought necessary, but merely experience and
a certain knowledge acquired by routine; and although in some cases
priests were appointed for the purpose of observing and explaining
signs [AUGUR; HARUSPEX], yet on any sudden emergency, especially
in private affairs, any one who met with something extraordinary,
might act as his own interpreter. The principal signs by which the
gods were thought to declare their will, were things connected with
the offering of sacrifices, the flight and voice of birds, all
kinds of natural phenomena, ordinary as well as extraordinary, and
dreams.--The interpretation of signs of the first class (ἱερομαντεία
or ἱεροσκοπία, _haruspicium_ or _ars haruspicina_) was, according
to Aeschylus, the invention of Prometheus. It seems to have been
most cultivated by the Etruscans, among whom it was raised into a
complete science, and from whom it passed to the Romans. Sacrifices
were either offered for the special purpose of consulting the gods,
or in the ordinary way; but in both cases the signs were observed,
and when they were propitious, the sacrifice was said καλλιερεῖν. The
principal points that were generally observed were, 1. The manner
in which the victim approached the altar. 2. The nature of the
intestines with respect to their colour and smoothness; the liver
and bile were of particular importance. 3. The nature of the flame
which consumed the sacrifice. Especial care was also taken during
a sacrifice, that no inauspicious or frivolous words were uttered
by any of the bystanders: hence the admonitions of the priests,
εὐφημεῖτε and εὐφημία, or σιγᾶτε, σιωπᾶτε, _favete linguis_, and
others; for improper expressions were not only thought to pollute
and profane the sacred act, but to be unlucky omens.--The art of
interpreting signs of the second class was called οἰωνιστική,
_augurium_, or _auspicium_. It was, like the former, common to Greeks
and Romans, but never attained the same degree of importance in
Greece as it did in Rome. [AUSPICIUM.] The Greeks, when observing
the flight of birds, turned their face toward the north, and then a
bird appearing to the right (east), especially an eagle, a heron, or
a falcon, was a favourable sign; while birds appearing to the left
(west) were considered as unlucky signs. Of greater importance than
the appearance of animals, at least to the Greeks, were the phenomena
in the heavens, particularly during any public transaction. Among the
unlucky phenomena in the heavens (διοσημεῖα, _signa_, or _portenta_)
were thunder and lightning, an eclipse of the sun or moon,
earthquakes, rain of blood, stones, milk, &c. Any one of these signs
was sufficient at Athens to break up the assembly of the people.--In
common life, things apparently of no importance, when occurring at a
critical moment, were thought by the ancients to be signs sent by the
gods, from which conclusions might be drawn respecting the future.
Among these common occurrences we may mention sneezing, twinkling
of the eyes, tinkling of the ears, &c.--The art of interpreting
dreams (ὀνειροπολία), which had probably been introduced into Europe
from Asia, where it is still a universal practice, seems in the
Homeric age to have been held in high esteem, for dreams were said
to be sent by Zeus. In subsequent times, that class of diviners
who occupied themselves with the interpretation of dreams, seems
to have been very numerous and popular; but they never enjoyed any
protection from the state, and were chiefly resorted to by private
individuals.--The subject of oracles is treated in a separate
article. [ORACULUM.]--The word _divinatio_ was used in a particular
manner by the Romans as a law term. If in any case two or more
accusers came forward against one and the same individual, it was, as
the phrase ran, _decided by divination_, who should be the chief or
real accuser, whom the others then joined as _subscriptores;_ _i.e._ by
putting their names to the charge brought against the offender. This
transaction, by which one of several accusers was selected to conduct
the accusation, was called _divinatio_, as the question here was not
about facts, but about something which was to be done, and which
could not be found out by witnesses or written documents; so that
the judices had, as it were, to divine the course which they had to
take. Hence the oration of Cicero, in which he tries to show that he,
and not Q. Caecilius Niger, ought to conduct the accusation against
Verres, is called _Divinatio in Caecilium_.

DĪVĪSOR. [AMBITUS.]

DĪVORTĬUM (ἀπόλειψις, ἀπόπεμψις), divorce. (1) GREEK. The laws of
Athens permitted either the husband or the wife to call for and
effect a divorce. If it originated with the wife, she was said
to leave her husband’s house (ἀπολείπειν); if otherwise, to be
dismissed from it (ἀποπεμπέσθαι). After divorce, the wife resorted
to her male relations, with whom she would have remained if she
had never quitted her maiden state; and it then became their duty
to receive or recover from her late husband all the property that
she had brought to him in acknowledged dowry upon their marriage.
If, upon this, both parties were satisfied, the divorce was final
and complete: if otherwise, an action ἀπολείψεως, or ἀποπέμψεως,
would be instituted, as the case might be, by the party opposed to
the separation. A separation, however, whether it originated from
the husband or the wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the
latter.--(2) ROMAN. Divorce always existed in the Roman polity.
As one essential part of a marriage was the consent and conjugal
affection of the parties, it was considered that this affection was
necessary to its continuance, and accordingly either party might
declare his or her intention to dissolve the connection. No judicial
decree, and no interference of any public authority, was requisite to
dissolve a marriage. The first instance of divorce at Rome is said
to have occurred about B.C. 234, when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away
his wife, on the ground of barrenness: it is added, that his conduct
was generally condemned. Towards the latter part of the republic,
and under the empire, divorces became very common. Pompey divorced
his wife Mucia for alleged adultery; and Cicero divorced his wife
Terentia, after living with her thirty years, and married a young
woman. Cato the younger divorced his wife Marcia, that his friend
Hortensius might marry her, and have children by her; for this is
the true meaning of the story that he lent his wife to Hortensius.
If a husband divorced his wife, the wife’s dowry, as a general
rule, was restored; and the same was the case when the divorce took
place by mutual consent. Corresponding to the forms of marriage by
_confarreatio_ and _coemtio_, there were the forms of divorce by
_diffarreatio_ and _remancipatio_. In course of time, less ceremony
was used; but still some distinct notice or declaration of intention
was necessary to constitute a divorce. The term _repudium_, it is
said, properly applies to a marriage only contracted, and _divortium_
to an actual marriage; but sometimes divortium and repudium appear
to be used indifferently. The phrases to express a divorce are,
_nuntium remittere_, _divortium facere_; and the form of words
might be as follows--_Tuas res tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito_.
The phrases used to express the renunciation of a marriage contract
were, _renuntiare repudium_, _repudium remittere_, _dicere_, and
_repudiare_; and the form of words might be, _Conditione tua non
utor_.

DŎCĂNA (τὰ δόκανα, from δοκός, a beam) was an ancient symbolical
representation of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), at Sparta.
It consisted of two upright beams with others laid across them
transversely.

DŎCĬMĂSĬA (δοκιμασία). When any citizen of Athens was either
appointed by lot, or chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office,
he was obliged, before entering on its duties, to submit to a
_docimasia_, or scrutiny into his previous life and conduct, in which
any person could object to him as unfit. The _docimasia_, however,
was not confined to persons appointed to public offices; for we read
of the denouncement of a scrutiny against orators who spoke in the
assembly while leading profligate lives, or after having committed
flagitious crimes.

DODRANS. [AS.]

DŎLĀBRA, _dim._ DŎLĀBELLA (σμίλη, _dim_. σμιλίον), a chisel, a celt,
was used for a variety of purposes in ancient as in modern times.
_Celtes_ is an old Latin word for a chisel, probably derived from
_coelo_, to engrave. Celts, or chisels, were frequently employed in
making entrenchments and in destroying fortifications; and hence they
are often found in ancient earth-works and encampments. They are for
the most part of bronze, more rarely of hard stone. The sizes and
forms which they present, are as various as the uses to which they
were applied. The annexed woodcut is designed to show a few of the
most remarkable varieties.

[Illustration: Dolabrae, Celts. (From different Collections in Great
Britain.)]

DŌLĬUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat resembling our tubs or casks,
into which new wine was put to let it ferment.

DŎLO (δόλων). (1) A secret poniard or dagger contained in a case,
used by the Italians. It was inserted in the handles of whips, and
also in walking sticks, thus corresponding to our sword-stick.--(2) A
small top-sail.

DŎMĬNĬUM signifies quiritarian ownership, or property in a thing; and
_dominus_, or _dominus legitimus_, is the owner. The dominus has the
power of dealing with a thing as he pleases, and differs from the
bare _possessor_, who has only the right of possession, and has not
the absolute ownership of the thing.

DŎMUS (οἶκος), a house.--(1) GREEK. A Greek house was always divided
into two distinct portions, the _Andronitis_, or men’s apartments
(ἀνδρωνῖτις), and the _Gynaeconitis_, or women’s apartments
(γυναικωνῖτις). In the earliest times, as in the houses referred
to by Homer, and in some houses at a later period, the women’s
apartments were in the upper story (ὑπερῷον), but usually at a later
time the gynaeconitis was on the same story with the andronitis,
and behind it. The front of the house towards the street was not
large, as the apartments extended rather in the direction of its
depth than of its width. In towns the houses were often built side
by side, with party-walls between. The exterior wall was plain,
being composed generally of stone, brick, and timber, and often
covered with stucco. There was no open space between the street and
the house-door, like the Roman _vestibulum_. The πρόθυρα, which is
sometimes mentioned, seems to be merely the space in front of the
house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or a
rude obelisk emblematical of the god. Sometimes there was a laurel
tree in the same position, and sometimes a head of the god Hermes.
A few steps (ἀναβαθμοί) led up to the house-door, which generally
bore some inscription, for the sake of a good omen, or as a charm.
The door sometimes opened outwards; but this seems to have been
an exception to the general rule, as is proved by the expressions
used for opening, ἐνδοῦναι, and shutting it, ἐπισπάσασθαι and
ἐφελκύσασθαι. The handles were called ἐπισπαστῆρες. The house-door
was called αὔλειος or αὔλεια θύρα, because it led to the αὐλή. It
gave admittance to a narrow passage (θυρωρεῖον, πυλών, θυρών), on
one side of which, in a large house, were the stables, on the other
the porter’s lodge. The duty of the porter (θυρωρός) was to admit
visitors and to prevent anything improper from being carried into or
out of the house. The porter was attended by a dog. Hence the phrase
εὐλαβεῖσθαι τὴν κύνα, corresponding to the Latin _Cave canem_. From
the θυρωρεῖον we pass into the peristyle or court (περιστύλιον, αὐλή)
of the andronitis, which was a space open to the sky in the centre
(ὕπαιθρον), and surrounded on all four sides by porticoes (στοαί), of
which one, probably that nearest the entrance, was called προστόον.
These porticoes were used for exercise, and sometimes for dining in.
Here was commonly the altar on which sacrifices were offered to the
household gods. In building the porticoes the object sought was to
obtain as much sun in winter, and as much shade and air in summer as
possible. Round the peristyle were arranged the chambers used by the
men, such as banqueting rooms (οἶκοι, ἀνδρῶνες), which were large
enough to contain several sets of couches (τρίκλινοι, ἑπτάκλινοι,
τριακοντάκλινοι, and at the same time to allow abundant room for
attendants, musicians, and performers of games; parlours or sitting
rooms (ἐξέδραι), and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms (δωμάτια,
κοιτῶνες, οἰκήματα); picture-galleries and libraries, and sometimes
store-rooms; and in the arrangement of these apartments attention was
paid to their aspect. The peristyle of the andronitis was connected
with that of the gynaeconitis by a door called μέταυλος, μέσαυλος, or
μεσαύλιος, which was in the middle of the portico of the peristyle
opposite to the entrance. By means of this door all communication
between the andronitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off.

[Illustration: Ground-plan of a Greek House.

α, House-door, αὔλειος θύρα: θυρ’, passage, θυρωρεῖον or θυρών: Α,
peristyle, or αὐλή of the andronitis; ο, the halls and chambers
of the andronitis; μ, μέταυλος or μέσαυλος θύρα: Γ, peristyle of
the gynaeconitis; γ, chambers of the gynaeconitis; π, προστάς or
παραστάς: θ, θάλαμος and ἀμφιθάλαμος: Ι, rooms for working in wool
(ἱστῶνες); Κ, garden-door, κηταία θύρα.]

Accordingly Xenophon calls it θύρα βαλανωτός. Its name μέσαυλος is
evidently derived from μέσος, and means the door _between_ the two
αὐλαί or peristyles. This door gave admittance to the peristyle
of the gynaeconitis, which differed from that of the andronitis
in having porticoes round only three of its sides. On the fourth
side were placed two antae [ANTAE], at a considerable distance
from each other. A third of the distance between these antae was
set off inwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule, which was
called προστάς, παραστάς, and πρόδρομος. On the right and left of
this προστάς were two bed-chambers, the θάλαμος and ἀμφιθάλαμος,
of which the former was the principal bed-chamber of the house,
and here also seem to have been kept the vases, and other valuable
articles of ornament. Beyond these rooms were large apartments
(ἱστῶνες) used for working in wool. Round the peristyle were the
eating-rooms, bed-chambers, store-rooms, and other apartments in
common use. Besides the αὔλειος θύρα and the μέσαυλος θύρα, there
was a third door (κηπαία θύρα) leading to the garden. The preceding
is a conjectural plan of the ground-floor of a Greek house of the
larger size. There was usually, though not always, an upper story
(ὑπερῷον διῆρες), which seldom extended over the whole space occupied
by the lower story. The principal use of the upper story was for the
lodging of the slaves. The access to the upper floor seems to have
been sometimes by stairs on the outside of the house, leading up from
the street. Guests were also lodged in the upper story. But in some
large houses there were rooms set apart for their reception (ξενῶνες)
on the ground-floor. The roofs were generally flat, and it was
customary to walk about upon them. In the interior of the house the
place of doors was sometimes supplied by curtains (παραπετάσματα),
which were either plain, or dyed, or embroidered. The principal
openings for the admission of light and air were in the roofs of
the peristyles; but it is incorrect to suppose that the houses had
no windows (θυρίδες), or at least none overlooking the street. They
were not at all uncommon. Artificial warmth was procured partly by
means of fire-places. It is supposed that chimneys were altogether
unknown, and that the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof
(καπνοδόκη), but it is not easy to understand how this could be the
case when there was an upper story. Little portable stoves (ἐσχάραι,
ἐσχαρίδες) or chafing-dishes (ἀνθράκια) were frequently used. The
houses of the wealthy in the country, at least in Attica, were much
larger and more magnificent than those in the towns. The latter seem
to have been generally small and plain, especially in earlier times,
when the Greeks preferred expending the resources of art and wealth
on their temples and public buildings; but the private houses became
more magnificent as the public buildings began to be neglected. The
decorations of the interior were very plain at the period to which
our description refers. The floors were of stone. At a late period
coloured stones were used. Mosaics are first mentioned under the
kings of Pergamus. The walls, up to the 4th century B.C., seem to
have been only whited. The first instance of painting them is that
of Alcibiades. This innovation met with considerable opposition.
We have also mention of painted ceilings at the same period. At a
later period this mode of decoration became general.--(2) ROMAN. The
houses of the Romans were poor and mean for many centuries after the
foundation of the city. Till the war with Pyrrhus the houses were
covered only with thatch or shingles, and were usually built of wood
or unbaked bricks. It was not till the latter times of the republic,
when wealth had been acquired by conquests in the East, that houses
of any splendour began to be built; but it then became the fashion
not only to build houses of an immense size, but also to adorn them
with columns, paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some idea
may be formed of the size and magnificence of the houses of the Roman
nobles during the later times of the republic by the price which
they fetched. The consul Messalla bought the house of Autronius for
3700 sestertia (nearly 33,000_l._), and Cicero the house of Crassus,
on the Palatine, for 3500 sestertia (nearly 31,000_l._). The house
of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost 14,800 sestertia (about
131,000_l._); and the Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with
such magnificence, that when it was burnt by his slaves, he lost
100,000 sestertia, upwards of 885,000_l._--Houses were originally
only one story high; but as the value of ground increased in the
city they were built several stories in height, and the highest
floors were usually inhabited by the poor. Till the time of Nero,
the streets in Rome were narrow and irregular, and bore traces of
the haste and confusion with which the city was built after it had
been burnt by the Gauls; but after the great fire in the time of
that emperor, by which two-thirds of Rome was burnt to the ground,
the city was built with great regularity. The streets were made
straight and broad; the height of the houses was restricted, and a
certain part of each was required to be built of Gabian or Alban
stone, which was proof against fire. The principal parts of a Roman
house were the, 1. _Vestibulum_, 2. _Ostium_, 3. _Atrium_ or _Cavum
Aedium_, 4. _Alae_, 5. _Tablinum_, 6. _Fauces_, 7. _Peristylium_.
The parts of a house which were considered of less importance,
and of which the arrangement differed in different houses, were
the, 1. _Cubicula_, 2. _Triclinia_, 3. _Oeci_, 4. _Exedrae_, 5.
_Pinacotheca_, 6. _Bibliotheca_, 7. _Balineum_, 8. _Culina_, 9.
_Coenacula_, 10. _Diaeta_, 11. _Solaria_. We shall speak of each
in order.--1. VESTIBULUM did not properly form part of the house,
but was a vacant space before the door, forming a court, which was
surrounded on three sides by the house, and was open on the fourth
to the street.--2. OSTIUM, which is also called _janua_ and _fores_,
was the entrance to the house. The street-door admitted into a hall,
to which the name of ostium was also given, and in which there was
frequently a small room (_cella_) for the porter (_janitor_ or
_ostiarius_), and also for a dog, which was usually kept in the hall
to guard the house. Another door (_janua interior_) opposite the
street-door led into the atrium.--3. ATRIUM or CAVUM AEDIUM, also
written _Cavaedium_, are probably only different names of the same
room.

[Illustration: Atrium of the House of Ceres at Pompeii.]

The Atrium or Cavum Aedium was a large apartment roofed over with
the exception of an opening in the centre, called _compluvium_,
towards which the roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into
a cistern in the floor, termed _impluvium_, which was frequently
ornamented with statues, columns, and other works of art. The word
_impluvium_, however, is also employed to denote the aperture in
the roof. The atrium was the most important room in the house,
and among the wealthy was usually fitted up with much splendour
and magnificence. Originally it was the only sitting-room in the
house; but in the houses of the wealthy it was distinct from the
private apartments, and was used as a reception-room, where the
patron received his clients, and the great and noble the numerous
visitors who were accustomed to call every morning to pay their
respects or solicit favours. But though the atrium was not used by
the wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it still continued to
be employed for many purposes which it had originally served. Thus
the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium opposite the door, and
also the instruments and materials for spinning and weaving, which
were formerly carried on by the women of the family in this room.
Here also the images of their ancestors were placed, and the focus or
fire-place, which possessed a sacred character, being dedicated to
the Lares of each family.--4. ALAE, wings, were small apartments or
recesses on the left and right sides of the atrium.--5. TABLINUM was
in all probability a recess or room at the further end of the atrium
opposite the door leading into the hall, and was regarded as part of
the atrium. It contained the family records and archives. With the
tablinum the Roman house appears to have originally ceased; and the
sleeping-rooms were probably arranged on each side of the atrium. But
when the atrium and its surrounding rooms were used for the reception
of clients and other public visitors, it became necessary to increase
the size of the house; and the following rooms were accordingly
added:--6. FAUCES appear to have been passages, which passed from the
atrium to the peristylium or interior of the house.--7. PERISTYLIUM
was in its general form like the atrium, but it was one-third greater
in breadth, measured transversely, than in length. It was a court
open to the sky in the middle; the open part, which was surrounded
by columns, was larger than the impluvium in the atrium, and was
frequently decorated with flowers and shrubs.--The arrangement of the
rooms, which are next to be noticed, varied according to the taste
and circumstances of the owner. It is therefore impossible to assign
to them any regular place in the house.--1. CUBICULA, bed-chambers,
appear to have been usually small. There were separate cubicula for
the day and night; the latter were also called _dormitoria_.--2.
TRICLINIA are treated of in a separate article. [TRICLINIUM.]--3.
OECI, from the Greek οἶκος, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed
from the Greeks, and were frequently used as triclinia. They were to
have the same proportions as triclinia, but were to be more spacious
on account of having columns, which triclinia had not.--4. EXEDRAE
were rooms for conversation and the other purposes of society.--5.
PINACOTHECA, a picture-gallery.--6, 7. BIBLIOTHECA and BALINEUM are
treated of in separate articles.--8. CULINA, the kitchen.

[Illustration: Kitchen of the House of Pansa at Pompeii.]

The food was originally cooked in the atrium: but the progress of
refinement afterwards led to the use of another part of the house for
this purpose. In the kitchen of Pansa’s house at Pompeii, a stove for
stews and similar preparations was found, very much like the charcoal
stoves used in the present day. Before it lie a knife, a strainer,
and a kind of frying-pan with four spherical cavities, as if it were
meant to cook eggs.--9. COENACULA, properly signified rooms to dine
in; but after it became the fashion to dine in the upper part of the
house, the whole of the rooms above the ground-floor were called
_coenacula_.--10. DIAETA, an apartment used for dining in, and for
the other purposes of life. It appears to have been smaller than
the triclinium. _Diaeta_ is also the name given by Pliny to rooms
containing three or four bed-chambers (_cubicula_). Pleasure-houses
or summer-houses are also called _diaetae_.--11. SOLARIA, properly
places for basking in the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses.
The preceding cut represents the atrium of a house at Pompeii. In
the centre is the impluvium, and the passage at the further end is
the ostium or entrance hall.--The preceding account of the different
rooms, and especially of the arrangement of the atrium, tablinum,
peristyle, &c., is best illustrated by the houses which have been
disinterred at Pompeii. The ground-plan of one is accordingly
subjoined.

[Illustration: Ground-plan of a House at Pompeii.]

Like most of the other houses at Pompeii, it had no vestibulum
according to the meaning given above. 1. The _ostium_ or
entrance-hall, which is six feet wide and nearly thirty long. Near
the street-door there is a figure of a large fierce dog worked in
mosaic on the pavement, and beneath it is written _Cave Canem_. The
two large rooms on each side of the vestibule appear from the large
openings in front of them to have been shops; they communicate with
the entrance-hall, and were therefore probably occupied by the master
of the house. 2. The _atrium_, which is about twenty-eight feet in
length and twenty in breadth; its _impluvium_ is near the centre
of the room, and its floor is paved with white tesserae, spotted
with black. 3. Chambers for the use of the family, or intended for
the reception of guests, who were entitled to claim hospitality.
4. A small room with a staircase leading up to the upper rooms.
5. _Alae._ 6. The _tablinum_. 7. The _fauces_. 8. Peristyle, with
Doric columns and garden in the centre. The large room on the right
of the peristyle is the triclinium; beside it is the kitchen; and
the smaller apartments are cubicula and other rooms for the use of
the family.--Having given a general description of the rooms of a
Roman house, it remains to speak of the (1) floors, (2) walls, (3)
ceilings, (4) windows, and (5) the mode of warming the rooms. For
the doors, see JANUA.--(1.) The floor (_solum_) of a room was seldom
boarded: it was generally covered with stone or marble, or mosaics.
The common floors were paved with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones,
&c., forming a kind of composition called _ruderatic_. Sometimes
pieces of marble were imbedded in a composition ground, and these
probably gave the idea of mosaics. As these floors were beaten
down (_pavita_) with rammers (_fistucae_), the word _pavimentum_
became the general name for a floor. Mosaics, called by Pliny
_lithostrota_ (λιθόστρωτα), though this word has a more extensive
meaning, first came into use in Sulla’s time, who made one in the
temple of Fortune at Praeneste. Mosaic work was afterwards called
_Musivum opus_, and was most extensively employed.--(2.) The inner
walls (_parietes_) of private rooms were frequently lined with slabs
of marble, but were more usually covered by paintings, which in the
time of Augustus were made upon the walls themselves. This practice
was so common that we find even the small houses in Pompeii have
paintings upon their walls.--(3.) The ceilings seem originally to
have been left uncovered, the beams which supported the roof or the
upper story being visible. Afterwards planks were placed across
these beams at certain intervals, leaving hollow spaces, called
_lacunaria_ or _laquearia_, which were frequently covered with
gold and ivory, and sometimes with paintings. There was an arched
ceiling in common use, called CAMARA.--(4.) The Roman houses had
few windows (_fenestrae_). The principal apartments, the atrium,
peristyle, &c., were lighted from above, and the cubicula and other
small rooms generally derived their light from them, and not from
windows looking into the street. The rooms only on the upper story
seem to have been usually lighted by windows. The windows appear
originally to have been merely openings in the wall, closed by means
of shutters, which frequently had two leaves (_bifores fenestrae_).
Windows were also sometimes covered by a kind of lattice or trellis
work (_clathri_), and sometimes by net-work, to prevent serpents
and other noxious reptiles from getting in. Afterwards, however,
windows were made of a transparent stone, called _lapis specularis_
(mica); such windows were called _specularia_. Windows made of glass
(_vitrum_) are first mentioned by Lactantius, who lived in the fourth
century of the Christian era; but the discoveries at Pompeii prove
that glass was used for windows under the early emperors.--(5.) The
rooms were heated in winter in different ways; but the Romans had
no stoves like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and other rooms,
which were intended for winter use, were built in that part of the
house upon which the sun shone most; and in the mild climate of
Italy this frequently enabled them to dispense with any artificial
mode of warming the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun in this way were
sometimes called _heliocamini_. The rooms were sometimes heated by
hot air, which was introduced by means of pipes from a furnace below,
but more frequently by portable furnaces or braziers (_foculi_), in
which coal or charcoal was burnt. The _caminus_ was also a kind of
stove, in which wood appears to have been usually burnt, and probably
only differed from the _foculus_ in being larger and fixed to one
place. The rooms usually had no chimneys for carrying off the smoke,
which escaped through the windows, doors, and openings in the roof;
still chimneys do not appear to have been entirely unknown to the
ancients, as some are said to have been found in the ruins of ancient
buildings.

DŌNĀRĬA (ἀναθήματα or ἀνακείμενα), presents made to the gods, either
by individuals or communities. Sometimes they are also called
_dona_ or δῶρα. The belief that the gods were pleased with costly
presents was as natural to the ancients as the belief that they
could be influenced in their conduct towards men by the offering of
sacrifices; and, indeed, both sprang from the same feeling. Presents
were mostly given as tokens of gratitude for some favour which a god
had bestowed on man; as, for instance, by persons who had recovered
from illness or escaped from shipwreck; but some are also mentioned,
which were intended to induce the deity to grant some especial
favour. Almost all presents were dedicated in temples, to which in
some places an especial building was added, in which these treasures
were preserved. Such buildings were called θησαυροί(treasuries);
and in the most frequented temples of Greece many states had their
separate treasuries. The act of dedication was called ἀνατιθέναι,
_donare_, _dedicare_, or _sacrare_.

DŌNĀTĪVUM. [CONGIARIUM.]

DORMĪTŌRĬA. [DOMUS.]

DOS (φερνή, προΐξ), dowry. (1) GREEK. In the Homeric times it was
customary for the husband to purchase his wife from her relations,
by gifts called ἕδνα or ἔεδνα. But at Athens, during the historical
period, the contrary was the case; for every woman had to bring her
husband some dowry, and so universal was the practice, that one of
the chief distinctions between a wife and a παλλακή, or concubine,
consisted in the former having a portion, whereas the latter had
not; hence, persons who married wives without portions appear to
have given them or their guardians an acknowledgment in writing by
which the receipt of a portion was admitted. Moreover, poor heiresses
were either married or portioned by their next of kin, according to
a law, which fixed the amount of portion to be given at five minae
by a Pentacosiomedimnus, three by a Horseman, and one and a half by
a Zeugites. The husband had to give to the relatives or guardians
of the wife security (ἀποτίμημα) for the dowry, which was not
considered the property of the husband himself, but rather of his
wife and children. The portion was returned to the wife in case of a
divorce.--(2) ROMAN. The _dos_ among the Romans was every thing which
on the occasion of a woman’s marriage was transferred by her, or by
another person, to the husband. All the property of the wife which
was not made dos continued to be her own, and was comprised under the
name of _parapherna_. The dos upon its delivery became the husband’s
property, and continued to be his so long as the marriage relation
existed. In the case of divorce, the woman, or her relations, could
bring an action for the restitution of the dos; and, accordingly, a
woman whose dos was large (_dotata uxor_) had some influence over her
husband, inasmuch as she had the power of divorcing herself, and thus
of depriving him of the enjoyment of her property.

[Illustration: Attic Drachma. (British Museum.)]

DRACHMA (δραχμή), the principal silver coin among the Greeks. The two
chief standards in the currencies of the Greek states were the Attic
and Aeginetan. The average value of the Attic drachma was 9¾_d._ of
our money. It contained six obols (ὀβολοί); and the Athenians had
separate silver coins, from four drachmae to a quarter of an obol.
There were also silver pieces of two drachmae and four drachmae.
(See tables.) The tetradrachm in later times was called _stater_.
The latter word also signifies a gold coin, equal in value to twenty
drachmae [STATER]. The obolos, in later times, was of bronze: but in
the best times of Athens we only read of silver obols. The χαλκοῦς
was a copper coin, and the eighth part of an obol. The Attic
standard prevailed most in the maritime and commercial states. It
was the standard of Philip’s gold, and was introduced by Alexander
for silver also.--The Aeginetan standard appears to have been the
prevalent one in early times: we are told that money was first coined
at Aegina by order of Pheidon at Argos. In later times the Aeginetan
standard was used in almost all the states of the Peloponnesus,
except Corinth. The average value of the Aeginetan drachma was 1_s._
1¾_d._ in our money; and the values of the different coins of this
standard are as follows:--

| Shill. | Pence. | Farth.
½ Obol | - | 1 | 0·583
Obol | - | 2 | 1·166
Diobolus | - | 4 | 2·33
Triobolus | - | 6 | 2·5
Drachma | 1 | 1 | 3
Didrachm | 2 | 3 | 2

[Illustration: Aeginetan Drachma. (British Museum.)]

As the Romans reckoned in sesterces, so the Greeks generally reckoned
by drachmae; and when a sum is mentioned in the Attic writers,
without any specification of the unit, drachmae are usually meant.

DRĂCO. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]

DŬCĒNĀRĬI.--(1) The name given to the Roman procuratores, who
received a salary of 200 sestertia. The procuratores first received a
salary in the time of Augustus.--(2) A class or decuria of judices,
first established by Augustus. They were so called because their
property, as valued in the census, amounted only to 200 sestertia.
They appear to have tried cases of small importance.

DŬCENTĒSĬMA. [CENTESIMA.]

DŬŎDĔCIM SCRIPTA. [LATRUNCULI.]

DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM LEX. [LEX.]

DUPLĀRĬI or DUPLĬCĀRĬI, were soldiers who received on account of
their good conduct double allowance (_duplicia cibaria_), and perhaps
in some cases double pay likewise.

DŬPONDĬUS. [AS.]

DUSSIS. [AS.]

DUUMVĬRI, or the two men, the name of various magistrates and
functionaries at Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia. (1)
DUUMVIRI JURI DICUNDO were the highest magistrates in the municipal
towns. [COLONIA.]--(2) DUUMVIRI NAVALES, extraordinary magistrates,
who were created, whenever occasion required, for the purpose
of equipping and repairing the fleet. They appear to have been
originally appointed by the consuls and dictators, but were first
elected by the people, B.C. 311.--(3) DUUMVIRI PERDUELLIONIS.
[PERDUELLIO.]--(4) DUUMVIRI QUINQUENNALES, were the censors in the
municipal towns, and must not be confounded with the _duumviri juri
dicundo_. [COLONIA.]--(5) DUUMVIRI SACRORUM originally had the charge
of the Sibylline books. Their duties were afterwards discharged by
the _decemviri sacris faciundis_. [DECEMVIRI.]--(6) DUUMVIRI were
also appointed for the purpose of building or dedicating a temple.

ECCLĒSĬA (ἐκκλησία), the name of the general assembly of the citizens
at Athens, in which they met to discuss and determine upon matters
of public interest, and which was therefore the sovereign power
in the state. These assemblies were either _ordinary_ (νόμιμοι or
κυρίαι), and held four times in each prytany, or _extraordinary_,
that is, specially convened, upon any sudden emergency, and therefore
called σύγκλητοι. The place in which they were anciently held was
the _agora_. Afterwards they were transferred to the Pnyx, and at
last to the great theatre of Dionysus, and other places. The most
usual place, however, was the Pnyx, which was situated to the west
of the Areiopagus, on a slope connected with Mount Lycabettus, and
partly at least within the walls of the city. It was semicircular in
form, with a boundary wall part rock and part masonry, and an area of
about 12,000 square yards. On the north the ground was filled up and
paved with large stones, so as to get a level surface on the slope.
Towards this side, and close to the wall, was the _bema_ (βῆμα), a
stone platform or hustings ten or eleven feet high, with an ascent
of steps. The position of the _bema_ was such as to command a view
of the sea from behind, and of the Propylaea and Parthenon in front,
and we may be sure that the Athenian orators would often rouse the
national feelings of their hearers by pointing to the assemblage of
magnificent edifices, “monuments of Athenian gratitude and glory,”
which they had in view from the Pnyx.--The right of convening
the people was generally vested in the prytanes or presidents of
the council of Five Hundred [see BOULÉ], but in cases of sudden
emergency, and especially during wars, the strategi also had the
power of calling extraordinary meetings, for which, however, the
consent of the senate appears to have been necessary. The prytanes
not only gave a previous notice of the day of assembly, and published
a programme of the subjects to be discussed, but also, it appears,
sent a crier round to collect the citizens. All persons who did not
obey the call were subject to a fine, and six magistrates called
lexiarchs were appointed, whose duty it was to take care that the
people attended the meetings, and to levy fines on those who refused
to do so. With a view to this, whenever an assembly was to be held,
certain public slaves (Σκύθαι or τοξόται) were sent round to sweep
the agora, and other places of public resort, with a rope coloured
with vermilion. The different persons whom these ropemen met, were
driven by them towards the ecclesia, and those who refused to go were
marked by the rope and fined. An additional inducement to attend,
with the poorer classes, was the μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, or pay which
they received for it. The payment was originally an obolus, but was
afterwards raised to three. The right of attending was enjoyed by all
legitimate citizens who were of the proper age (generally supposed
to be twenty, certainly not less than eighteen), and not labouring
under any _atimia_, or loss of civil rights.--In the article BOULÉ it
is explained who the prytanes and the proedri were; and we may here
remark, that it was the duty of the proedri of the same tribe, under
the presidency of their chairman (ὁ ἐπιστάτης), to lay before the
people the subjects to be discussed; to read, or cause to be read,
the previous bill (τὸ προβούλευμα) of the senate, without which no
measure could be brought before the ecclesia, and to give permission
to the speakers to address the people. The officers who acted under
them, were the crier (ὁ κήρυξ), and the Scythian bowmen.--Previous,
however, to the commencement of any business, the place was purified
by the offering of sacrifices, and then the gods were implored in
a prayer to bless the proceedings of the meeting. The privilege of
addressing the assembly was not confined to any class or age among
those who had the right to be present: all, without any distinction,
were invited to do so by the proclamation, Τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται,
which was made by the crier after the proedri had gone through the
necessary preliminaries, and laid the subject of discussion before
the meeting; for though, according to the institutions of Solon,
those persons who were above fifty years of age ought to have been
called upon to speak first, this regulation had in later times
become quite obsolete. The speakers are sometimes simply called οἱ
παρίοντες, and appear to have worn a crown of myrtle on their heads
while addressing the assembly. The most influential and practised
speakers of the assembly were generally distinguished by the name of
ῥήτορες. After the speakers had concluded, any one was at liberty
to propose a decree, whether drawn up beforehand or framed in the
meeting, which, however, it was necessary to present to the proedri,
that they might see, in conjunction with the _nomophylaces_, whether
there was contained in it anything injurious to the state, or
contrary to the existing laws. If not, it was read by the crier;
though, even after the reading, the chairman could prevent it being
put to the vote, unless his opposition was overborne by threats and
clamours. Private individuals also could do the same, by engaging
upon oath (ὑπωμοσία) to bring against the author of any measure
they might object to, an accusation called a γραφὴ παράνομων. If,
however, the chairman refused to submit any question to the decision
of the people, he might be proceeded against by _endeixis_; and if
he allowed the people to vote upon a proposal which was contrary
to existing constitutional laws, he was in some cases liable to
_atimia_. If, on the contrary, no opposition of this sort was offered
to a proposed decree, the votes of the people were taken, by the
permission of the chairman and with the consent of the rest of the
proedri. The decision of the people was given either by show of
hands, or by ballot, _i.e._ by casting pebbles into urns (καδίσκοι);
the former was expressed by the word χειροτονεῖν, the latter by
ψηφίζεσθαι, although the two terms are frequently confounded. The
more usual method of voting was by show of hands, as being more
expeditious and convenient (χειροτονία). Vote by ballot, on the other
hand, was only used in a few special cases determined by law; as,
for instance, when a proposition was made for allowing those who
had suffered _atimia_ to appeal to the people for restitution of
their former rights; or for inflicting extraordinary punishments on
atrocious offenders, and generally, upon any matter which affected
private persons. In cases of this sort it was settled by law, that
a decree should not be valid unless six thousand citizens at least
voted in favour of it. This was by far the majority of those citizens
who were in the habit of attending; for, in time of war, the number
never amounted to five thousand, and in time of peace seldom to ten
thousand.--The determination or decree of the people was called a
ψήφισμα, which properly signifies a law proposed to an assembly,
and approved of by the people. Respecting the form for drawing up a
ψήφισμα, see BOULÉ.--When the business was over, the order for the
dismissal of the assembly was given by the prytanes, through the
proclamation of the crier; and as it was not customary to continue
meetings, which usually began early in the morning, till after
sunset, if one day were not sufficient for the completion of any
business, it was adjourned to the next. But an assembly was sometimes
broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate or private individual,
declared that he saw an unfavourable omen, or perceived thunder and
lightning. The sudden appearance of rain also, or the shock of an
earthquake, or any natural phenomenon of the kind called διοσημίαι,
was a sufficient reason for the hasty adjournment of an assembly.

ECCLETI. [HOMOEI.]

ECDĬCUS (ἔκδικος), the name of an officer in many of the towns of
Asia Minor during the Roman dominion, whose principal duty was the
care of the public money, and the prosecution of all parties who owed
money to the state.

ECMARTȲRĬA (ἐκμαρτυρία), signifies the deposition of a witness at
Athens, who, by reason of absence abroad, or illness, was unable
to attend in court. His statement was taken down in writing, in
the presence of persons expressly appointed to receive it, and
afterwards, upon their swearing to its identity, was read as evidence
in the cause.

ĒDICTUM. The _Jus Edicendi_, or power of making edicts, belonged
to the higher _magistratus populi Romani_, but it was principally
exercised by the two praetors, the praetor urbanus, and the praetor
peregrinus, whose jurisdiction was exercised in the provinces by the
praeses. The curule aediles likewise made many edicts; and tribunes,
censors, and pontifices also promulgated edicts relating to the
matters of their respective jurisdictions. The edicta were among
the sources of Roman law. The edictum may be described generally
as a rule promulgated by a magistratus on entering on his office,
which was done by writing it on an album and exhibiting it in a
conspicuous place. As the office of a magistratus was annual, the
rules promulgated by a predecessor were not binding on a successor,
but he might confirm or adopt the rules of his predecessor, and
introduce them into his own edict, and hence such adopted rules were
called _edictum ralatitium_, or _vetus_, as opposed to _edictum
novum_. A _repentinum edictum_ was that rule which was made (_prout
res incidit_) for the occasion. A _perpetuum edictum_ was that rule
which was made by the magistratus on entering upon office, and which
was intended to apply to all cases to which it was applicable during
the year of his office: hence it was sometimes called also _annua
lex_. Until it became the practice for magistratus to adopt the
edicta of their predecessors, the edicta could not form a body of
permanent binding rules; but when this practice became common, the
edicta (_edictum tralatitium_) soon constituted a large body of law,
which was practically of as much importance as any other part of the
law.

EICOSTĒ (εἰκοστή), a tax or duty of one-twentieth (five per cent.)
upon all commodities exported or imported by sea in the states of the
allies subject to Athens. This tax was first imposed B.C. 413, in the
place of the direct tribute which had up to this time been paid by
the subject allies; and the change was made with the hope of raising
a greater revenue. This tax, like all others, was farmed, and the
farmers of it were called εἰκοστολόγοι.

EIRĒN or ĪRĒN (εἴρην or ἴρην), the name given to the Spartan youth
when he attained the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen he emerged
from childhood, and was called μελλείρην. When he had attained his
twentieth year, he began to exercise a direct influence over his
juniors, and was entrusted with the command of troops in battle. The
word appears to have originally signified a commander. The ἰρένες
mentioned in Herodotus, in connection with the battle of Plataeae,
were certainly not youths, but commanders.

EISANGĔLĬA (εἰσαγγελία), signifies, in its primary and most general
sense, a denunciation of any kind, but, much more usually, an
information laid before the council or the assembly of the people,
and the consequent impeachment and trial of state criminals at
Athens under novel or extraordinary circumstances. Among these were
the occasions upon which manifest crimes were alleged to have been
committed, and yet of such a nature as the existing laws had failed
to anticipate, or at least describe specifically (ἄγραφα ἀδικήματα),
the result of which omission would have been, but for the enactment
by which the accusations in question might be preferred (νόμος
εἰσαγγελτικός), that a prosecutor would not have known to what
magistrate to apply; that a magistrate, if applied to, could not with
safety have accepted the indictment or brought it into court; and
that, in short, there would have been a total failure of justice.

EISITĒRĬA (εἰσιτήρια, _scil._ ἱερά), sacrifices offered at Athens by
the senate before the session began, in honour of the Θεοὶ Βουλαῖοι,
_i.e._ Zeus and Athena.

EISPHŎRA (εἰσφορά), an extraordinary tax on property, raised at
Athens, whenever the means of the state were not sufficient to
carry on a war. It is not quite certain when this property-tax was
introduced; but it seems to have come first into general use about
B.C. 428. It could never be raised without a decree of the people,
who also assigned the amount required; and the _strategi_, or
generals, superintended its collection, and presided in the courts
where disputes connected with, or arising from, the levying of the
tax were settled. The usual expressions for paying this property-tax
are: εἰσφέρειν χρήματα, εἰσφέρειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, εἰς τὴν σωτηρίαν
τῆς πόλεως, εἰσφορὰς εἰσφέρειν, and those who paid it were called οἱ
εἰσφέροντες. The census of Solon was at first the standard according
to which the _eisphora_ was raised, until in B.C. 377 a new census
was instituted, in which the people, for the purpose of fixing the
rates of the property-tax, were divided into a number of symmoriae
(συμμορίαι) or classes, similar to those which were afterwards made
for the trierarchy. Each of the ten tribes or phylae, appointed
120 of its wealthier citizens; and the whole number of persons
included in the symmoriae was thus 1200, who were considered as the
representatives of the whole republic. This body of 1200 was divided
into four classes, each consisting of 300. The first class, or the
richest, were the leaders of the symmoriae (ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν),
and are often called the three hundred. They probably conducted the
proceedings of the symmoriae, and they, or, which is more likely,
the demarchs, had to value the taxable property. Other officers
were appointed to make out the lists of the rates, and were called
ἐπιγραφεῖς, διαγραφεῖς or ἐκλογεῖς. When the wants of the state were
pressing, the 300 leaders advanced the money to the others, who paid
it back to the 300 at the regular time. The first class probably
consisted of persons who possessed property from 12 talents upwards;
the second class, of persons who possessed property from 6 talents
and upwards, but under 12; the third class, of persons who possessed
property from 2 talents upwards, but under 6; the fourth class, of
persons who possessed property from 25 minae upwards, but under 2
talents. The rate of taxation was higher or lower according to the
wants of the republic at the time; we have accounts of rates of a
12th, a 50th, a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable property.
If any one thought that his property was taxed higher than that of
another man on whom juster claims could be made, he had the right to
call upon this person to take the office in his stead, or to submit
to a complete exchange of property. [ANTIDOSIS.] No Athenian, on
the other hand, if belonging to the tax-paying classes, could be
exempt from the _eisphora_, not even the descendants of Harmodius and
Aristogeiton.

ĒLECTRUM (ἤλεκτρος and ἤλεκτρον), is used by the ancient writers
in two different senses, either for _amber_ or for a mixture of
metals composed of gold and silver. In Homer and Hesiod, it has, in
all probability, the former meaning. The earliest passage of any
Greek writer, in which the word is _certainly_ used for the metal,
is in the _Antigone_ of Sophocles (1038). This alludes to _native
electrum_; but the compound was also made artificially. Pliny
states that when gold contains a fifth part of silver, it is called
_electrum_; that it is found in veins of gold; and that it is also
made by art: if, he adds, it contains more than a fifth of silver, it
becomes too brittle to be malleable. But Isidorus mentions electrum
composed of _three_ parts gold, and _one_ of silver. Electrum was
used for plate, and the other similar purposes for which gold and
silver were employed. It was also used as a material for money.
Lampridius tells us, that Alexander Severus struck coins of it;
and coins are in existence, of this metal, struck by the kings of
Bosporus, by Syracuse, and by other Greek states.

ĔLEUSĪNĬA (ἐλευσίνια), a festival and mysteries, originally
celebrated only at Eleusis in Attica, in honour of Demeter and
Persephone. The Eleusinian mysteries, or _the_ mysteries, as they
were sometimes called, were the holiest and most venerable of all
that were celebrated in Greece. Various traditions were current among
the Greeks respecting the author of these mysteries: for, while some
considered Eumolpus or Musaeus to be their founder, others stated
that they had been introduced from Egypt by Erechtheus, who at a time
of scarcity provided his country with corn from Egypt, and imported
from the same quarter the sacred rites and mysteries of Eleusis.
A third tradition attributed the institution to Demeter herself,
who, when wandering about in search of her daughter, Persephone,
was believed to have come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus,
to have supplied its inhabitants with corn, and to have instituted
the mysteries at Eleusis. This last opinion seems to have been the
most common among the ancients, and in subsequent times a stone was
shown near the well Callichoros at Eleusis, on which the goddess,
overwhelmed with grief and fatigue, was believed to have rested on
her arrival in Attica. All the accounts and allusions in ancient
writers seem to warrant the conclusion, that the legends concerning
the introduction of the Eleusinia are descriptions of a period when
the inhabitants of Attica were becoming acquainted with the benefits
of agriculture, and of a regularly constituted form of society.--In
the reign of Erechtheus a war is said to have broken out between
the Athenians and Eleusinians; and when the latter were defeated,
they acknowledged the supremacy of Athens in everything except the
mysteries, which they wished to conduct and regulate for themselves.
Thus the superintendence remained with the descendants of Eumolpus
[EUMOLPIDAE], the daughters of the Eleusinian king Celeus, and a
third class of priests, the Ceryces, who seem likewise to have been
connected with the family of Eumolpus, though they themselves traced
their origin to Hermes and Aglauros.--At the time when the local
governments of the several townships of Attica were concentrated at
Athens, the capital became also the centre of religion, and several
deities who had hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were now
raised to the rank of national gods. This seems also to have been
the case with the Eleusinian goddess, for in the reign of Theseus we
find mention of a temple at Athens, called Eleusinion, probably the
new and national sanctuary of Demeter. Her priests and priestesses
now became naturally attached to the national temple of the capital,
though her original place of worship at Eleusis, with which so many
sacred associations were connected, still retained its importance and
its special share in the celebration of the national solemnities.--We
must distinguish between the greater Eleusinia, which were celebrated
at Athens and Eleusis, and the lesser, which were held at Agrae
on the Ilissus. The lesser Eleusinia were only a preparation
(προκάθαρσις or προάγνευσις) for the real mysteries. They were held
every year in the month of Anthesterion, and, according to some
accounts, in honour of Persephone alone. Those who were initiated in
them bore the name of _Mystae_ (μύσται), and had to wait at least
another year before they could be admitted to the great mysteries.
The principal rites of this first stage of initiation consisted in
the sacrifice of a sow, which the mystae seem to have first washed
in the Cantharus, and in the purification by a priest, who bore
the name of _Hydranos_ (Ὑδρανός). The mystae had also to take an
oath of secrecy, which was administered to them by the _Mystagogus_
(μυσταγωγός, also called ἱεροφάντης or προφήτης), and they received
some kind of preparatory instruction, which enabled them afterwards
to understand the mysteries which were revealed to them in the
great Eleusinia.--The great mysteries were celebrated every year in
the month of Boedromion, during nine days, from the 15th to the
23rd, both at Athens and Eleusis. The initiated were called ἐπόπται
or ἔφυροι. On the first day, those who had been initiated in the
lesser Eleusinia, assembled at Athens. On the second day the mystae
went in solemn procession to the sea-coast, where they underwent
a purification. Of the third day scarcely anything is known with
certainty; we are only told that it was a day of fasting, and that in
the evening a frugal meal was taken, which consisted of cakes made
of sesame and honey. On the fourth day the καλάθος κάθοδος seems to
have taken place. This was a procession with a basket containing
pomegranates and poppy-seeds; it was carried on a waggon drawn by
oxen, and women followed with small mystic cases in their hands.
On the fifth day, which appears to have been called the torch day
(ἡ τῶν λαμπάδων ἡμέρα), the mystae, led by the δᾳδοῦχος, went in
the evening with torches to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where
they seem to have remained during the following night. This rite was
probably a symbolical representation of Demeter wandering about in
search of Persephone. The sixth day, called _Iacchos_, was the most
solemn of all. The statue of Iacchos, son of Demeter, adorned with a
garland of myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, was carried along
the sacred road amidst joyous shouts and songs, from the Cerameicus
to Eleusis. This solemn procession was accompanied by great numbers
of followers and spectators. During the night from the sixth to
the seventh day the mystae remained at Eleusis, and were initiated
into the last mysteries (ἐποπτεία). Those who were neither ἐπόπται
nor μύσται were sent away by a herald. The mystae now repeated the
oath of secrecy which had been administered to them at the lesser
Eleusinia, underwent a new purification, and then they were led by
the mystagogus in the darkness of night into the lighted interior
of the sanctuary (φωταγωγία), and were allowed to see (αὐτοψία)
what none except the epoptae ever beheld. The awful and horrible
manner in which the initiation is described by later, especially
Christian writers, seems partly to proceed from their ignorance of
its real character, partly from their horror of and aversion to
these pagan rites. The more ancient writers always abstained from
entering upon any description of the subject. Each individual, after
his initiation, is said to have been dismissed by the words κόγξ,
ὄμπαξ, in order to make room for other mystae. On the seventh day
the initiated returned to Athens amid various kinds of raillery and
jests, especially at the bridge over the Cephisus, where they sat
down to rest, and poured forth their ridicule on those who passed
by. Hence the words γεφυρίζειν and γεφυρισμός. These σκώμματα seem,
like the procession with torches to Eleusis, to have been dramatical
and symbolical representations of the jests by which, according to
the ancient legend, Iambe or Baubo had dispelled the grief of the
goddess and made her smile. We may here observe, that probably the
whole history of Demeter and Persephone was in some way or other
symbolically represented at the Eleusinia. The eighth day, called
_Epidauria_ (Ἐπιδαύρια), was a kind of additional day for those
who by some accident had come too late, or had been prevented from
being initiated on the sixth day. It was said to have been added
to the original number of days, when Asclepius, coming over from
Epidaurus to be initiated, arrived too late, and the Athenians, not
to disappoint the god, added an eighth day. The ninth and last day
bore the name of πλημοχοαί, from a peculiar kind of vessel called
πλημοχοή, which is described as a small kind of κότυλος. Two of these
vessels were on this day filled with water or wine, and the contents
of the one thrown to the east, and those of the other to the west,
while those who performed this rite uttered some mystical words.--The
Eleusinian mysteries long survived the independence of Greece.
Attempts to suppress them were made by the emperor Valentinian, but
he met with strong opposition, and they seem to have continued down
to the time of the elder Theodosius. Respecting the secret doctrines
which were revealed in them to the initiated, nothing certain is
known. The general belief of the ancients was, that they opened to
man a comforting prospect of a future state. But this feature does
not seem to have been originally connected with these mysteries, and
was probably added to them at the period which followed the opening
of a regular intercourse between Greece and Egypt, when some of the
speculative doctrines of the latter country, and of the East, may
have been introduced into the mysteries, and hallowed by the names of
the venerable bards of the mythical age. This supposition would also
account, in some measure, for the legend of their introduction from
Egypt. In modern times many attempts have been made to discover the
nature of the mysteries revealed to the initiated, but the results
have been as various and as fanciful as might be expected. The most
sober and probable view is that, according to which, “they were
the remains of a worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic
mythology and its attendant rites, grounded on a view of nature,
less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to awaken both
philosophical thought and religious feeling.”

ĔLEUTHĔRĬA (ἐλευθέρια), the feast of liberty, a festival which the
Greeks, after the battle of Plataeae (479 B.C.), instituted in honour
of Zeus Eleutherios (the deliverer). It was intended not merely
to be a token of their gratitude to the god to whom they believed
themselves to be indebted for their victory over the barbarians, but
also as a bond of union among themselves; for, in an assembly of all
the Greeks, Aristeides carried a decree that delegates (πρόβουλοι
καὶ θεωροί) from all the Greek states should assemble every year
at Plataeae for the celebration of the Eleutheria. The town itself
was at the same time declared sacred and inviolable, as long as its
citizens offered the annual sacrifices which were then instituted on
behalf of Greece. Every fifth year these solemnities were celebrated
with contests, in which the victors were rewarded with chaplets.

ELLŌTĬA or HELLŌTĬA (ἐλλώτια or ἑλλώτια), a festival with a torch
race celebrated at Corinth in honour of Athena as a goddess of fire.

ĒMANCĬPĀTĬO, was an act by which the _patria potestas_ was dissolved
in the lifetime of the parent, and it was so called because it was in
the form of a sale (_mancipatio_). By the laws of the Twelve Tables
it was necessary that a son should be sold three times in order to
be released from the paternal power, or to be _sui juris_. In the
case of daughters and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient. The
father transferred the son by the form of a sale to another person,
who manumitted him, upon which he returned into the power of the
father. This was repeated, and with the like result. After a third
sale, the paternal power was extinguished, but the son was re-sold to
the parent, who then manumitted him, and so acquired the rights of a
patron over his emancipated son, which would otherwise have belonged
to the purchaser who gave him his final manumission.

EMBAS (ἐμβάς), a shoe worn by men, and which appears to have been
the most common kind of shoe worn at Athens. Pollux says that it was
invented by the Thracians, and that it was like the low cothurnus.
The _embas_ was also worn by the Boeotians, and probably in other
parts of Greece.

EMBĂTEIA (ἐμβατεία). In Attic law this word (like the corresponding
English one, _entry_), was used to denote a formal taking possession
of real property. Thus, when a son entered upon the land left him
by his father, he was said ἐμβατεύειν or βαδίζειν εἰς τὰ πατρῳα,
and thereupon he became _seised_, or possessed of his inheritance.
If any one disturbed him in the enjoyment of this property, with
an intention to dispute the title, he might maintain an action of
ejectment, ἐξούλης δίκη. Before entry he could not maintain such
action.

EMBLĒMA (ἔμβλημα, ἔμπαισμα), an inlaid ornament. The art of inlaying
was employed in producing beautiful works of two descriptions,
viz.;--1st, those which resembled our marquetry, buhl, and Florentine
mosaics; and 2dly, those in which crusts (_crustae_), exquisitely
wrought in bas-relief and of precious materials, were fastened upon
the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture. To the latter
class of productions belonged the cups and plates which Verres
obtained by violence from the Sicilians, and from which he removed
the emblems for the purpose of having them set in gold instead of
silver.

ĒMĔRĬTI, the name given to those Roman soldiers who had served out
their time, and had exemption (_vacatio_) from military service. The
usual time of service was twenty years for the legionary soldiers,
and sixteen for the praetorians. At the end of their period of
service they received a bounty or reward (_emeritum_), either in
lands or money, or in both.

ĒMISSĀRĬUM (ὑπόνομος), a channel, natural or artificial, by which
an outlet is formed to carry off any stagnant body of water. Such
channels may be either open or underground; but the most remarkable
works of the kind are of the latter description, as they carry off
the waters of lakes surrounded by hills. In Greece, the most striking
example is presented by the subterraneous channels which carry off
the waters of the lake Copais in Boeotia, which were partly natural
and partly artificial. Some works of this kind are among the most
remarkable efforts of Roman ingenuity. Remains still exist to show
that the lakes Trasimene, Albano, Nemi, and Fucino, were all drained
by means of _emissaria_, the last of which is still nearly perfect,
and open to inspection, having been partially cleared by the present
king of Naples. Julius Caesar is said to have first conceived the
idea of this stupendous undertaking, which was carried into effect by
the Emperor Claudius.

EMMĒNI DĬKAE (ἔμμηνοι δίκαι), suits in the Athenian courts, which
were not allowed to be pending above a month. This regulation was
confined to those subjects which required a speedy decision; and of
these the most important were disputes respecting commerce (ἐμπορικαὶ
δίκαι). All causes relating to mines (μεταλλικαὶ δίκαι) were also
ἔμμηνοι δίκαι, as well as those relating to ἔρανοι. [ERANI.]

EMPŎRĬUM (τὸ ἐμπόριον), a place for wholesale trade in commodities
carried by sea. The name is sometimes applied to a sea-port town,
but it properly signifies only a particular place in such a town.
The word is derived from ἔμπορος, which signifies in Homer a person
who sails as a passenger in a ship belonging to another person; but
in later writers it signifies the merchant or wholesale dealer, and
differs from κάπηλος, the retail dealer. The emporium at Athens was
under the inspection of certain officers, who were elected annually
(ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ ἐμπορίου).

ENCAUSTĬCA. [PICTURA.]

ENCTĒSIS (ἔγκτησις), the right of possessing landed property and
houses (ἔγκτησις γῆς καὶ οἰκίας) in a foreign country, which was
frequently granted by one Greek state to another, or to separate
individuals of another state. Ἐγκτήματα were such possessions in
a foreign country, or in a different δῆμος from that to which an
Athenian belonged by birth.

ENDEIXIS (ἔνδειξις), properly denotes a prosecution instituted
against such persons as were alleged to have exercised rights or
held offices while labouring under a peculiar disqualification.
The same form of action was available against the chairman of the
proedri (ἐπιστάτης), who wrongly refused to take the votes of the
people in the assembly; against malefactors, especially murderers;
traitors, ambassadors accused of malversation, and persons who
furnished supplies to the enemy during war. The first step taken by
the prosecutor was to lay his information in writing, also called
_endeixis_, before the proper magistrate, who then arrested, or
held to bail, the person criminated, and took the usual steps for
bringing him to trial. There is great obscurity with respect to the
punishment which followed condemnation. The accuser, if unsuccessful,
was responsible for bringing a malicious charge (ψευδοῦς ἐνδείξεως
ὑπεύθυνος).

ENDRŎMIS (ἐνδρομίς), a thick, coarse blanket, manufactured in Gaul,
and called “endromis” because those who had been exercising in the
stadium (ἐν δρόμῳ) threw it over them to obviate the effects of
sudden exposure when they were heated. Notwithstanding its coarse and
shaggy appearance, it was worn on other occasions as a protection
from the cold by rich and fashionable persons at Rome.

ENSIS. [GLADIUS.]

ENTĂSIS (ἔντασις). The most ancient columns now existing, diminish
immediately and regularly from the base to the neck, so that the
edge forms a straight line--a mode of construction which is wanting
in grace and apparent solidity. To correct this, a swelling outline,
called _entasis_, was given to the shaft, which seems to have been
the first step towards combining grace and grandeur in the Doric
column.

EPANGĔLĬA (ἐπαγγελία). If a citizen of Athens had incurred _atimia_,
the privilege of taking part or speaking in the public assembly was
forfeited. But as it sometimes might happen that a person, though not
formally declared _atimus_, had committed such crimes as would, on
accusation, draw upon him this punishment, it was of course desirable
that such individuals, like real _atimi_, should be excluded from
the exercise of the rights of citizens. Whenever, therefore, such
a person ventured to speak in the assembly, any Athenian citizen
had the right to come forward in the assembly itself and demand of
him to establish his right to speak by a trial or examination of
his conduct (δοκιμασία τοῦ βίου), and this demand, denouncement, or
threat, was called _epangelia_, or _epangelia docimasias_ (ἐπαγγελία
δοκιμασίας). The impeached individual was then compelled to desist
from speaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into his conduct, and, if
he was convicted, a formal declaration of _atimia_ followed.

EPARITI (ἐπάριτοι), the name of the standing army in Arcadia, which
was formed to preserve the independence of the Arcadian towns, when
they became united as one state after the defeat of the Spartans at
Leuctra. They were 5000 in number, and were paid by the state.

EPHĒBUS (ἔφηβος), the name of Athenian youths after they had
attained the age of 18. The state of _ephebeia_ (ἐφηβεία) lasted for
two years, till the youths had attained the age of 20, when they
became men, and were admitted to share all the rights and duties of
citizens, for which the law did not prescribe a more advanced age.
Before a youth was enrolled among the ephebi, he had to undergo a
_docimasia_ (δοκιμασία), the object of which was partly to ascertain
whether he was the son of Athenian citizens, or adopted by a citizen,
and partly whether his body was sufficiently developed and strong
to undertake the duties which now devolved upon him. After the
_docimasia_ the young men received in the assembly a shield and a
lance; but those whose fathers had fallen in the defence of their
country received a complete suit of armour in the theatre. It seems
to have been on this occasion that the ephebi took an oath in the
temple of Artemis Aglauros, by which they pledged themselves never
to disgrace their arms or to desert their comrades; to fight to
the last in the defence of their country, its altars and hearths;
to leave their country not in a worse but in a better state than
they found it; to obey the magistrates and the laws; to resist
all attempts to subvert the institutions of Attica; and finally,
to respect the religion of their forefathers. This solemnity took
place towards the close of the year, and the festive season bore the
name of _ephebia_ (ἐφήβια). The external distinction of the ephebi
consisted in the chlamys and the petasus. During the two years of
the ephebeia, which may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship in
arms, and in which the young men prepared themselves for the higher
duties of full citizens, they were generally sent into the country,
under the name of _peripoli_ (περίπολοι), to keep watch in the towns
and fortresses, on the coast and frontier, and to perform other
duties which might be necessary for the protection of Attica.

ĔPHĒGĒSIS (ἐφήγησις), denotes the method of proceeding against such
criminals as were liable to be summarily arrested by a private
citizen [APAGOGE] when the prosecutor was unwilling to expose
himself to personal risk in apprehending the offender. Under these
circumstances he made an application to the proper magistrate, and
conducted him and his officers to the spot where the capture was to
be effected.

ĔPHĔTAE (ἐφέται), the name of certain judges at Athens, who tried
cases of homicide. They were fifty-one in number, selected from noble
families, and more than fifty years of age. They formed a tribunal
of great antiquity, and were in existence before the legislation of
Solon, but, as the state became more and more democratical, their
duties became unimportant and almost antiquated. The Ephetae once sat
in one or other of the five courts, according to the nature of the
causes they had to try. In historical times, however, they sat in
_four_ only, called respectively the court by the Palladium (τὸ ἐπὶ
Παλλαδίῳ), by the Delphinium (τὸ ἐπὶ Δελφινίῳ), by the Prytaneium (τὸ
ἐπὶ Πρυτανείῳ), and the court at Phreatto or Zea (τὸ ἐν Φρεαττοῖ). At
the first of these courts they tried cases of unintentional, at the
second, of intentional but justifiable homicide. At the Prytaneium,
by a strange custom, somewhat analogous to the imposition of a
deodand, they passed sentence upon the instrument of murder when
the perpetrator of the act was not known. In the court at Phreatto,
on the sea shore at the Peiraeeus, they tried such persons as were
charged with wilful murder during a temporary exile for unintentional
homicide.

[Illustration: Ephippium, Saddle. (Coin of Labienus.)]

ĔPHIPPĬUM (ἀστράβη, ἐφίππιον, ἐφίππειον), a saddle. Although the
Greeks occasionally rode without any saddle, yet they commonly used
one, and from them the name, together with the thing, was borrowed by
the Romans. The ancient saddles appear, indeed, to have been thus far
different from ours, that the cover stretched upon the hard frame was
probably of stuffed or padded cloth rather than leather, and that the
saddle was, as it were, a cushion fitted to the horse’s back. Pendent
cloths (στρώματα, _strata_) were always attached to it so as to cover
the sides of the animal; but it was not provided with stirrups. The
saddle with the pendent cloths is exhibited in the annexed coin. The
term “Ephippium” was in later times in part supplanted by the word
“sella,” and the more specific expression “sella equestris.”

ĔPHŎRI (ἔφοροι). Magistrates called _Ephori_ or overseers were common
to many Dorian constitutions in times of remote antiquity; but the
Ephori of Sparta are the most celebrated of them all. The origin
of the Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their office in the
historical times was a kind of counterpoise to the kings and council,
and in that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the Dorian states.
Their number, five, appears to have been always the same, and was
probably connected with the five divisions of the town of Sparta,
namely, the four κῶμαι, Limnae, Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the
Πόλις or city properly so called, around which the κῶμαι lay. They
were elected from and by the people, without any qualification of age
or property, and without undergoing any scrutiny; so that the people
enjoyed through them a participation in the highest magistracy of
the state. They entered upon office at the autumnal solstice, and
the first in rank of the five gave his name to the year, which was
called after him in all civil transactions. They possessed judicial
authority in civil suits, and also a general superintendence over
the morals and domestic economy of the nation, which in the hands
of able men would soon prove an instrument of unlimited power.
Their jurisdiction and power were still further increased by the
privilege of instituting scrutinies (εὔθυναι) into the conduct of all
the magistrates. Even the kings themselves could be brought before
their tribunal (as Cleomenes was for bribery). In extreme cases, the
ephors were also competent to lay an accusation against the kings
as well as the other magistrates, and bring them to a capital trial
before the great court of justice. In later times the power of the
ephors was greatly increased; and this increase appears to have been
principally owing to the fact, that they put themselves in connection
with the assembly of the people, convened its meetings, laid measures
before it, and were constituted its agents and representatives.
When this connection arose is matter of conjecture. The power which
such a connection gave would, more than anything else, enable them
to encroach on the royal authority, and make themselves virtually
supreme in the state. Accordingly, we find that they transacted
business with foreign ambassadors; dismissed them from the state;
decided upon the government of dependent cities; subscribed in the
presence of other persons to treaties of peace; and in time of war
sent out troops when they thought necessary. In all these capacities
the ephors acted as the representatives of the nation, and the agents
of the public assembly, being in fact the executive of the state. In
course of time the kings became completely under their control. For
example, they fined Agesilaus on the vague charge of trying to make
himself popular, and interfered even with the domestic arrangements
of other kings. In the field the kings were followed by two ephors,
who belonged to the council of war; the three who remained at home
received the booty in charge, and paid it into the treasury, which
was under the superintendence of the whole College of Five. But
the ephors had still another prerogative, based on a religious
foundation, which enabled them to effect a temporary deposition of
the kings. Once in eight years, as we are told, they chose a calm
and cloudless night to observe the heavens, and if there was any
appearance of a falling meteor, it was believed to be a sign that the
gods were displeased with the kings, who were accordingly suspended
from their functions until an oracle allowed of their restoration.
The outward symbols of supreme authority also were assumed by the
ephors; and they alone kept their seats while the kings passed;
whereas it was not considered below the dignity of the kings to rise
in honour of the ephors. When Agis and Cleomenes undertook to restore
the old constitution, it was necessary for them to overthrow the
ephoralty, and accordingly Cleomenes murdered the ephors for the time
being, and abolished the office (B.C. 225); it was, however, restored
under the Romans.

ĔPĬBĂTAE (ἐπιβάται), were soldiers or marines appointed to defend the
vessels in the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct from the
rowers, and also from the land soldiers, such as hoplitae, peltasts,
and cavalry. It appears that the ordinary number of epibatae on
board a trireme was ten. The epibatae were usually taken from the
thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citizens. The term is sometimes
also applied by the Roman writers to the marines, but they are more
usually called _classiarii milites_. The latter term, however, is
also applied to the rowers or sailors as well as the marines.

ĔPĬBŎLĒ (ἐπιβολή), a fine imposed by a magistrate, or other official
person or body, for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates at Athens
had (each in his own department) a summary penal jurisdiction;
_i.e._ for certain offences they might inflict a pecuniary mulct
or fine, not exceeding a fixed amount; if the offender deserved
further punishment, it was their duty to bring him before a judicial
tribunal. These _epibolae_ are to be distinguished from the
penalties awarded by a jury or court of law (τιμήματα) upon a formal
prosecution.

ĔPĬCLĒRUS (ἐπίκληρος, heiress), the name given to the daughter of
an Athenian citizen, who had no son to inherit his estate. It was
deemed an object of importance at Athens to preserve the family
name and property of every citizen. This was effected, where a man
had no child, by adoption (εἰσποίησις); if he had a daughter, the
inheritance was transmitted through her to a grandson, who would take
the name of the maternal ancestor. If the father died intestate,
the heiress had not the choice of a husband, but was bound to marry
her nearest relation, not in the ascending line. When there was but
one daughter, she was called ἐπίκληρος ἐπὶ παντὶ τῷ οἴκῳ. If there
were more, they inherited equally, like our co-parceners; and were
severally married to relatives, the nearest having the first choice.

ĔPĬDŎSEIS (ἐπιδόσεις), voluntary contributions, either in money,
arms, or ships, which were made by the Athenian citizens in order
to meet the extraordinary demands of the state. When the expenses
of the state were greater than its revenue, it was usual for the
prytaneis to summon an assembly of the people, and after explaining
the necessities of the state, to call upon the citizens to contribute
according to their means. Those who were willing to contribute then
rose and mentioned what they would give; while those who were
unwilling to give any thing remained silent, or retired privately
from the assembly.

ĔPĬMĔLĒTAE (ἐπιμεληταί), the names of various magistrates and
functionaries at Athens.--(1) Ἐπιμελητὴς τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου, more
usually called ταμίας, the treasurer or manager of the public
revenue. [TAMIAS.]--(2) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν, were persons
chosen from among the Areopagites to take care of the sacred olive
trees.--(3) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ Ἐμπορίου, were the overseers of the
emporium. [EMPORIUM.] They were ten in number, and were elected
yearly by lot. They had the entire management of the emporium,
and had jurisdiction in all breaches of the commercial laws.--(4)
Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν Μυστηρίων, were, in connection with the king archon,
the managers of the Eleusinian mysteries. They were elected by open
vote, and were four in number.--(5) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν νεωρίων, the
inspectors of the dockyards, were ten in number.--(6) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν
φυλῶν, the inspectors of the φυλαὶ or tribes. [TRIBUS.]

ĔPISCŎPI (ἐπίσκοποι), inspectors, who were sometimes sent by the
Athenians to subject states. They were also called φύλακες. It
appears that these Episcopi received a salary at the cost of the
cities over which they presided.

ĔPISTĂTĒS (ἐπιστάτης).--(1) The chairman of the senate and assembly
of the people, respecting whose duties see BOULÉ and ECCLESIA.--(2)
The name of the directors of the public works. (Ἐπισταταὶ τῶν
δημοσίων ἔργων).

ĔPISTŎLEUS (ἐπιστολεύς), the officer second in rank in the Spartan
fleet, who succeeded to the command if any thing happened to the
_navarchus_ (ναυάρχος) or admiral. When the Chians and the other
allies of Sparta on the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request that
Lysander might be again appointed to the command of the navy, he was
sent with the title of epistoleus, because the laws of Sparta did not
permit the same person to hold the office of navarchus twice.

ĔPISTȲLĬUM (ἐπιστύλιον), properly, as the name implies, the
architrave, or lower member of an entablature, which lies immediately
over the columns. The word is sometimes also used for the whole of
the entablature.

ĔPĬTRŎPUS (ἐπίτροπος), the name at Athens of a guardian of orphan
children. Of such guardians there were at Athens three kinds: first,
those appointed in the will of the deceased father; secondly, the
next of kin, whom the law designated as tutores legitimi in default
of such appointment, and who required the authorization of the
archon to enable them to act; and lastly, such persons as the archon
selected if there were no next of kin living to undertake the office.
The duties of the guardian comprehended the education, maintenance,
and protection of the ward, the assertion of his rights, and the
safe custody and profitable disposition of his inheritance during
his minority, besides making a proper provision for the widow if she
remained in the house of her late husband.

ĔPŌBĔLIA (ἐπωβελία), as its etymology implies, at the rate of one
obolus for a drachma, or one in six, was payable on the assessment
(τίμημα) of several private causes, and sometimes in a case of
phasis, by the litigant that failed to obtain the votes of one-fifth
of the dicasts.

ĔPŌNỸMUS. [ARCHON.]

ĔPOPTAE (ἐπόπται). [ELEUSINIA.]

ĔPŬLŌNES, who were originally three in number (_triumviri epulones_),
were first created in B.C. 196, to attend to the Epulum Jovis, and
the banquets given in honour of the other gods; which duty had
originally belonged to the pontifices. Their number was afterwards
increased to seven, and they were called septemviri epulones or
septemviri epulonum. The epulones formed a collegium, and were one of
the four great religious corporations at Rome; the other three were
those of the Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri.

ĔPŬLUM JŎVIS. [EPULONES.]

ĔQUĪRĬA, horse-races, which are said to have been instituted by
Romulus in honour of Mars, and were celebrated in the Campus Martius.
There were two festivals of this name; of which one was celebrated
A.D. III. Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id. Mart.

ĔQUĬTES, horsemen. Romulus is said to have formed three centuries
of equites; and these were the same as the 300 Celeres, whom he
kept about his person in peace and war. A century was taken from
each of the three tribes, the _Ramnes_, _Titienses_, and _Luceres_.
Tarquinius Priscus added three more, under the title of Ramnes,
Titienses, and Luceres _posteriores_. These were the six patrician
centuries of equites, often referred to under the name of the _sex
suffragia_. To these Servius Tullius added twelve more centuries, for
admission into which, property and not birth was the qualification.
These twelve centuries might therefore contain plebeians, but they
do not appear to have been restricted to plebeians, since we have
no reason for believing that the six old centuries contained the
_whole_ body of patricians. A property qualification was apparently
also necessary by the Servian constitution for admission into the
six centuries. We may therefore suppose that those patricians who
were included in the six old centuries were allowed by the Servian
constitution to continue in them, if they possessed the requisite
property; and that all other persons in the state, whether patricians
or plebeians, who possessed the requisite property, were admitted
into the twelve new centuries. We are not told the amount of property
necessary to entitle a person to a place among the equites, but it
was probably the same as in the latter times of the republic, that
is, four times that of the first class. [COMITIA, p. 105.] Property,
however, was not the only qualification; for in the ancient times
of the republic no one was admitted among the equestrian centuries
unless his character was unblemished, and his father and grandfather
had been born freemen. Each of the equites received a horse from
the state (_equus publicus_), or money to purchase one, as well as
a sum of money for its annual support; the expense of its support
was defrayed by the orphans and unmarried females; since, in a
military state, it could not be esteemed unjust, that the women and
the children were to contribute largely for those who fought in
behalf of them and of the commonwealth. The purchase-money for a
knight’s horse was called _aes equestre_, and its annual provision
_aes hordearium_. The former amounted, according to Livy, to 10,000
asses, and the latter to 2000.--All the equites, of whom we have
been speaking, received a horse from the state, and were included
in the 18 equestrian centuries of the Servian constitution; but
in course of time, we read of another class of equites in Roman
history, who did not receive a horse from the state, and who were not
included in the 18 centuries. This latter class is first mentioned
by Livy, in his account of the siege of Veii, B.C. 403. He says that
during the siege, when the Romans had at one time suffered great
disasters, all those citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and no
horse allotted to them, volunteered to serve with their own horses;
and he adds, that from this time equites first began to serve with
their own horses. The state paid them, as a kind of compensation for
serving with their own horses. The foot soldiers had received pay
a few years before; and two years afterwards, B.C. 401, the pay of
the equites was made three-fold that of the infantry. From the year
B.C. 403, there were therefore two classes of Roman knights: one who
received horses from the state, and are therefore frequently called
_equites equo publico_, and sometimes _Flexumines_ or _Trossuli_,
and another class, who served, when they were required, with their
own horses, but were not classed among the 18 centuries. As they
served on horseback they were called _equites_; and when spoken of in
opposition to cavalry, which did not consist of Roman citizens, they
were also called _equites Romani_; but they had no legal claim to
the name of equites, since in ancient times this title was strictly
confined to those who received horses from the state.--The reason of
this distinction of two classes arose from the fact, that the number
of equites in the 18 centuries was fixed from the time of Servius
Tullius. As vacancies occurred in them, the descendants of those
who were originally enrolled succeeded to their places, provided
they had not dissipated their property. But in course of time, as
population and wealth increased, the number of persons who possessed
an equestrian fortune, also increased greatly; and as the ancestors
of these persons had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries, they
could not receive horses from the state, and were therefore allowed
the privilege of serving with their own horses among the cavalry,
instead of the infantry, as they would otherwise have been obliged to
have done.--The inspection of the equites who received horses from
the state belonged to the censors, who had the power of depriving an
eques of his horse, and reducing him to the condition of an aerarian,
and also of giving the vacant horse to the most distinguished of the
equites who had previously served at their own expense. For these
purposes they made during their censorship a public inspection, in
the forum, of all the knights who possessed public horses (_equitatum
recognoscere_). The tribes were taken in order, and each knight was
summoned by name. Every one, as his name was called, walked past
the censors, leading his horse. If the censors had no fault to find
either with the character of the knight or the equipments of his
horse, they ordered him to pass on (_traducere equum_); but if on
the contrary they considered him unworthy of his rank, they struck
him out of the list of knights, and deprived him of his horse, or
ordered him to sell it, with the intention no doubt that the person
thus degraded should refund to the state the money which had been
advanced to him for its purchase.--This review of the equites by
the censors must not be confounded with the _Equitum Transvectio_,
which was a solemn procession of the body every year on the Ides of
Quintilis (July). The procession started from the temple of Mars
outside the city, and passed through the city over the forum, and by
the temple of the Dioscuri. On this occasion the equites were always
crowned with olive chaplets, and wore their state dress, the trabea,
with all the honourable distinctions which they had gained in battle.
According to Livy, this annual procession was first established by
the censors Q. Fabius and P. Decius, B.C. 304; but according to
Dionysius it was instituted after the defeat of the Latins near
the lake Regillus, of which an account was brought to Rome by the
Dioscuri.--It may be asked how long did the knight retain his public
horse, and a vote in the equestrian century to which he belonged? On
this subject we have no positive information; but as those equites,
who served with their own horses, were only obliged to serve for ten
years (_stipendia_) under the age of 46, we may presume that the same
rule extended to those who served with the public horses, provided
they _wished_ to give up the service. For it is certain that in the
ancient times of the republic a knight might retain his horse as
long as he pleased, even after he had entered the senate, provided
he continued able to discharge the duties of a knight. Thus the two
censors, M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, in B.C. 204, were
also equites, and L. Scipio Asiaticus, who was deprived of his horse
by the censors in B.C. 185, had himself been censor in B.C. 191.
But during the later times of the republic the knights were obliged
to give up their horses on entering the senate, and consequently
ceased to belong to the equestrian centuries. It thus naturally
came to pass, that the greater number of the equites equo publico,
after the exclusion of senators from the equestrian centuries, were
young men.--The equestrian centuries, of which we have hitherto been
treating, were only regarded as a division of the army: they did not
form a distinct class or ordo in the constitution. The community,
in a political point of view, was divided only into patricians and
plebeians, and the equestrian centuries were composed of both. But
in the year B.C. 123, a new class, called the _Ordo Equestris_, was
formed in the state by the Lex Sempronia, which was introduced by C.
Gracchus. By this law, or one passed a few years afterwards, every
person who was to be chosen judex was required to be above 30 and
under 60 years of age, to have either an equus publicus, or to be
qualified by his fortune to possess one, and _not_ to be a senator.
The number of judices, who were required yearly, was chosen from
this class by the praetor urbanus. As the name of equites had been
originally extended from those who possessed the public horses to
those who served with their own horses, it now came to be applied
to all those persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as
judices, in which sense the word is usually used by Cicero. After
the reform of Sulla, which entirely deprived the equestrian order
of the right of being chosen as judices, and the passing of the Lex
Aurelia (B.C. 70), which ordained that the judices should be chosen
from the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii, the influence of
the order, says Pliny, was still maintained by the _publicani_,
or farmers of the public taxes. We find that the publicani were
almost always called equites, not because any particular rank was
necessary in order to obtain from the state the farming of the
taxes, but because the state was not accustomed to let them to any
one who did not possess a considerable fortune. Thus the publicani
are frequently spoken of by Cicero as identical with the equestrian
order. The consulship of Cicero, and the active part which the
knights then took in suppressing the conspiracy of Catiline, tended
still further to increase the power and influence of the equestrian
order; and “from that time,” says Pliny, “it became a third body
(_corpus_) in the state, and, to the title of _Senatus Populusque
Romanus_, there began to be added _Et Equestris Ordo_.” In B.C. 63,
a distinction was conferred upon them, which tended to separate them
still further from the plebs. By the Lex Roscia Othonis, passed
in that year, the first fourteen seats in the theatre behind the
orchestra were given to the equites. They also possessed the right
of wearing the Clavus Angustus [CLAVUS], and subsequently obtained
the privilege of wearing a gold ring, which was originally confined
to the equites equo publico. The number of equites increased greatly
under the early emperors, and all persons were admitted into the
order, provided they possessed the requisite property, without any
inquiry into their character, or into the free birth of their father
and grandfather. The order in consequence gradually began to lose all
the consideration which it had acquired during the later times of the
republic.--Augustus formed a select class of equites, consisting of
those equites who possessed the property of a senator, and the old
requirement of free birth up to the grandfather. He permitted this
class to wear the _latus clavus_; and also allowed the tribunes of
the plebs to be chosen from them, as well as the senators, and gave
them the option, at the termination of their office, to remain in the
senate or return to the equestrian order. This class of knights was
distinguished by the special title _illustres_ (sometimes _insignes_
and _splendidi_) _equites Romani_. The formation of this distinct
class tended to lower the others still more in public estimation.
In the ninth year of the reign of Tiberius, an attempt was made
to improve the order by requiring the old qualifications of free
birth up to the grandfather, and by strictly forbidding any one to
wear the gold ring unless he possessed this qualification. This
regulation, however, was of little avail, as the emperors frequently
admitted freedmen into the equestrian order. When private persons
were no longer appointed judices, the necessity for a distinct class
in the community, like the equestrian order, ceased entirely; and
the gold ring came at length to be worn by all free citizens. Even
slaves, after their manumission, were allowed to wear it by special
permission from the emperor, which appears to have been usually
granted provided the patronus consented.--Having thus traced the
history of the equestrian order to its final extinction as a distinct
class in the community, we must now return to the equites equo
publico, who formed the 18 equestrian centuries. This class still
existed during the latter years of the republic, but had entirely
ceased to serve as horse-soldiers in the army. The cavalry of the
Roman legions no longer consisted, as in the time of Polybius, of
Roman equites, but their place was supplied by the cavalry of the
allied states. It is evident that Caesar in his Gallic wars possessed
no Roman cavalry. When he went to an interview with Ariovistus,
and was obliged to take cavalry with him, we are told that he did
not dare to trust his safety to the Gallic cavalry, and therefore
mounted his legionary soldiers upon their horses. The Roman equites
are, however, frequently mentioned in the Gallic and civil wars,
but never as common soldiers; they were officers attached to the
staff of the general, or commanded the cavalry of the allies, or
sometimes the legions.--After the year B.C. 50, there were no censors
in the state, and it would therefore follow that for some years
no review of the body took place, and that the vacancies were not
filled up. When Augustus, however, took upon himself, in B.C. 29,
the praefectura morum, he frequently reviewed the troops of equites,
and restored the long neglected custom of the solemn procession
(_transvectio_). From this time these equites formed an honourable
corps, from which all the higher officers in the army and the chief
magistrates in the state were chosen. Admission into this body was
equivalent to an introduction into public life, and was therefore
esteemed a great privilege. If a young man was not admitted into
this body, he was excluded from all civil offices of any importance,
except in municipal towns; and also from all rank in the army,
with the exception of centurion. All those equites, who were not
employed in actual service, were obliged to reside at Rome, where
they were allowed to fill the lower magistracies, which entitled
a person to admission into the senate. They were divided into six
turmae, each of which was commanded by an officer, who is frequently
mentioned in inscriptions as _Sevir equitum Rom. turmae_ I. II., &c.,
or commonly _Sevir turmae_ or _Sevir turmarum equitum Romanorum_.
From the time that the equites bestowed the title of _principes
juventutis_ upon Caius and Lucius Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus,
it became the custom to confer this title, as well as that of sevir,
upon the probable successor to the throne, when he first entered
into public life, and was presented with an equus publicus. The
practice of filling all the higher offices in the state from these
equites appears to have continued as long as Rome was the centre of
the government and the residence of the emperor. After the time of
Diocletian, the equites became only a city guard, under the command
of the praefectus vigilum; but they still retained, in the time of
Valentinianus and Valens, A.D. 364, the second rank in the city, and
were not subject to corporal punishment. Respecting the _Magister
Equitum_, see DICTATOR.

ĔQUŬLĔUS or ĔCŬLĔUS, an instrument of torture, which is supposed to
have been so called because it was in the form of a horse.

ĔRĂNI (ἔρανοι), were clubs or societies, established for charitable,
convivial, commercial, or political purposes. Unions of this kind
were called by the general name of ἑταιρίαι, and were often converted
to mischievous ends, such as bribery, overawing the public assembly,
or influencing courts of justice. In the days of the Roman empire
friendly societies, under the name of _erani_, were frequent among
the Greek cities, but were looked on with suspicion by the emperors,
as leading to political combinations. The _gilds_, or fraternities
for mutual aid, among the ancient Saxons, resembled the _erani_ of
the Greeks.

ERGASTŬLUM, a private prison attached to most Roman farms, where
the slaves were made to work in chains. The slaves confined in an
ergastulum were also employed to cultivate the fields in chains.
Slaves who had displeased their masters were punished by imprisonment
in the ergastulum; and in the same place all slaves, who could not be
depended upon or were barbarous in their habits, were regularly kept.

ĒRĪCĬUS, a military engine full of sharp spikes, which was placed by
the gate of the camp to prevent the approach of the enemy.

ĔRŌTĬA or ĔRŌTĬDĬA (ἐρώτια or ἐρωτίδια), the most solemn of all the
festivals celebrated in the Boeotian town of Thespiae. It took place
every fifth year, and in honour of Eros, the principal divinity of
the Thespians. Respecting the particulars nothing is known, except
that it was solemnised with contests in music and gymnastics.

ESSĔDĀRĬI. [ESSEDUM.]

ESSĔDA, or ESSĔDUM (from the Celtic _Ess_, a carriage), the name of
a chariot used, especially in war, by the Britons, the Gauls, and
the Germans. It was built very strongly, was open before instead of
behind, like the Greek war-chariot, and had a wide pole, so that the
owner was able, whenever he pleased, to run along the pole, and even
to raise himself upon the yoke, and then to retreat with the greatest
speed into the body of the car, which he drove with extraordinary
swiftness and skill. It appears also that these cars were purposely
made as noisy as possible, probably by the creaking and clanging of
the wheels; and that this was done in order to strike dismay into the
enemy. The warriors who drove these chariots were called _essedarii_.
Having been captured, they were sometimes exhibited in the
gladiatorial shows at Rome, and seem to have been great favourites
with the people. The essedum was adopted for purposes of convenience
and luxury among the Romans. As used by the Romans, the essedum may
have differed from the cisium in this; that the cisium was drawn by
one horse (see cut, p. 90), the essedum always by a pair.

EUMOLPĬDAE (εὐμολπίδαι), the most distinguished and venerable among
the priestly families in Attica. They were devoted to the service of
Demeter at Athens and Eleusis, and were said to be the descendants
of the Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to some legends, had
introduced the Eleusinian mysteries into Attica. The high priest of
the Eleusinian goddess (ἱεροφάντης or μυσταγωγός), who conducted the
celebration of her mysteries and the initiation of the mystae, was
always a member of the family of the Eumolpidae, as Eumolpus himself
was believed to have been the first hierophant. The hierophant was
attended by four _epimeletae_ (ἐπιμεληταί), one of whom likewise
belonged to the family of the Eumolpidae. The Eumolpidae had on
certain occasions to offer up prayers for the welfare of the state.
They had likewise judicial power in cases where religion was
violated. The law according to which they pronounced their sentence,
and of which they had the exclusive possession, was not written,
but handed down by tradition; and the Eumolpidae alone had the
right to interpret it, whence they are sometimes called _Exegetae_
(ἐξηγηταί). In cases for which the law had made no provisions, they
acted according to their own discretion. In some cases, when a person
was convicted of gross violation of the public institutions of his
country, the people, besides sending the offender into exile, added a
clause in their verdict that a curse should be pronounced upon him by
the Eumolpidae. But the Eumolpidae could pronounce such a curse only
at the command of the people, and might afterwards be compelled by
the people to revoke it, and purify the person whom they had cursed
before.

EUPATRĬDAE (εὐπατρίδαι), descended from noble ancestors, is the name
by which in early times the nobility of Attica was designated. In
the division of the inhabitants of Attica into three classes, which
is ascribed to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first class, and
thus formed a compact order of nobles, united by their interests,
rights, and privileges. They were in the exclusive possession of all
the civil and religious offices in the state, ordered the affairs of
religion, and interpreted the laws human and divine. The king was
thus only the first among his equals, and only distinguished from
them by the duration of his office. By the legislation of Solon,
the political power and influence of the Eupatridae as an order
was broken, and property instead of birth was made the standard
of political rights. But as Solon, like all ancient legislators,
abstained from abolishing any of the religious institutions, those
families of the Eupatridae, in which certain priestly offices and
functions were hereditary, retained these distinctions down to a very
late period of Grecian history.

EURĪPUS. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

EUTHȲNĒ (εὐθύνη). All public officers at Athens were accountable for
their conduct and the manner in which they acquitted themselves of
their official duties. The judges in the popular court seem to have
been the only authorities who were not responsible, for they were
themselves the representatives of the people, and would therefore,
in theory, have been responsible to themselves. This account, which
officers had to give after the time of their office was over, was
called εὐθύνη, and the officers subject to it, ὑπεύθυνοι, and after
they had gone through the _euthyne_, they became ἀνεύθυνοι. Every
public officer had to render his account within thirty days after the
expiration of his office, and at the time when he submitted to the
_euthyne_ any citizen had the right to come forward and impeach him.
The officers before whom the accounts were given were at Athens ten
in number, called εὔθυνοι or λογισταί, in other places ἐξετασταί or
συνήγοροι.

ĒVŎCĀTI. [EXERCITUS.]

EXAUCTŌRĬTAS. [EXERCITUS.]

EXAUGŬRĀTĬO, the act of changing a sacred thing into a profane one,
or of taking away from it the sacred character which it had received
by inauguratio, consecratio, or dedicatio. Such an act was performed
by the augurs, and never without consulting the pleasure of the gods,
by augurium.

EXCŬBĬAE. [CASTRA.]

EXCŬBĬTŌRES, which properly means watchmen or sentinels of any kind,
was the name more particularly given to the soldiers of the cohort
who guarded the palace of the Roman emperor.

EXEDRA (ἐξέδρα), which properly signifies a seat out of doors, came
to be used for a chamber furnished with seats, and opening into a
portico, where people met to enjoy conversation; such as the rooms
attached to a gymnasium, which were used for the lectures and
disputations of the rhetoricians and philosophers. In old Greek the
word λέσχη appears to have had a similar meaning; but the ordinary
use of the word is for a larger and more public place of resort than
the ἐξέδρα. [LESCHE.] Among the Romans the word had a wider meaning,
answering to both the Greek terms, ἐξέδρα and λέσχη.

EXĒGĒTAE (ἐξηγηταί, interpreters) is the name of the Eumolpidae, by
which they were designated as the interpreters of the laws relating
to religion and of the sacred rites. [EUMOLPIDAE.] The name ἐξηγητής
was also applied to those persons who served as guides (ciceroni) to
the visitors in the most remarkable towns and places of Greece.

EXERCĬTŌRĬA ACTĬO, an action granted by the edict against the
exercitor navis. By the term navis was understood any vessel, whether
used for the navigation of rivers, lakes, or the sea. The exercitor
navis is the person to whom all the ship’s gains and earnings
(_obventiones et reditus_) belong, whether he is the owner, or has
hired the ship (_per aversionem_) from the owner for a time definite
or indefinite.

EXERCĬTUS (στρατός), army. (1) GREEK.

1. _Spartan Army._--In all the states of Greece, in the earliest as
in later times, the general type of their military organisation was
the _phalanx_, a body of troops in close array with a long spear as
their principal weapon. It was among the Dorians, and especially
among the Spartans, that this type was most rigidly adhered to.
The strength of their military array consisted in the heavy-armed
infantry (ὁπλίται). They attached comparatively small importance to
their cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed, the Thessalians and
Boeotians were the only Greek people who distinguished themselves
much for their cavalry; scarcely any other states had territories
adapted for the evolutions of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan
was little else than either the preparation for or the practice of
war. The result was, that in the strictness of their discipline,
the precision and facility with which they performed their military
evolutions, and the skill and power with which they used their
weapons, the Spartans were unrivalled among the Greeks. The
heavy-armed infantry of the Spartan armies was composed partly of
genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci. Every Spartan citizen
was liable to military service (ἔμφρουρος) from the age of twenty
to the age of sixty years. They were divided into six divisions
called μόραι, under the command or superintendence of a polemarch,
each mora being subdivided into four λόχοι(commanded by λοχαγοί),
each λόχος into two πεντηκοστύες (headed by πεντηκοστῆρες), each
πεντηκοστύς into two ἐνωμοτίαι (headed by enomotarchs). The ἐνωμοτίαι
were so called from the men composing them being bound together by
a common oath. These were not merely divisions of troops engaged in
actual military expeditions. The whole body of citizens at all times
formed an army, whether they were congregated at head-quarters in
Sparta, or a portion of them were detached on foreign service. The
strength of a mora on actual service, of course, varied, according to
circumstances. To judge by the name pentecostys, the normal number
of a mora would have been 400; but 500, 600, and 900 are mentioned
as the number of men in a mora on different occasions. When in the
field, each mora of infantry was attended by a mora of cavalry,
consisting at the most of 100 men, and commanded by an hipparmost
(ἱππαρμοστής). Plutarch mentions squadrons (οὐλαμοί) of fifty, which
may possibly be the same divisions. The cavalry seems merely to
have been employed to protect the flanks, and but little regard was
paid to it. The corps of 300 ἱππεῖς formed a sort of body-guard for
the king, and consisted of the flower of the young soldiers. Though
called horsemen, they fought on foot. A Spartan army, divided as
above described, was drawn up in the dense array of the phalanx, the
depth of which depended upon circumstances. An ἐνωμοτία sometimes
made but a single file, sometimes was drawn up in three or six files
(ζύγα). The enomotarch stood at the head of his file (πρωτοστάτης),
or at the head of the right-hand file, if the enomotia was broken up
into more than one. The last man was called οὐραγός. It was a matter
of great importance that he, like the enomotarch, should be a man of
strength and skill, as in certain evolutions he would have to lead
the movements. The commander-in-chief, who was usually the king,
had his station sometimes in the centre, more commonly on the right
wing. The commands of the general were issued in the first place
to the polemarchs, by these to the lochagi, by these again to the
pentecosteres, by the latter to the enomotarchs, and by these last to
their respective divisions. From the orderly manner in which this was
done, commands were transmitted with great rapidity: every soldier,
in fact, regulating the movements of the man behind him, every two
being connected together as πρωτοστάτης and ἐπιστάτης. In later times
the king was usually accompanied by two ephors, as controllers and
advisers. These, with the polemarchs, the four Pythii, three peers
(ὅμοιοι), who had to provide for the necessities of the king in war,
the laphyropolae and some other officers, constituted what was called
the _damosia_ of the king. The Spartan hoplites were accompanied in
the field by helots, partly in the capacity of attendants, partly
to serve as light-armed troops. The number attached to an army was
probably not uniform. At Plataeae each Spartan was accompanied by
seven helots; but that was probably an extraordinary case. One helot
in particular of those attached to each Spartan was called his
θεράπων, and performed the functions of an armourer or shieldbearer.
Xenophon calls them ὑπασπισταί. In extraordinary cases, helots
served as hoplites, and in that case it was usual to give them their
liberty. A separate troop in the Lacedaemonian army was formed by
the Sciritae (Σκιρῖται), originally, no doubt, inhabitants of the
district Sciritis. The arms of the phalanx consisted of the long
spear and a short sword (ξυήλη). The chief part of the defensive
armour was the large brazen shield, which covered the body from the
shoulder to the knee, suspended, as in ancient times, by a thong
round the neck, and managed by a simple handle or ring (πόρπαξ).
Besides this, they had the ordinary armour of the hoplite [ARMA]. The
heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform. The Spartan encampments
were circular. Only the heavy-armed were stationed within them, the
cavalry being placed to look out, and the helots being kept as much
as possible outside. Preparatory to a battle the Spartan soldier
dressed his hair and crowned himself as others would do for a feast.
The signal for attack was given not by the trumpet, but by the music
of flutes, and sometimes also of the lyre and cithara, to which the
men sang the battle song (παιὰν ἐμβατήριος). The object of the music
was not so much to inspirit the men, as simply to regulate the march
of the phalanx. This rhythmical regularity of movement was a point to
which the Spartans attached great importance.

2. _Athenian Army._--In Athens, the military system was in its
leading principles the same as among the Spartans, though differing
in detail, and carried out with less exactness; inasmuch as when
Athens became powerful, greater attention was paid to the navy.
Of the four classes into which the citizens were arranged by the
constitution of Solon, the citizens of the first and second served
as cavalry, or as commanders of the infantry (still it need not be
assumed that the ἱππεῖς never served as heavy-armed infantry), those
of the third class (ζευγῖται) formed the heavy-armed infantry. The
Thetes served either as light-armed troops on land, or on board the
ships. The same general principles remained when the constitution
was remodelled by Cleisthenes. The cavalry service continued to
be compulsory on the wealthier class. Every citizen was liable to
service from his eighteenth to his sixtieth year. On reaching their
eighteenth year, the young citizens were formally enrolled εἰς
τὴν ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, and received a shield and spear in a
public assembly of the people, binding themselves by oath to perform
rightly the duties of a citizen and a soldier. During the first two
years, they were only liable to service in Attica itself, chiefly
as garrison soldiers in the different fortresses in the country.
During this period, they were called περίπολοι. Members of the senate
during the period of their office, farmers of the revenue, choreutae
at the Dionysia during the festival, in later times, traders by sea
also, were exempted from military service. Any one bound to serve who
attempted to avoid doing so, was liable to a sentence of ἀτιμία. The
resident aliens commonly served as heavy-armed soldiers, especially
for the purpose of garrisoning the city. They were prohibited
from serving as cavalry. Slaves were only employed as soldiers in
cases of great necessity. Of the details of the Athenian military
organisation, we have no distinct accounts as we have of those of
Sparta. The heavy-armed troops, as was the universal practice in
Greece, fought in phalanx order. They were arranged in bodies in a
manner dependent on the political divisions of the citizens. The
soldiers of each tribe (φυλή) formed a separate body in the army,
also called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some preconcerted
order. It seems that the name of one division was τάξις, and of
another λόχος, but in what relations these stood to the φυλή, and
to each other, we do not learn. Every hoplite was accompanied by
an attendant (ὑπηρέτης) to take charge of his baggage, and carry
his shield on a march. Each horseman also had a servant, called
ἱπποκόμος, to attend to his horse. For the command of the army, there
were chosen every year ten generals [STRATEGI], and ten taxiarchs
[TAXIARCHI], and for the cavalry, two hipparchs (ἵππαρχοι) and ten
phylarchs (φύλαρχοι). Respecting the military functions of the ἄρχων
πολέμαρχος, see the article Archon. The number of strategi sent with
an army was not uniform. Three was a common number. Sometimes one was
invested with the supreme command; at other times, they either took
the command in turn (as at Marathon), or conducted their operations
by common consent (as in the Sicilian expedition). The practice of
paying the troops when upon service was first introduced by Pericles.
The pay consisted partly of wages (μισθός), partly of provisions,
or, more commonly, provision-money (σιτηρέσιον). The ordinary μισθός
of a hoplite was two obols a day. The σιτηρέσιον amounted to two
obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was called, proverbially,
τετρωβόλου βίος. Officers received twice as much; horsemen, three
times; generals, four times as much. The horsemen received pay even
in time of peace, that they might always be in readiness, and also a
sum of money for their outfit (κατάστασις). As regards the military
strength of the Athenians, we find 10,000 heavy-armed soldiers at
Marathon, 8,000 heavy-armed, and as many light-armed at Plataeae;
and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war there were 18,000
heavy-armed ready for foreign service, and 16,000 consisting of those
beyond the limits of the ordinary military age and of the metoeci,
for garrison service. It was the natural result of the national
character of the Athenians and their democratical constitution,
that military discipline was much less stringent among them than
among the Spartans, and after defeat especially it was often found
extremely difficult to maintain it. The generals had some power of
punishing military offences on the spot, but for the greater number
of such offences a species of court-martial was held, consisting of
persons who had served in the army to which the offender belonged,
and presided over by the strategi. Various rewards also were held
out for those who especially distinguished themselves for their
courage or conduct, in the shape of chaplets, statues, &c. The
Peltastae (πελτασταί), so called from the kind of shield which they
wore [PELTA], were a class of troops of which we hear very little
before the end of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian general
Iphicrates introduced some important improvements in the mode of
arming them, combining as far as possible the peculiar advantages
of heavy (ὁπλῖται) and light armed (ψιλοί) troops. He substituted a
linen corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites, and lessened
the shield, while he doubled the length of the spear and sword. He
even took the pains to introduce for them an improved sort of shoe,
called after him Ἰφικρατίδες. This equipment proved very effective.
The almost total destruction of a mora of Lacedaemonian heavy-armed
troops by a body of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates was an
exploit that became very famous. When the use of mercenary troops
became general, Athenian citizens seldom served except as volunteers,
and then in but small numbers. The employment of mercenaries led
to considerable alterations in the military system of Greece. War
came to be studied as an art, and Greek generals, rising above the
old simple rules of warfare, became tacticians. Epaminondas was the
first who adopted the method of charging in column, concentrating his
attack upon one point of the hostile line, so as to throw the whole
into confusion by breaking through it.

3. MACEDONIAN ARMY.--Philip, king of Macedonia, made several
improvements in the arms and arrangement of the phalanx. The spear
(σάρισσα or σάρισα), with which the soldiers of the Macedonian
phalanx were armed, was 24 feet long; but the ordinary length was 21
feet, and the lines were arranged at such distances that the spears
of the fifth rank projected three feet beyond the first, so that
every man in the front rank was protected by five spears. Besides
the spear they carried a short sword. The shield was very large
and covered nearly the whole body, so that on favourable ground an
impenetrable front was presented to the enemy. The soldiers were
also defended by helmets, coats of mail, and greaves; so that any
thing like rapid movement was impossible. The ordinary depth of the
phalanx was sixteen files, though depths of eight and of thirty-two
are also mentioned. Each file of sixteen was called λόχος. Two lochi
made a _dilochia_; two dilochiae made a τετραρχία, consisting of
sixty-four men; two tetrarchies made a τάξις; two τάξεις a σύνταγμα
or ξεναγία, to which were attached five supernumeraries, a herald,
an ensign, a trumpeter, a servant, and an officer to bring up
the rear (οὐραγός); two syntagmata formed a pentacosiarchia, two
of which made a χιλιαρχία, containing 1024 men; two chiliarchies
made a τέλος, and two τέλη made a phalangarchia or phalanx in
the narrower sense of the word, the normal number of which would
therefore be 4096. It was commanded by a polemarch or strategus; four
such bodies formed the larger phalanx, the normal number of which
would be 16,384. When drawn up, the two middle sections constituted
what was termed the ὀμφαλός, the others being called κέρατα or
wings. The phalanx soldiers in the army of Alexander amounted to
18,000, and were divided not into four, but into six divisions,
each named after a Macedonian province, from which it was to derive
its recruits. These bodies are oftener called τάξεις than φάλαγγες
by the historians, and their leaders taxiarchs or strategi. The
phalanx of Antiochus consisted of 16,000 men, and was formed into
ten divisions (μέρη) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad and 32 deep.
The phalanx, of course, became all but useless, if its ranks were
broken. It required, therefore, level and open ground, so that its
operations were restricted to very narrow limits; and being incapable
of rapid movement, it became almost helpless in the face of an
active enemy, unless accompanied by a sufficient number of cavalry
and light troops. The light-armed troops were arranged in files
(λόχοι) eight deep. Four lochi formed a σύστασις, and then larger
divisions were successively formed, each being the double of the one
below it; the largest (called ἐπίταγμα), consisting of 8192 men.
The cavalry (according to Aelianus), were arranged in an analogous
manner, the lowest division or squadron (ἴλη), containing 64 men,
and the successive larger divisions being each the double of that
below it; the highest (ἐπίταγμα) containing 4096. Both Philip and
Alexander attached great importance to the cavalry, which, in their
armies, consisted partly of Macedonians, and partly of Thessalians.
The Macedonian horsemen were the flower of the young nobles. They
amounted to about 1200 in number, forming eight squadrons, and, under
the name ἕταιροι, formed a sort of body-guard for the king. The
Thessalian cavalry consisted chiefly of the elite of the wealthier
class of the Thessalians, but included also a number of Grecian
youth from other states. There was also a guard of foot soldiers
(ὑπασπισταί), whom we find greatly distinguishing themselves in
the campaigns of Alexander. They seem to be identical with the
πεζέταιροι, of whom we find mention. They amounted to about 3000
men, arranged in six battalions (τάξεις). There was also a troop
called Argyraspids, from the silver with which their shields were
ornamented. They seem to have been a species of peltastae. Alexander
also organised a kind of troops called διμάχαι, who were something
intermediate between cavalry and infantry, being designed to fight on
horseback or on foot, as circumstances required. It is in the time of
Alexander the Great, that we first meet with artillery in the train
of a Grecian army. His _balistae_ and _catapeltae_ were frequently
employed with great effect, as, for instance, at the passage of the
Jaxartes.

(2) ROMAN. _General Remarks on the Legion._--The name _Legio_ is
coeval with the foundation of Rome, and denoted a body of troops,
which, although subdivided into several smaller bodies, was regarded
as forming an organised whole. It was not equivalent to what we
call a _regiment_, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms,
infantry, cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively
employed, artillery also; it might thus, so far, be regarded as a
complete _army_, but on the other hand the number of soldiers in a
legion was fixed within certain limits, never much exceeding 6000,
and hence when war was carried on upon a large scale, a single army,
under the command of one general, frequently contained two, three,
or more legions, besides a large number of auxiliaries of various
denominations. The legion for many centuries was composed exclusively
of Roman citizens. By the ordinances of Servius Tullius those alone
who were enrolled in the five classes were eligible, and one of the
greatest changes introduced by Marius (B.C. 107) was the admission of
all orders of citizens, including the lowest, into the ranks. Up to
the year B.C. 107, no one was permitted to serve among the regular
troops of the state, except those who were regarded as possessing a
strong personal interest in the stability of the commonwealth; but
the principle having been at this period abandoned, the privilege
was extended after the close of the Social War (B.C. 87) to nearly
the whole of the free population of Italy, and by the famous edict
of Caracalla (or perhaps of M. Aurelius), to the whole Roman world.
Long before this, however, the legions were raised chiefly in the
provinces; but it does not appear that the admission of foreigners
not subjects was ever practised upon a large scale until the reign
of the second Claudius (A.D. 268-270), who incorporated a large body
of vanquished Goths, and of Probus (A.D. 276-282), who distributed
16,000 Germans among legionary and frontier battalions. From this
time forward what had originally been the leading characteristic
of the legion was rapidly obliterated, so that under Diocletian,
Constantine, and their successors, the best soldiers in the Roman
armies were barbarians. The practice of granting pensions for long
service in the shape of donations of land was first introduced upon
a large scale after the Mithridatic wars. Hence, when Augustus, in
compliance with the advice of Maecenas, determined to provide for
the security of the distant provinces, and for tranquil submission
at home by the establishment of a powerful standing army, he found
the public mind in a great degree prepared for such a measure, and
the distinction between soldier and civilian unknown, or at least not
recognised before, became from this time forward as broadly marked
as in the most pure military despotisms of ancient or modern times.
The legions were originally numbered according to the order in which
they were raised. As they became permanent, the same numbers remained
attached to the same corps, which were moreover distinguished by
various epithets of which we have early examples in the _Legio
Martia_, and the _Legio Quinta Alauda_. [ALAUDA.] Several legions
bore the same number: thus there were four _Firsts_, five _Seconds_,
and five _Thirds_. The total number of legions under Augustus was
twenty-five, under Alexander Severus thirty-two, but during the
civil wars the number was far greater.--The number of soldiers who,
at different periods, were contained in a legion, does not appear
to have been absolutely fixed, but to have varied within moderate
limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000 foot soldiers. It
is highly probable that some change may have been introduced by
Servius Tullius, but, in so far as numbers are concerned, we have no
evidence. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of
the second Punic War, the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200
infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the
ordinary number may be fixed at from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries
after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally
approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard
to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed the regular complement (_justus
equitatus_) of the legion. When troops were raised for a service
which required special arrangements, the number of horsemen was
sometimes increased beyond 300. It must be observed, however, that
these remarks with regard to the cavalry apply only to the period
before Marius. We now proceed to consider the organisation of the
legion at five different periods.

_First Period. Servius Tullius._ The legion of Servius is so closely
connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been
discussed in a former article [COMITIA], and it is only necessary to
repeat here that it was a phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the
front ranks being furnished with a complete suit of armour, their
weapons being long spears, and their chief defence the round Argolic
shield (_clipeus_).

[Illustration:

15 Manipuli of Hastati.
15 Manipuli of Principes.
Triarii proper } 15 triple
Rorarii } Manipuli of
Accensi } Triarii.]

_Second Period. The Great Latin War_, B.C. 340. Our authority for
this period is Livy (viii. 8). The legion in B.C. 340 had almost
entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now drawn up in
three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The soldiers of the
first line, called _Hastati_, consisted of youths in the first bloom
of manhood distributed into 15 companies or maniples (_manipuli_),
a moderate space being left between each. The maniple contained
60 privates, 2 centurions (_centuriones_), and a standard bearer
(_vexillarius_); two-thirds were heavily armed and bore the _scutum_
or large oblong shield, the remainder carried only a spear (_hasta_)
and light javelins (_gaesa_), The second line, the _Principes_,
was composed of men in the full vigour of life, divided in like
manner into 15 maniples, all heavily armed (_scutati omnes_). The
two lines of the _Hastati_ and _Principes_ taken together amounted
to 30 maniples, and formed the _Antepilani_. The third line, the
_Triarii_, composed of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions, but
each of these was triple, containing 3 manipuli, 180 privates, 6
centurions, and 3 vexillarii. In these triple manipuli the veterans
or _triarii_ proper formed the front ranks; immediately behind them
stood the _Rorarii_, inferior in age and prowess, while the _Accensi_
or supernumeraries, less trustworthy than either, were posted in the
extreme rear. The battle array may be thus represented. The fight was
commenced by the _Rorarii_, so called because the light missiles
which they sprinkled among the foe were like the drops which are the
forerunners of the thunder shower, who, running forwards between the
ranks of the antepilani, acted as tirailleurs; when they were driven
in they returned to their station behind the triarii, and the battle
began in earnest by the onset of the hastati; if they were unable to
make any impression they retired between the ranks of the principes,
who now advanced and bore the brunt of the combat, supported by the
hastati, who had rallied in their rear. If the principes also failed
to make an impression, they retired through the openings between the
maniples of the triarii, who up to this time had been crouched on
the ground (hence called _subsidiarii_), but now arose to make the
last effort (whence the phrase _rem ad triarios redisse_). No longer
retaining the open order of the two first lines, they closed up their
ranks so as to present an unbroken line of heavy-armed veterans in
front, while the rorarii and accensi, pressing up from behind, gave
weight and consistency to the mass,--an arrangement bearing evidence
to a lingering predilection for the principle of the phalanx, and
exhibiting, just as we might expect at that period, the Roman tactics
in their transition state. It must be observed that the words
_ordo_, _manipulus_, _vexillum_, although generally kept distinct,
are throughout the chapter used as synonymous. Livy concludes by
saying, that four legions were commonly levied, each consisting of
5000 infantry and 300 horse. We must suppose that he speaks in round
numbers in so far as the infantry are concerned, for according to his
own calculations the numbers will stand thus:--

Hastati 15 × 60 = 900
Principes 15 × 60 = 900
Triarii, &c. 15 × 3 × 60 = 2700
Centuriones = 150
Vexillarii = 75
---- 4725
4725

_Third Period. During the wars of the younger Scipio._ Polybius
describes minutely the method pursued in raising the four legions
during this period. Under ordinary circumstances they were levied
yearly, two being assigned to each consul. It must be observed that
a regular consular army (_justus consularis exercitus_) no longer
consisted of Roman legions only, but as Italy became gradually
subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were
bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies (_socii_)
usually exceeded that of citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly
distinct, both in the camp and in the battle field. After the
election of consuls was concluded, the first step was to choose
the 24 chief officers of the legions, named _tribuni militum_. The
consuls then summoned to the Capitol all citizens eligible for
military service. They first divided the 24 tribunes into 4 parties
of 6, and the tribes were next summoned in succession by lot. The
tribe whose lot came out first being called up, they picked out from
it four youths, as nearly matched as possible in age and form; out of
these four, the tribunes of the first legion chose one, the tribunes
of the second legion one of the remaining three; the tribunes of the
third legion, one of the remaining two, and the last fell to the
fourth legion. Upon the next tribe being called up, the first choice
was given to the tribunes of the second legion, the second choice to
those of the third, and the last man fell to the first legion. On
the next tribe being called up, the tribunes of the third legion had
the first choice, and so on in succession, the object in view being
that the four legions should be as nearly alike as possible, not in
the number only, but in the quality of the soldiers. This process
was continued until the ranks were complete. In ancient times, the
cavalry were not chosen until after the infantry levy was concluded,
but when Polybius wrote, the cavalry were picked in the first place
from the list on which they were enrolled by the censor according
to their fortune, and 300 were apportioned to each legion. The levy
being completed, the tribunes collected the men belonging to their
respective legions, and making one individual stand out from the rest
administered to him an oath “that he would obey orders and execute to
the best of his ability the command of his officers.” (_Sacramento
milites adigere s. rogare, sacramentum s. sacramento dicere._) The
rest of the soldiers then came forward one by one, and swore to do
what the first had bound himself to perform. At the same time the
consuls gave notice to the magistrates of those towns in Italy in
alliance with Rome, from whom they desired to receive a contingent,
of the number which each would be required to furnish, and of the
day and place of gathering. The allied cities levied their troops
and administered the oath much in the same manner as the Romans, and
then sent them forth after appointing a commander and a paymaster.
The soldiers having again assembled, the men belonging to each legion
were separated into four divisions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and
poorest were set apart to form the _Velites_, the light-armed troops,
or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who
were of the same age with the preceding but more wealthy), formed
the _Hastati_. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full vigour of
manhood, formed the _Principes_. 4. 600, consisting of the oldest and
most experienced, formed the _Triarii_. When the number of soldiers
in the legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased
proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the
same. The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into
ten companies, called _Manipuli_. The Velites were not divided into
companies, but were distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes,
and Triarii. Before the division of the three classes into maniples,
officers were appointed inferior to the tribunes. 30 men were chosen
by merit, 10 from the Hastati, 10 from the Principes, and 10 from
the Triarii; and this first choice being completed, 30 more in like
manner. These 60 officers, of whom 20 were assigned to each of the
three classes, and distributed equally among the maniples, were named
_centuriones_, or _ordinum ductores_, and each of the 60 chose for
himself a Lieutenant (_optio_), who, being posted in the rear of the
company while the centurion was at the head, was named οὐραγός (i.e.
_Tergiductor_) by the Greeks, so that in each maniple there were two
centurions and two optiones. Further, the centurions selected out of
each maniple two of the bravest and most vigorous men as standard
bearers (_vexillarii, signiferi_). The first elected centurion of the
whole had a seat in the military council, and in each maniple the
first chosen commanded the right division of the maniple, and the
other the left. Each of these subdivisions of the maniple was called
_centuria_. The cavalry were divided into 10 troops (_turmae_), and
out of each of these 3 officers were chosen, named _decuriones_,
who named 3 lieutenants (_optiones_). In each troop the decurio
first chosen commanded the whole troop, and failing him, the second.
The infantry furnished by the _socii_ was for the most part equal
in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as
numerous, and the whole were divided equally between the two consular
armies. Each consul named twelve superior officers, who were termed
_Praefecti Sociorum_, and corresponded to the legionary tribunes. A
selection was then made of the best men, to the extent of one-fifth
of the infantry and one-third of the cavalry; these were formed into
a separate corps under the name of _extraordinarii_, and on the
march and in the camp were always near the person of the consul.
The remainder were divided into two equal portions, and were styled
respectively the _Dextera Ala_ and the _Sinistra Ala_ [ALA].--_Agmen_
or _Line of March_. The Extraordinarii Pedites led the van followed
by the right wing of the infantry of the allies and the baggage of
these two divisions; next came one of the Roman legions with its
baggage following; next the other Roman legion with its own baggage,
and that of the left wing of the allies, who brought up the rear. The
different corps of cavalry sometimes followed immediately behind the
infantry to which they were attached, sometimes rode on the flanks
of the beasts of burden, at once protecting them and preventing them
from straggling. Generally, when advancing through a country in which
it was necessary to guard against a sudden onset, the troops, instead
of proceeding in a loose straggling column, were kept together in
close compact bodies ready to act in any direction at a moment’s
warning, and hence an army under these circumstances was said _agmine
quadrato incedere_. Some doubt exists with regard to the force of the
term _Agmen Pilatum_ as distinguished from _Agmen Quadratum_. Varro
defines the _agmen pilatum_ as a compact body marching without beasts
of burthen. Where the phrase occurs in poetry, it probably denotes
merely “columns bristling with spears.” To the preceding particulars
from Polybius, the following may be added.

1. _The levy (delectus.)_ According to the principles of the
constitution, none were enrolled in the legion, except freeborn
citizens (_ingenui_) above the age of 17, and under the age of
60, possessing not less than 4000 asses: but in times of peculiar
difficulty, these conditions were not insisted upon. In such times
all formalities were dispensed with, and every man capable of bearing
arms was summoned to join in warding off the threatened danger, a
force raised under such circumstances being termed _subitarius_ s.
_tumultuarius exercitus_. If citizens between the ages of 17 and 46
did not appear and answer to their names, they might be punished in
various ways,--by fine, by imprisonment, by stripes, by confiscation
of their property, and even, in extreme cases, by being sold
as slaves. At the same time, causes might be alleged which were
recognised as forming a legitimate ground for exemption (_vacatio
justa militiae_). Thus, all who had served for the full period of 20
years were relieved from further service, although they might still
be within the regular age; and so, in like manner, when they were
afflicted by any grievous malady, or disabled by any personal defect,
or engaged in any sacred or civil offices which required their
constant attendance; but these and similar pleas, although sustained
under ordinary circumstances, might be rendered void by a decree
of the senate “ne vacationes valerent.” While those who had served
for the stipulated period were entitled to immunity for the future,
even although within the legal age, and were styled _Emeriti_, so on
the other hand, it appears from some passages in the classics, that
persons who had not completed their regular term within the usual
limits, might be forced, if required, to serve between the ages of
45 and 50. Towards the close of the republic, and under the empire,
when the legions became permanent, the soldier who had served his
full time received a regular discharge (_missio_), together with a
bounty (_praemium_) in money or an allotment of land. The jurists
distinguish three kinds of discharge:--1. _Missio honesta_, granted
for length of service. 2. _Missio causaria_, in consequence of bad
health. 3. _Missio ignominiosa_, when a man was drummed out for
bad conduct. It frequently happened that _emeriti_ were induced to
continue in the ranks, either from attachment to the person of the
general, or from hopes of profit or promotion, and were then called
_veterani_, or when they joined an army, in consequence of a special
invitation, _evocati_.

2. The division of the legion into _Cohortes_, _Manipuli_,
_Centuriae_, _Signa_, _Ordines_, _Contubernia_.--(i.) _Cohortes._
Polybius takes no notice of the _Cohort_, a division of the legion
often mentioned in the Roman writers. When the soldiers of the
legion were classified as Velites, Hastati, Principes and Triarii,
the cohort contained one maniple of each of the three latter
denominations, together with their complement of Velites, so that
when the legion contained 4000, each cohort would consist of 60
Triarii, 120 Principes, 120 Hastati, and 100 Velites, in all 400 men.
The number of cohorts in a legion being always 10, and the cohorts,
during the republic, being all equal to each other, the strength of
the cohort varied from time to time with the strength of the legion,
and thus at different periods ranged between the limits of 300 and
600. They were regularly numbered from 1 to 10, the centurion of
the first century of the first maniple of the first cohort was the
guardian of the eagle, and hence the first cohort seems always to
have been regarded as superior in dignity to the rest. Late writers,
instead of _cohortes_, prefer the somewhat vague term _numeri_,
which appears in Tacitus and Suetonius, and perhaps even in Cicero.
_Numeri_ seems to have signified strictly the muster roll, whence
the phrases _referre in numeros_, _distribuere in numeros_, and
thus served to denote any body of legionaries. Whenever _Cohors_
occurs in the Latin classics in connection with the legion, it
always signifies a specific division of the legion; but it is very
frequently found, in the general sense of _battalion_, to denote
troops altogether distinct from the legion.--(ii.) _Manipulus._ The
original meaning of this word, which is derived from _manus_, was _a
handful or wisp of hay_, _straw_, _fern_, _or the like_, and this,
according to Roman tradition, affixed to the end of a pole, formed
the primitive military standard in the days of Romulus. Hence it was
applied to a body of soldiers serving under the same ensign. When
the phalanx was resolved into small companies marshalled in open
order, these were termed _manipuli_, and down to a very late period
the common soldiers of the legion were designated as _manipulares_
or _manipularii_, terms equivalent to _gregarii milites_. When the
phalanx was first broken up, it appears that each of the three
classes of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, contained 15 maniples;
but before the second Punic war the number of maniples in each of
these classes was reduced to 10. Hence it is easy to calculate the
number of soldiers in each maniple, according to the varying numbers
in the legion, it being always borne in mind that the Triarii never
exceeded 600, and that the Velites were not divided into maniples,
but distributed equally among the heavy-armed companies.--(iii.)
_Centuriae._ The distribution of soldiers into _centuriae_ must be
regarded as coeval with the origin of Rome. Plutarch speaks of the
force led by Romulus against Amulius as formed of centuries; and from
the close connections between the centuries of Servius Tullius, and
the organization of the military force, we cannot hesitate to believe
that the term was communicated to the ranks of the phalanx. For a
long period after the establishment of the manipular constitution,
the legion contained 60 centuries.--(iv.) _Signum._ This word is used
to denote a division of the legion, but it is doubtful whether it
signifies a maniple or a century.--(v.) _Ordo_ generally signifies
a century, and _ordinum ductor_ is synonymous with _centurio_, and
_ducere honestum ordinem_ means to be one of the principal centurions
in a legion.--(vi.) _Contubernium._ This was the name given under the
empire to the body of soldiers who were quartered together in the
same tent.

3. _Hastati_, _Principes_, _Triarii_, _Pilani_, _Antepilani_,
_Antesignani_, _Principia_.--The _Hastati_ were so called, from
having been armed with a _hasta_, the _Principes_ from having
occupied the front line, the _Triarii_, otherwise named _Pilani_,
from having been ranged behind the first two lines as a body of
reserve and armed with the _pilum_, while the first two lines
were termed collectively _Antepilani_, from standing in front of
the _Pilani_. In process of time, it came to pass, that these
designations no longer expressed the actual condition of the
troops to which they were attached. When Polybius wrote, and long
before that period, the _Hastati_ were not armed with _hastae_,
but in common with the _Principes_ bore the heavy _pilum_: on the
other hand, the _pilani_ carried _hastae_ and not _pila_, while
the _Principes_ were not drawn up in the front, but formed the
second line.--_Antesignani_. While the Hastati and Principes, taken
together, were sometimes termed _Antepilani_, in contradistinction
to the Triarii, so the Hastati alone were sometimes termed
_Antesignani_, in contradistinction to the Principes and Triarii
taken together. The term _Antesignani_ having become established
as denoting the front ranks in a line of battle, was retained in
this general sense long after the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii
had disappeared.--Another term employed to denote the front ranks
of an army in battle array is _Principia_, and in this sense must
be carefully distinguished from the _Principia_ or chief street
in the camp, and from _Principia_, which in the later writers,
such as Ammianus and Vegetius, is equivalent to _principales
milites_. _Postsignani_ does not occur in any author earlier than
Ammianus Marcellinus, and therefore need not be illustrated here;
the _Subsignanus miles_ of Tacitus seems to be the same with the
_Vexillarii_.

4. _Rorarii_, _Accensi_, _Ferentarii_, _Velites_,
_Procubitores_.--When the Hastati had, in a great measure, ceased
to act as tirailleurs, their place was supplied by the _Rorarii_,
whose method of fighting has been described above (p. 165). The
_Accensi_, as described by Livy, were inferior in equipment to the
rorarii, although employed in a similar manner, and seem to have been
camp-followers or servants, and hence the name is given to those
also who attended upon magistrates or other officials. At a later
period the _accensi_ were supernumeraries, who served to fill up any
vacancies which occurred in the course of a campaign. Another ancient
term for light-armed soldiers was _Ferentarii_. The _Velites_, called
also _Procubitores_, because they were employed on outpost duty when
the Romans were encamped before an enemy, were first formed into a
corps at the siege of Capua, B.C. 211.

5. _Officers of the Legion._--_Tribuni Militum_ were the chief
officers of the legion. Their number (six) did not vary for many
centuries. They were originally chosen by the commanders-in-chief,
that is, by the kings in the first instance, and afterwards by the
consuls, or a dictator, as the case might be. In B.C. 361 the people
assumed to themselves the right of electing either the whole or a
certain number; and in B.C. 311 it was ordained that they should
choose sixteen for the four legions. In subsequent times the choice
of the tribunes was divided between the consuls and the people; but
the proportion chosen by each differed at various periods. No one was
eligible to the office of tribune who had not served for ten years
in the infantry or five in the cavalry; but this rule admitted of
exceptions. Augustus introduced certain regulations altogether new.
He permitted the sons of senators to wear the _tunica laticlavia_ as
soon as they assumed the manly gown, and to commence their military
career as tribunes, or as commanders (_praefecti_) of cavalry. Such
persons were the _Tribuni Laticlavii_.--_Centuriones._ Next in
rank to the Tribunus was the _Centurio_, who, as the name implies,
commanded a century; and the century, being termed also _ordo_, the
centurions were frequently designated _ordinum ductores_ (hence,
_adimere ordines_, _offerre ordines_, _ordines impetrare_, _ducere
honestum ordinem_, to be one of the principal centurions, &c.). The
chief ordinary duties of the centurions were to drill the soldiers,
to inspect their arms, clothing, and food, to watch the execution
of the toils imposed, to visit the centinels, and to regulate the
conduct of their men, both in the camp and in the field. They also
sat as judges in minor offences, and had the power of inflicting
corporal punishment, whence their badge of office was a vine sapling,
and thus _vitis_ is frequently used to denote the office itself. Of
the two centurions in each maniple the one first chosen took the
command of the right division, the other of the left. The century
to the right was considered as the first century of the maniple,
and its commander took precedence probably with the title _Prior_,
his companion to the left being called _Posterior_, the _priores_
in each of the three divisions of Triarii, Principes, and Hastati
being the ten centurions first chosen. So long as these divisions
were recognised, all the centurions of the Triarii appear to have
ranked before those of the Principes, and all the centurions of the
Principes before those of the Hastati. Moreover, since the maniples
were numbered in each division from 1 to 10, there was probably a
regular progression from the first centurion of the first maniple
down to the second centurion of the tenth maniple. The first
centurion of the first maniple of the Triarii, originally named
_Centurio Primus_, and afterwards _Centurio Primipili_, or simply
_Primipilus_, occupied a very conspicuous position. He stood next in
rank to the Tribuni militum; he had a seat in the military council;
to his charge was committed the eagle of the legion, whence he is
sometimes styled _Aquilifer_, and, under the empire at least, his
office was very lucrative. A series of terms connected with these
arrangements are furnished by the narrative which Sp. Ligustinus
gives of his own career (Liv. xlii. 34). He thus enumerates the
various steps of his promotion:--“Mihi T. Quinctius Flamininus
_decumum ordinem hastatum_ adsignavit ... me imperator dignum
judicavit cui _primum hastatum prioris centuriae_ adsignaret ... a
M’. Acilio mihi _primus princeps prioris centuriae_ est adsignatus
... quater intra paucos annos _primum pilum duxi_.” The gradual
ascent from the ranks being to the post of centurion:--1. In the
tenth maniple of the Hastati. 2. In the first century of the first
maniple of the Hastati. 3. In the first century of the first maniple
of the Principes. 4. In the first century of the first maniple of the
Triarii.--But even after the distinction between Hastati, Principes,
and Triarii was altogether abolished, and they were all blended
together in the cohorts, the same nomenclature with regard to the
centuries and their commanders was retained, although it is by no
means easy to perceive how it was applied. That great differences
of rank existed among the centurions is evident from the phrases
_primores centurionum_, _primi ordines_ (_i.e._ chief centurions),
as opposed to _inferiores ordines_, and _infimi ordines_, and that
promotion from a lower to a higher grade frequently took place,
is evident from many passages in ancient authors. The election of
_optiones_, or lieutenants, by the centurions, has been already
described.

_Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall
of the Republic._ After the times of the Gracchi the following
changes in military affairs may be noticed:--In the first consulship
of Marius the legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades,
without distinction of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were
armed and equipped in the same manner, all being now furnished with
the pilum; and hence we see in Tacitus the _pila_ and _gladii_
of the legionaries, opposed to the _hastae_ and _spathae_ of the
auxiliaries. The legionaries when in battle order were no longer
arranged in three lines, each consisting of ten maniples, with an
open space between each maniple, but in two lines, each consisting
of five cohorts, with a space between each cohort. The younger
soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in reserve, the van
being composed of veterans, as may be seen from various passages
in Caesar. As a necessary result of the above arrangements, the
distinction between Hastati, Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist.
These names, as applied to particular classes of soldiers, are not
found in Caesar, in Tacitus, nor in any writer upon military affairs
after the time of Marius. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers,
included under the general term _levis armatura_, consisted for
the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in
the use of some national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers,
(_funditores_), the Cretan archers (_sagittarii_), and the Moorish
dartmen (_jaculatores_). Troops of this description had, it is true,
been employed by the Romans even before the second Punic war, and
were denominated _levium armatorum_ (s. _armorum_) _auxilia_; but now
the _levis armatura_ consisted exclusively of foreigners, were formed
into a regular corps under their own officers, and no longer entered
into the constitution of the legion. When operations requiring
great activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by
mere skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped,
and marched without baggage, for these special services; and hence
the frequent occurrence of such phrases as _expediti_, _expediti
milites_, _expeditae cohortes_, and even _expeditae legiones_. The
cavalry of the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous
to that which took place in regard of the light-armed troops. It is
evident, from the history of Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul, that the
number of Roman equites attached to his army was very small, and that
they were chiefly employed as aides-de-camp, and on confidential
missions. The bulk of Caesar’s cavalry consisted of foreigners, a
fact which becomes strikingly apparent when we read that Ariovistus
having stipulated that the Roman general should come to their
conference attended by cavalry alone, Caesar, feeling no confidence
in his Gaulish horse, dismounted them, and supplied their place by
soldiers of the tenth legion. In like manner they ceased to form
part of the legion, and from this time forward we find the legions
and the cavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each other.
After the termination of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants
of Italy became Roman citizens, the ancient distinction between the
_Legiones_ and the _Socii_ disappeared, and all who had served as
_Socii_ became incorporated with the legiones. An army during the
last years of the republic and under the earlier emperors consisted
of _Romanae Legiones et Auxilia s. Auxiliares_, the latter term
comprehending troops of all kinds, except the legions. Whenever the
word _socii_ is applied to troops after the date of the Social War,
it is generally to be regarded as equivalent to _auxiliares_. But the
most important change of all was the establishment of the military
_profession_, and the distinction now first introduced between the
civilian and the soldier.

_Fifth Period. From the establishment of the empire until the age of
the Antonines_, B.C. 31-A.D. 150. Under the empire a regular army
consisted of a certain number of _Legiones_ and of _Supplementa_,
the Supplementa being again divided into the imperial guards, which
appear under several different forms, distinguished by different
names; and the _Auxilia_, which were subdivided into _Sociae
Cohortes_ and _Nationes_, the latter being for the most part
barbarians. The _Legiones_, as already remarked, although still
composed of persons who enjoyed the privileges of Roman citizens,
were now raised almost exclusively in the provinces. The legion was
divided into 10 cohorts, and each cohort into 6 centuries; the first
cohort, which had the custody of the eagle, was double the size of
the others, and contained 960 men, the remaining cohorts contained
each 480 men; and consequently each ordinary century 80 men, the
total strength of the legion being thus 5280 men.--It is during this
period that we first meet with the term _Vexillarii_ or _Vexilla_,
which occurs repeatedly in Tacitus. The _vexillarii_, or _vexilla
legionum_, were those soldiers who, after having served in the legion
for sixteen years, became _exauctorati_, but continued to serve in
company with that legion, under a vexillum of their own, until they
received their full discharge. The number attached to each legion
was usually about five or six hundred.--The term _exauctorare_ also
meant _to discharge from military service_, but does not appear to
have been in use before the Augustan period. It signified both a
simple discharge, and a cashiering on account of some crime. During
the later period of the empire the latter signification began
almost exclusively to prevail.--As to the Praetorian troops, see
PRAETORIANI.--From the time when the cavalry were separated from
the legion they were formed into bodies called _alae_, which varied
in number according to circumstances. The _Alae_ were raised in
the Roman provinces and consisted, probably, for the most part, of
citizens, or at least subjects. But in addition to these every army
at this period was attended by squadrons of light horse composed
entirely of barbarians; and the chief duty performed by those named
above was guiding the pioneers as they performed their labours in
advance of the army.--_Cohortes peditatae_, were battalions raised
chiefly in the provinces, composed of Roman citizens, of subjects and
allies, or of citizens, allies, and subjects indiscriminately. To
this class of troops belonged the _cohortes auxiliares_, the _auxilia
cohortium_, and the _sociorum cohortes_, of whom we read in Tacitus,
together with a multitude of others recorded in inscriptions and
named for the most part from the nations of which they were composed.
These cohorts were numbered regularly like the legions.--_Cohortes
Equitatae_ differed from the _Peditatae_ in this only, that they
were made up of infantry combined with cavalry.--_Classici_, which
we may fairly render _Marines_, were employed, according to Hyginus,
as pioneers. They corresponded to the _Navales Socii_, under the
republic, who were always regarded as inferior to regular soldiers.
After the establishment by Augustus of regular permanent fleets at
Misenum, Ravenna, and on the coast of Gaul, a large body of men
must have been required to man them, who were sometimes called
upon to serve as ordinary soldiers.--_Nationes_ were battalions
composed entirely of barbarians, or of the most uncivilised among the
subjects of Rome, and were probably chiefly employed upon outpost
duties.--_Urbanae Cohortes._ Augustus, in addition to the praetorian
cohorts, instituted a force of city guards, amounting to 6000 men
divided into four battalions. They are usually distinguished as
_Cohortes Urbanae_ or _Urbana militia_, their quarters, which were
within the city, being the _Urbana Castra_.--_Cohortes Vigilum._
Augustus also organised a large body of night-watchers, whose
chief duty was to act as firemen. They were divided into seven
cohorts, in the proportion of one cohort to each two _Regiones_,
were stationed in fourteen guardhouses (_excubitoria_), and called
_Cohortes Vigilum_. They were commanded by a _Praefectus_, who was of
equestrian rank.

EXĬLĬUM. [EXSILIUM.]

EXŎDĬA (ἐξόδια, from ἐξ and ὁδός) were old-fashioned and laughable
interludes in verse, inserted in other plays, but chiefly in the
Atellanae. The exodium seems to have been introduced among the Romans
from Italian Greece; but after its introduction it became very
popular among the Romans, and continued to be played down to a very
late period.

EXŌMIS (ἐξωμίς), a dress which had only a sleeve for the left arm,
leaving the right with the shoulder and a part of the breast free,
and was for this reason called _exomis_. The exomis was usually worn
by slaves and working people.

[Illustration: Exomis (Bronze in British Museum).]

EXŌMŎSĬA (ἐξωμοσία). Any Athenian citizen when called upon to appear
as a witness in a court of justice (κλητεύειν or ἐκκλητεύειν), was
obliged by law to obey the summons, unless he could establish by
oath that he was unacquainted with the case in question. This oath
was called ἐξωμοσία, and the act of taking it was expressed by
ἐξόμνυσθαι. A person appointed to a public office was at liberty to
decline it, if he could take an oath that the state of his health
or other circumstances rendered it impossible for him to fulfil the
duties connected with it (ἐξόμνυσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν, or τὴν χειροτονίαν):
and this oath was likewise called ἐξωμοσία, or sometimes ἀπωμοσία.

EXOSTRA (ἐξώστρα, from ἐξωθέω), a theatrical machine, by means of
which things which had been concealed behind the curtain on the stage
were pushed or rolled forward from behind it, and thus became visible
to the spectators.

EXPĔDĪTUS is opposed to _impeditus_, and signifies unincumbered with
armour or with baggage (_impedimenta_). Hence the epithet was often
applied to any portion of the Roman army, when the necessity for
haste, or the desire to conduct it with the greatest facility from
place to place, made it desirable to leave behind every weight that
could be spared.

EXPLŌRĀTŌRES. [SPECULATORES.]

EXSĔQUĬAE. [FUNUS.]

EXSĬLĬUM (φυγή), banishment. (1) GREEK. Banishment among the Greek
states seldom, if ever, appears as a punishment appointed by law for
particular offences. We might, indeed, expect this, for the division
of Greece into a number of independent states would neither admit of
the establishment of penal colonies, as among us, nor of the various
kinds of exile which we read of under the Roman emperors. The general
term φυγή (flight) was for the most part applied in the case of those
who, in order to avoid some punishment or danger, removed from their
own country to another. At Athens it took place chiefly in cases of
homicide, or murder. An action for wilful murder was brought before
the Areiopagus, and for manslaughter before the court of the Ephetae.
The accused might, in either case, withdraw himself (φεύγειν) before
sentence was passed; but when a criminal evaded the punishment to
which an act of murder would have exposed him had he remained in his
own land, he was then banished for ever (φεύγει ἀειφυγίαν), and not
allowed to return home even when other exiles were restored upon a
general amnesty. Demosthenes says, that the word φεύγειν was properly
applied to the exile of those who committed murder with malice
aforethought, whereas the term μεθίστασθαι was used where the act was
not intentional. The property also was confiscated in the former
case, but not in the latter. When a verdict of manslaughter was
returned, it was usual for the convicted party to leave his country
by a certain road, and to remain in exile till he induced some one
of the relatives of the slain man to take compassion on him. We are
not informed what were the consequences if the relatives of the slain
man refused to make a reconciliation; supposing that there was no
compulsion, it is reasonable to conclude that the exile was allowed
to return after a fixed time. Plato, who is believed to have copied
many of his laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes the period of
banishment for manslaughter at one year.--Under φυγή, or banishment,
as a general term, is comprehended _Ostracism_, (ὀστρακισμός). Those
that were ostracised did not lose their property, and the time, as
well as place of their banishment, was fixed. This ostracism is
supposed by some to have been instituted by Cleisthenes, after the
expulsion of the Peisistratidae; its nature and object are thus
explained by Aristotle:--“Democratical states (he observes) used to
ostracise, and remove from the city for a definite time, those who
appeared to be preeminent above their fellow-citizens, by reason
of their wealth, the number of their friends, or any other means
of influence.” Ostracism, therefore, was not a punishment for any
crime, but rather a precautionary removal of those who possessed
sufficient power in the state to excite either envy or fear. Thus
Plutarch says, it was a good-natured way of allaying envy by the
humiliation of superior dignity and power. The manner of effecting
it at Athens was as follows:--A space in the _agora_ was enclosed
by barriers, with ten entrances for the ten tribes. By these the
tribesmen entered, each with his _ostracon_ (ὄστρακον), or piece of
tile (whence the name _ostracism_), on which was written the name
of the individual whom he wished to be ostracised. The nine archons
and the senate, _i.e._ the presidents of that body, superintended
the proceedings, and the party who had the greatest number of votes
against him, supposing that this number amounted to 6000, was obliged
to withdraw (μεταστῆναι) from the city within ten days; if the number
of votes did not amount to 6000, nothing was done. Some of the most
distinguished men at Athens were removed by ostracism, but recalled
when the city found their services indispensable. Among these were
Themistocles, Aristeides, and Cimon, son of Miltiades. The last
person against whom it was used at Athens was Hyperbolus, a demagogue
of low birth and character; but the Athenians thought their own
dignity compromised, and ostracism degraded by such an application of
it, and accordingly discontinued the practice.--From the ostracism
of Athens was copied the _Petalism_ (πεταλισμός) of the Syracusans,
so called from the πέταλον, or leaf of the olive, on which was
written the name of the person whom they wished to remove from the
city. The removal, however, was only for five years; a sufficient
time, as they thought, to humble the pride and hopes of the exile.
In connection with petalism it may be remarked, that if any one were
falsely registered in a demus, or ward, at Athens, his expulsion was
called ἐκφυλλοφορία, from the votes being given by leaves. Besides
those exiled by law, or ostracised, there was frequently a great
number of political exiles in Greece; men who, having distinguished
themselves as the leaders of one party, were expelled, or obliged
to remove from their native city, when the opposite faction became
predominant. They are spoken of as οἱ φεύγοντες or οἱ ἐκπεσόντες, and
as οἱ κατελθόντες after their return (ἡ κάθοδος) the word κατάγειν
being applied to those who were instrumental in effecting it.--(2)
ROMAN. Banishment as a punishment did not exist in the old Roman
state. The _aquae et ignis interdictio_, which we so frequently read
of in the republican period, was in reality not banishment, for
it was only a ban, pronounced by the people (by a _lex_), or by a
magistrate in a criminal court, by which a person was deprived of
water and of fire; that is, of the first necessaries of life; and its
effect was to incapacitate a person from exercising the rights of a
citizen; in other words, to deprive him of his citizenship. Such a
person might, if he chose, remain at Rome, and submit to the penalty
of being an outcast, incapacitated from doing any legal act, and
liable to be killed by any one with impunity. To avoid these dangers,
a person suffering under such an interdict would naturally withdraw
from Rome, and in the earlier republican period, if he withdrew to
a state between which and Rome isopolitical relations existed, he
would become a citizen of that state. This right was called _jus
exsulandi_ with reference to the state to which the person came;
with respect to his own state, which he left, he was _exsul_, and
his condition was _exsilium_; and with respect to the state which
he entered, he was _inquilinus_.[2] In the same way a citizen of
such a state had a right of going into exsilium at Rome; and at
Rome he might attach himself (_applicare se_) to a quasi-patronus.
Exsilium, instead of being a punishment, would thus rather be a
mode of evading punishment; but towards the end of the republic the
_aquae et ignis interdictio_ became a regular banishment, since the
sentence usually specified certain limits, within which a person
was interdicted from fire and water. Thus Cicero was interdicted
from fire and water within 400 miles from the city. The punishment
was inflicted for various crimes, as _vis publica_, _peculatus_,
_veneficium_, &c. Under the empire there were two kinds of exsilium;
_exsilium_ properly so called, and _relegatio_; the great distinction
between the two was, that the former deprived a person of his
citizenship, while the latter did not. The distinction between
_exsilium_ and _relegatio_ existed under the republic. Ovid also
describes himself, not as _exsul_, which he considers a term of
reproach, but as _relegatus_. The chief species of exsilium was the
_deportatio in insulam_ or _deportatio_ simply, which was introduced
under the emperors in place of the _aquae et ignis interdictio_.
The _relegatio_ merely confined the person within, or excluded him
from particular places. In the latter case it was called _fuga
lata_, _fuga libera_, or _liberum exsilium_. The _relegatus_ went
into banishment; the _deportatus_ was conducted to his place of
banishment, sometimes in chains.

FOOTNOTE:

[2] This word appears, by its termination _inus_, to denote a person
who was one of a class, like the word _libertinus_. The prefix _in_
appears to be the correlative of _ex_ in _exsul_, and the remaining
part _quil_ is probably related to _col_ in _incola_ and _colonus_.

EXTISPEX. [HARUSPEX.]

EXTRĂORDĬNĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 167.]

FABRI are workmen who make anything out of hard materials, as _fabri
tignarii_, carpenters, _fabri aerarii_, smiths, &c. The different
trades were divided by Numa into nine collegia, which correspond to
our companies or guilds. In the constitution of Servius Tullius, the
_fabri tignarii_ and the _fabri aerarii_ or _ferrarii_ were formed
into two centuries, which were called the centuriae _fabrum_ (not
_fabrorum_). They did not belong to any of the five classes into
which Servius divided the people; but the _fabri tign._ probably
voted with the first class, and the _fabri aer._ with the second.
The fabri in the army were under the command of an officer called
_praefectus fabrûm_.

FĂBŬLA. [COMOEDIA.]

FĂLĀRĬCA. [HASTA.]

FALSUM. The oldest legislative provision at Rome against Falsum
was that of the Twelve Tables against false testimony. The next
legislation on Falsum, so far as we know, was a Lex Cornelia, passed
in the time of the Dictator Sulla against forging, concealing,
destroying, or committing any other fraudulent act respecting a
will or other instrument. The offence was a Crimen Publicum, and,
under the emperors, the punishment was deportatio in insulam for the
“honestiores;” and the mines or crucifixion for the “humiliores.”

FALX, _dim._ FALCŬLA (ἅρπη, δρέπανον, _poet._ δρεπάνη, _dim._
δρεπάνιον), a sickle; a scythe; a pruning-knife; a falchion, &c. As
_Culter_ denoted a knife with one straight edge, _falx_ signified
any similar instrument, the single edge of which was curved. Some of
its forms are given in the annexed cut. One represents Perseus with
the falchion in his right hand, and the head of Medusa in his left.
The two smaller figures are heads of Saturn with the falx in its
original form; and the fourth represents the same divinity at full
length.

[Illustration: Falx. (From ancient Cameos.)]

FĂMĬLĬA. The word _familia_ contains the same element as the word
famulus, a slave, and the verb _famulari_. In its widest sense it
signifies the totality of that which belongs to a Roman citizen
who is sui juris, and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in certain
cases of testamentary disposition, the word _familia_ is explained
by the equivalent _patrimonium_; and the person who received the
familia from the testator was called _familiae emptor_. But the
word _familia_ is sometimes limited to signify “persons,” that is,
all those who are in the power of a paterfamilias, such as his sons
(_filii-familias_), daughters, grandchildren, and slaves. Sometimes
_familia_ is used to signify the slaves belonging to a person, or to
a body of persons (_societas_).

FĀNUM. [TEMPLUM.]

FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry.

FASCES, rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe
(_securis_) in the middle, the iron of which projected from them.
They were usually made of birch, but sometimes also of the twigs of
the elm. They are said to have been derived from Vetulonia, a city
of Etruria. Twelve were carried before each of the kings by twelve
lictors; and on the expulsion of the Tarquins, one of the consuls was
preceded by twelve lictors with the fasces and secures, and the other
by the same number of lictors with the fasces only, or, according to
some accounts, with crowns around them. But P. Valerius Publicola,
who gave to the people the right of provocatio, ordained that the
secures should be removed from the fasces, and allowed only one of
the consuls to be preceded by the lictors while they were at Rome.
The other consul was attended only by a single accensus [ACCENSUS].
When they were out of Rome, and at the head of the army, each of
the consuls retained the axe in the fasces, and was preceded by his
own lictors, as before the time of Valerius. The fasces and secures
were, however, carried before the dictator even in the city, and he
was also preceded by twenty-four lictors, and the magister equitum
by six. The praetors were preceded in the city by two lictors with
the fasces; but out of Rome and at the head of an army by six, with
the fasces and secures. The tribunes of the plebs, the aediles and
quaestors, had no lictors in the city, but in the provinces the
quaestors were permitted to have the fasces. The lictors carried the
fasces on their shoulders; and when an inferior magistrate met one
who was higher in rank, the lictors lowered their fasces to him.
This was done by Valerius Publicola, when he addressed the people,
and hence came the expression _submittere fasces_ in the sense of to
yield, to confess one’s self inferior to another. When a general had
gained a victory, and had been saluted as Imperator by his soldiers,
he usually crowned his fasces with laurel.

[Illustration: Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)]

FASCĬA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn, (1) round the head as an
ensign of royalty;--(2) by women over the breast;--(3) round the legs
and feet, especially by women. When the toga had fallen into disuse,
and the shorter pallium was worn in its stead, so that the legs were
naked and exposed, _fasciae crurales_ became common even with the
male sex.

FASCĬNUM (βασκανία), fascination, enchantment. The belief that
some persons had the power of injuring others by their looks, was
prevalent among the Greeks and Romans. The evil eye was supposed
to injure children particularly, but sometimes cattle also; whence
Virgil (_Ecl._ iii. 103) says,

“Nescio quis teneros oculos mihi fascinat agnum.”

Various amulets were used to avert its influence.

FASTI. _Fas_ signifies _divine law_: the epithet _fastus_ is
properly applied to anything in accordance with divine law; and
hence those days upon which legal business might, without impiety
(_sine piaculo_), be transacted before the praetor, were technically
denominated _fasti dies_, i.e. _lawful days_. The sacred books in
which the _fasti dies_ of the year were marked were themselves
denominated _fasti_; the term, however, was employed to denote
registers of various descriptions. Of these the two principal are
the _Fasti Sacri_ or _Fasti Kalendares_, and _Fasti Annales_ or
_Fasti Historici_.--I. FASTI SACRI or KALENDARES. For nearly four
centuries and a half after the foundation of the city a knowledge
of the calendar was possessed exclusively by the priests. One of
the pontifices regularly proclaimed the appearance of the new moon,
and at the same time announced the period which would intervene
between the Kalends and the Nones. On the Nones the country people
assembled for the purpose of learning from the rex sacrorum the
various festivals to be celebrated during the month, and the days
on which they would fall. In like manner all who wished to go to
law were obliged to inquire of the privileged few on what day they
might bring their suit, and received the reply as if from the lips
of an astrologer. The whole of this lore, so long a source of power
and profit, and therefore jealously enveloped in mystery, was at
length made public by a certain Cn. Flavius, scribe to App. Claudius;
who, having gained access to the pontifical books, copied out all
the requisite information, and exhibited it in the forum for the
use of the people at large. From this time forward such tables
became common, and were known by the name of _Fasti_. They usually
contained an enumeration of the months and days of the year; the
Nones, Ides, Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Nefasti, Comitiales, Atri, &c.,
together with the different festivals, were marked in their proper
places: astronomical observations on the risings and settings of the
fixed stars, and the commencement of the seasons were frequently
inserted. [CALENDARIUM; DIES.]--II. FASTI ANNALES or HISTORICI.
Chronicles such as the _Annales Maximi_, containing the names of the
chief magistrates for each year, and a short account of the most
remarkable events noted down opposite to the days on which they
occurred, were, from the resemblance which they bore in arrangement
to the sacred calendars, denominated _fasti_; and hence this word is
used, especially by the poets, in the general sense of _historical
records_. In prose writers _fasti_ is commonly employed as the
technical term for the registers of consuls, dictators, censors, and
other magistrates, which formed part of the public archives. Some
most important _fasti_ belonging to this class, executed probably
at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, have been partially
preserved, and are deposited in the Capitol in Rome, where they are
known by the name of the _Fasti Capitolini_.

FASTĬGĬUM. An ancient Greek or Roman temple, of rectangular
construction, is terminated at its upper extremity by a triangular
figure, both in front and rear, which rests upon the cornice of the
entablature as a base, and has its sides formed by the cornices which
terminate the roof. The whole of this triangle above the trabeation
is implied in the term _fastigium_, called ἀέτωμα by the Greeks,
pediment by our architects. The dwelling-houses of the Romans had no
gable ends; consequently when the word is applied to them, it is not
in its strictly technical sense, but designates the roof simply, and
is to be understood of one which rises to an apex, as distinguished
from a flat one. The fastigium, properly so called, was appropriated
to the temples of the gods; therefore, when the Romans began to
bestow divine honours upon Julius Caesar, amongst other privileges
which they decreed to him, was the liberty of erecting a fastigium to
his house, that is, a portico and pediment towards the street, like
that of a temple.

[Illustration: Fastigium. (From a Coin.)]

FAX (φανός), a torch. As the principal use of torches was to
give light to those who went abroad after sunset, the portion of
the Roman day immediately succeeding sun-set was called _fax_ or
_prima fax_. The use of torches after sun-set, and the practice of
celebrating marriages at that time, probably led to the consideration
of the torch as one of the necessary accompaniments and symbols of
marriage. Among the Romans the _fax nuptialis_ having been lighted
at the parental hearth, was carried before the bride by a boy whose
parents were alive. The torch was also carried at funerals (_fax
sepulchralis_), both because these were often nocturnal ceremonies,
and because it was used to set fire to the pile.

FĒCIĀLES. [FETIALES.]

FĔMĬNĀLĬA, worn in winter by Augustus Caesar, who was very
susceptible of cold. It seems probable that they were breeches
resembling ours.

FĔNESTRA. [DOMUS.]

FĒNUS or FOENUS (τόκος), interest of money.--(1) GREEK. At Athens
there was no restriction upon the rate of interest. A rate might be
expressed or represented in two different ways: (1.) by the number
of oboli or drachmae paid by the _month_ for every _mina_; (2) by
the part of the principal (τὸ ἀρχαῖον or κεφάλαιον) paid as interest
either annually or for the whole period of the loan. According to the
former method, which was generally used when money was lent upon real
security (τόκοι ἔγγυοι or ἔγγειοι), different rates were expressed as
follows:--10 per cent. by ἐπὶ πέντε ὀβολοῖς, _i.e._ 5 oboli per month
for every mina, or 60 oboli a year = 10 drachmae = 1/10 of a mina.
Similarly,

12 per cent. by ἐπὶ δραχμῇ per month.
16 per cent. ” ἐπ’ ὀκτὼ ὀβολοῖς ”
18 per cent. ” ἐπ’ ἐννέα ὀβολοῖς ”
24 per cent. ” ἐπὶ δυσὶ δραχμαῖς ”
36 per cent. ” ἐπὶ τρισὶ δρακμαῖς ”
5 per cent. ” ἐπὶ τρίτῳ ἡμιοβολίῳ, probably.

Another method was generally adopted in cases of bottomry (τὸ
ναυτικόν, τόκοι ναυτικοί, or ἔκδοσις), where money was lent upon
the ship’s cargo or freightage (ἐπὶ τῷ ναύλῳ), or the ship itself,
for a specified time, commonly that of the voyage. By this method
the following rates were thus represented:--10 per cent. by τόκοι
ἐπιδέκατοι, i.e. interest at the rate of a tenth; 12½, 16⅔, 20, 33⅓,
by τόκοι ἐπόγδοοι, ἔφεκτοι, ἐπίπεμπτοι, and ἐπίτριτοι, respectively.
The usual rates of interest at Athens about the time of Demosthenes
varied from 12 to 18 per cent.--(2) ROMAN. Towards the close of
the republic, and also under the emperors, 12 per cent. was the
legal rate of interest. The interest became due on the first of
every month: hence the phrases _tristes_ or _celeres calendae_ and
_calendarium_, the latter meaning a debt-book or book of accounts.
The rate of interest was expressed in the time of Cicero, and
afterwards, by means of the as and its divisions, according to the
following table:--

Asses usurae, or one as per
month for the use of one
hundred = 12 per cent.
Deunces usurae 11 ”
Dextantes ” 10 ”
Dodrantes ” 9 ”
Besses ” 8 ”
Septunces ” 7 ”
Semisses ” 6 ”
Quincunces ” 5 ”
Trientes ” 4 ”
Quadrantes ” 3 ”
Sextantes ” 2 ”
Unciae ” 1 ”

Instead of the phrase _asses usurae_, a synonyme was used, viz.
_centesimae usurae_, inasmuch as at this rate of interest there was
paid in a hundred months a sum equal to the whole principal. Hence
_binae centesimae_ = 24 per cent., and _quaternae centesimae_ = 48
per cent. The monthly rate of the centesimae was of foreign origin,
and first adopted at Rome in the time of Sulla. The old _yearly_
rate established by the Twelve Tables (B.C. 450) was the _unciarium
fenus_. The _uncia_ was the twelfth part of the as, and since the
full (12 oz.) copper coinage was still in use at Rome when the Twelve
Tables became law, the phrase _unciarium_ fenus would be a natural
expression for interest of one ounce in the pound; _i.e._ a twelfth
part of the sum borrowed, or 8⅓ per cent., not per month, but per
year. This rate, if calculated for the old Roman year of ten months,
would give 10 per cent. for the civil year of twelve months, which
was in common use in the time of the decemvirs. If a debtor could
not pay the principal and interest at the end of the year, he used
to borrow money from a fresh creditor, to pay off his old debt. This
proceeding was very frequent, and called a _versura_. It amounted
to little short of paying compound interest, or an _anatocismus
anniversarius_, another phrase for which was _usurae renovatae_;
_e.g._ _centesimae renovatae_ is 12 per cent. compound interest, to
which Cicero opposes _centesimae perpetuo fenore_ = 12 per cent.
simple interest. The following phrases are of common occurrence in
connection with borrowing and lending money at interest:--_Pecuniam
apud aliquem collocare_, to lend money at interest; _relegere_, to
call it in again; _cavere_, to give security for it; _opponere_
or _opponere pignori_, to give as a pledge or mortgage. The word
_nomen_ is also of extensive use in money transactions. Properly it
denoted the name of a debtor, registered in a banker’s or any other
account-book: hence it came to signify the articles of an account, a
debtor, or a debt itself. Thus we have _bonum nomen_, a good debt;
_nomina facere_, to lend monies, and also to borrow money.

FĒRĀLIA. [FUNUS, p. 191, a.]

FERCŬLUM (from _fer-o_) is applied to any kind of tray or platform
used for carrying anything. Thus it is used to signify the tray or
frame on which several dishes were brought in at once at dinner; and
hence _fercula_ came to mean the number of courses at dinner, and
even the dishes themselves. The ferculum was also used for carrying
the images of the gods in the procession of the circus, the ashes
of the dead in a funeral, and the spoils in a triumph; in all which
cases it appears to have been carried on the shoulders or in the
hands of men.

FĔRĔTRUM. [FUNUS.]

FĒRĬAE, holidays, were, generally speaking, days or seasons during
which free-born Romans suspended their political transactions and
their law-suits, and during which slaves enjoyed a cessation from
labour. All feriae were thus _dies nefasti_. The feriae included
all days consecrated to any deity; consequently all days on which
public festivals were celebrated were feriae or dies feriati. But
some of them, such as the feria vindemialis, and the feriae aestivae,
seem to have had no direct connection with the worship of the gods.
The nundinae, however, during the time of the kings and the early
period of the republic, were feriae only for the populus, and days
of business for the plebeians, until, by the Hortensian law, they
became fasti or days of business for both orders. All _feriae
publicae_, _i.e._ those which were observed by the whole nation,
were divided into _feriae stativae_, _feriae conceptivae_, and
_feriae imperativae_. _Feriae stativae_ or _statae_ were those which
were held regularly, and on certain days marked in the calendar. To
these belonged some of the great festivals, such as the Agonalia,
Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. _Feriae conceptivae_ or _conceptae_
were held every year, but not on certain or fixed days, the time
being every year appointed by the magistrates or priests. Among these
we may mention the feriae Latinae, feriae Sementivae, Paganalia,
and Compitalia. _Feriae imperativae_ were those which were held on
certain emergencies at the command of the consuls, praetors, or of
a dictator. The manner in which all public feriae were kept bears
great analogy to the observance of our Sunday. The people visited the
temples of the gods, and offered up their prayers and sacrifices. The
most serious and solemn seem to have been the feriae imperativae, but
all the others were generally attended with rejoicings and feasting.
All kinds of business, especially law-suits, were suspended during
the public feriae, as they were considered to pollute the sacred
season. The most important of the holidays designated by the name of
feriae, are the _Feriae Latinae_, or simply _Latinae_ (the original
name was _Latiar_), which were said to have been instituted by the
last Tarquin in commemoration of the alliance between the Romans and
Latins. This festival, however, was of much higher antiquity; it was
a panegyris, or a festival, of the whole Latin nation, celebrated on
the Alban mount; and all that the last Tarquin did was to convert the
original Latin festival into a Roman one, and to make it the means
of hallowing and cementing the alliance between the two nations.
Before the union, the chief magistrate of the Latins had presided
at the festival; but Tarquin now assumed this distinction, which
subsequently, after the destruction of the Latin commonwealth,
remained with the chief magistrates of Rome. The object of this
panegyris on the Alban mount was the worship of Jupiter Latiaris,
and, at least as long as the Latin republic existed, to deliberate
and decide on matters of the confederacy, and to settle any disputes
which might have arisen among its members. As the feriae Latinae
belonged to the conceptivae, the time of their celebration greatly
depended on the state of affairs at Rome, since the consuls were
never allowed to take the field until they had held the Latinae. This
festival was a great engine in the hands of the magistrates, who
had to appoint the time of its celebration (_concipere_, _edicere_,
or _indicere Latinas_); as it might often suit their purpose either
to hold the festival at a particular time or to delay it, in order
to prevent or delay such public proceedings as seemed injurious and
pernicious, and to promote others to which they were favourably
disposed. The festival lasted six days.

FESCENNINA, scil. _carmina_, one of the earliest kinds of Italian
poetry, which consisted of rude and jocose verses, or rather
dialogues of extempore verses, in which the merry country folks
assailed and ridiculed one another. This amusement seems originally
to have been peculiar to country people, but it was also introduced
into the towns of Italy and at Rome, where we find it mentioned as
one of those in which young people indulged at weddings.

FĒTĬĀLES or FĒCĬĀLES, a college of Roman priests, who acted as
the guardians of the public faith. It was their province, when
any dispute arose with a foreign state, to demand satisfaction,
to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be
commenced, to perform the various religious rites attendant on the
solemn declaration of war, and to preside at the formal ratification
of peace. When an injury had been received from a foreign state,
four fetiales were deputed to seek redress, who again elected one
of their number to act as their representative. This individual was
styled the _pater patratus populi Romani_. A fillet of white wool was
bound round his head, together with a wreath of sacred herbs gathered
within the inclosure of the Capitoline hill (_Verbenae_; _Sagmina_),
whence he was sometimes named _Verbenarius_. Thus equipped, he
proceeded to the confines of the offending tribe, where he halted,
and addressed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the god to witness, with
heavy imprecations, that his complaints were well founded and his
demands reasonable. He then crossed the border, and the same form was
repeated in nearly the same words to the first native of the soil
whom he might chance to meet; again a third time to the sentinel or
any citizen whom he encountered at the gate of the chief town; and
a fourth time to the magistrates in the forum in presence of the
people. If a satisfactory answer was not returned within thirty days,
after publicly delivering a solemn denunciation of what might be
expected to follow, he returned to Rome, and, accompanied by the rest
of the fetiales, made a report of his mission to the senate. If the
people, as well as the senate, decided for war, the pater patratus
again set forth to the border of the hostile territory, and launched
a spear tipped with iron, or charred at the extremity and smeared
with blood (emblematic doubtless of fire and slaughter), across the
boundary, pronouncing at the same time a solemn declaration of war.
The demand for redress, and the proclamation of hostilities, were
alike termed _clarigatio_. The whole system is said to have been
borrowed from the Aequicolae or the Ardeates, and similar usages
undoubtedly prevailed among the Latin states. The number of the
fetiales cannot be ascertained with certainty, but they were probably
twenty. They were originally selected from the most noble families,
and their office lasted for life.

FĪBŬLA (περόνη, πόρπη), a brooch or buckle, consisting of a pin
(_acus_), and of a curved portion furnished with a hook (κλείς).

[Illustration: Fibulae, brooches or buckles. (British Museum.)]

FICTĬLE (κεράμος, κεράμιον, ὄστρακον, ὀστράκινον), earthenware, a
vessel or other article made of baked clay. The instruments used in
pottery (_ars figulina_) were the following:--1. The wheel (τροχός,
_orbis_, _rota_, _rota figularis_). 2. Pieces of wood or bone, which
the potter (κεραμεύς, _figulus_) held in his right hand, and applied
occasionally to the surface of the clay during its revolution. 3.
Moulds (_formae_, τύποι), used either to decorate with figures in
relief vessels which had been thrown on the wheel, or to produce
foliage, animals, or any other appearances, on Antefixa, on cornices
of terra cotta, and imitative or ornamental pottery of all other
kinds, in which the wheel was not adapted to give the first shape. 4.
Gravers or scalpels, used by skilful modellers in giving to figures
of all kinds a more perfect finish and a higher relief than could
be produced by the use of moulds. The earth used for making pottery
(κεράμικη γῆ), was commonly red, and often of so lively a colour
as to resemble coral. Other pottery is brown or cream-coloured,
and sometimes white. Some of the ancient earthenware is throughout
its substance black, an effect produced by mixing the earth with
comminuted asphaltum (_gagates_), or with some other bituminous or
oleaginous substance. It appears also that asphaltum, with pitch and
tar, both mineral and vegetable, was used to cover the surface like a
varnish. The best pottery was manufactured at Athens, in the island
of Samos, and in Etruria. A quarter of Athens was called Cerameicus,
because it was inhabited by potters. Vessels, before being sent for
the last time to the furnace, were sometimes immersed in that finely
prepared mud, now technically called “slip,” by which the surface
is both smoothed and glazed, and at the same time receives a fresh
colour. Ruddle, or red ochre (μίλτος, _rubrica_), was principally
employed for this purpose. To produce a further variety in the
paintings upon vases the artists employed a few brightly coloured
earths and metallic ores. [PICTURA.]

FĬDEICOMMISSUM may be defined to be a testamentary disposition,
by which a person who gives a thing to another imposes on him the
obligation of transferring it to a third person. The obligation was
not created by words of legal binding force (_civilia verba_), but
by words of request (_precativè_), such as _fideicommitto_, _peto_,
_volo dari_, and the like; which were the operative words (_verba
utilia_).

FĪDŪCĬA. If a man transferred his property to another, on condition
that it should be restored to him, this contract was called Fiducia,
and the person to whom the property was so transferred was said
_fiduciam accipere_. The trustee was bound to discharge his trust
by restoring the thing: if he did not, he was liable to an actio
fiduciae or fiduciaria, which was an actio bonae fidei. If the
trustee was condemned in the action, the consequence was infamia.

FISCUS, the imperial treasury. Under the republic the public treasury
was called _Aerarium_. [AERARIUM.] On the establishment of the
imperial power, there was a division of the provinces between the
senate, as the representative of the old republic, and the Caesar or
emperor; and there was consequently a division of the most important
branches of public income and expenditure. The property of the senate
retained the name of _Aerarium_, and that of the Caesar, as such,
received the name of _Fiscus_. The private property of the Caesar
(_res privata principis, ratio Caesaris_) was quite distinct from
that of the fiscus. The word fiscus signified a wicker-basket, or
pannier, in which the Romans were accustomed to keep and carry about
large sums of money; and hence fiscus came to signify any person’s
treasure or money chest. The importance of the imperial fiscus soon
led to the practice of appropriating the name to that property which
the Caesar claimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus, without any
adjunct, was used in this sense. Ultimately the word came to signify
generally the property of the state, the Caesar having concentrated
in himself all the sovereign power, and thus the word fiscus finally
had the same signification as aerarium in the republican period.
Various officers, as Procuratores, Advocati, Patroni, and Praefecti,
were employed in the administration of the fiscus.

FLĀBELLUM, _dim._ FLĀBELLŬLUM, (ῥιπίς), a fan. Fans were of elegant
forms, of delicate colours, and sometimes of costly and splendid
materials, such as peacock’s feathers; but they were stiff and of a
fixed shape, and were held by female slaves (_flabelliferae_), by
beautiful boys, or by eunuchs, whose duty it was to wave them so as
to produce a cooling breeze. Besides separate feathers the ancient
fan was sometimes made of linen, extended upon a light frame.

[Illustration: Flagellum, Scourge. (From a Bas-relief at Rome, and
from a Coin.)]

FLAGRUM, _dim._ FLĂGELLUM (μάστιξ), a whip, a scourge, to the
handle of which was fixed a lash made of cords (_funibus_), or
thongs of leather (_loris_), especially thongs made from the ox’s
hide (_bubulis exuviis_). The _flagellum_ properly so called was
a dreadful instrument, and is thus put in opposition to the
_scutica_, which was a simple whip. (Hor. _Sat._ i. 3. 119.) Cicero
in like manner contrasts the severe _flagella_ with the _virgae_.
The flagellum was chiefly used in the punishment of slaves. It was
knotted with bones or heavy indented circles of bronze or terminated
by hooks, in which case it was aptly denominated a _scorpion_. We
likewise find that some gladiators fought with the flagella, as in
the coin here introduced.

FLĀMEN, the name for any Roman priest who was devoted to the service
of one particular god, and who received a distinguishing epithet
from the deity to whom he ministered. The most dignified were those
attached to Dijovis, Mars, and Quirinus, the _Flamen Dialis_,
_Flamen Martialis_, and _Flamen Quirinalis_. They are said to have
been established by Numa. The number was eventually increased to
fifteen: the three original flamens were always chosen from among
the patricians, and styled _Majores_; the rest from the plebeians,
with the epithet _Minores_. Among the minores, we read of the _Flamen
Floralis_, the _Flamen Carmentalis_, &c. The flamens were elected
originally at the Comitia Curiata, but it is conjectured that
subsequently to the passing of the _Lex Domitia_ (B.C. 104) they
were chosen in the Comitia Tributa. After being nominated by the
people, they were received (_capti_) and installed (_inaugurabantur_)
by the pontifex maximus, to whose authority they were at all times
subject. The office was understood to last for life; but a flamen
might be compelled to resign (_flaminio abire_) for a breach of
duty, or even on account of the occurrence of an ill-omened accident
while discharging his functions. Their characteristic dress was the
_apex_ [APEX], the _laena_ [LAENA], and a laurel wreath. The most
distinguished of all the flamens was the _Dialis_; the lowest in rank
the _Pomonalis_. The former enjoyed many peculiar honours. When a
vacancy occurred, three persons of patrician descent, whose parents
had been married according to the ceremonies of _confarreatio_, were
nominated by the Comitia, one of whom was selected (_captus_), and
consecrated (_inaugurabatur_) by the pontifex maximus. From that
time forward he was emancipated from the control of his father, and
became sui juris. He alone of all priests wore the _albogalerus_;
he had a right to a _lictor_, to the _toga praetexta_, the _sella
curulis_, and to a seat in the senate in virtue of his office. If
one in bonds took refuge in his house, his chains were immediately
struck off. To counterbalance these high honours, the dialis was
subjected to a multitude of restrictions. It was unlawful for him
to be out of the city for a single night; and he was forbidden to
sleep out of his own bed for three nights consecutively. He might not
mount upon horseback, nor even touch a horse, nor look upon an army
marshalled without the pomoerium, and hence was seldom elected to the
consulship. The object of the above rules was manifestly to make him
literally _Jovi adsiduum sacerdotem_; to compel constant attention
to the duties of the priesthood. _Flaminica_ was the name given to
the wife of the dialis. He was required to wed a virgin according
to the ceremonies of _confarreatio_, which regulation also applied
to the two other flamines majores; and he could not marry a second
time. Hence, since her assistance was essential in the performance
of certain ordinances, a divorce was not permitted, and if she died,
the dialis was obliged to resign. The municipal towns also had their
flamens. Thus the celebrated affray between Milo and Clodius took
place while the former was on his way to Lanuvium, of which he was
then dictator, to declare the election of a flamen (_ad flaminem
prodendum_).

FLAMMEUM. [MATRIMONIUM.]

FLŌRĀLĬA, or Florales Ludi, a festival which was celebrated at Rome
in honour of Flora or Chloris, during five days, beginning on the
28th of April and ending on the 2nd of May. It was said to have been
instituted at Rome in 238 B.C., at the command of an oracle in the
Sibylline books, for the purpose of obtaining from the goddess the
protection of the blossoms. The celebration was, as usual, conducted
by the aediles, and was carried on with excessive merriment,
drinking, and lascivious games.

FŌCĀLĔ, a covering for the ears and neck, made of wool, and worn by
infirm, and delicate persons.

FŎCUS, _dim._ FOCŬLUS (ἑστία, ἐσχάρα, ἐσχαρίς), a fire-place; a
hearth; a brazier. The fire-place possessed a sacred character, and
was dedicated among the Romans to the Lares of each family. Moveable
hearths, or braziers, properly called _foculi_, were frequently used.

[Illustration: Foculus, Moveable Hearth. (British Museum.)]

FOEDĔRĀTAE CĪVĬTĀTES, FOEDĔRĀTI, SŎCĬI. In the seventh century of
Rome these names expressed those Italian states which were connected
with Rome by a treaty (_foedus_). These names did not include Roman
colonies or Latin colonies, or any place which had obtained the Roman
civitas or citizenship. Among the _foederati_ were the _Latini_, who
were the most nearly related to the Romans, and were designated by
this distinctive name; the rest of the foederati were comprised under
the collective name of _Socii_ or _Foederati_. They were independent
states, yet under a general liability to furnish a contingent to the
Roman army. Thus they contributed to increase the power of Rome, but
they had not the privileges of Roman citizens. The discontent among
the foederati, and their claims to be admitted to the privileges
of Roman citizens, led to the Social War. The Julia Lex (B.C. 90)
gave the civitas to the Socii and Latini; and a lex of the following
year contained, among other provisions, one for the admission to the
Roman civitas of those peregrini who were entered on the lists of the
citizens of federate states, and who complied with the provisions of
the lex. [CIVITAS.]

FOENUS. [FENUS.]

[Illustration: Folles, Bellows. (From a Roman Lamp.)]

FOLLIS--(1) An inflated ball of leather, which boys and old men among
the Romans threw from one to another as a gentle exercise of the
body.--(2) A leather purse or bag.--(3) A pair of bellows, consisting
of two inflated skins, and having valves adjusted to the natural
apertures at one part for admitting the air, and a pipe inserted into
another part for its emission.

[Illustration: Fountain of Peirene at Corinth.]

FONS (κρήνη), a spring of water, and also an artificial fountain,
made either by covering and decorating a spring with buildings and
sculpture, or by making a jet or stream of water, supplied by an
elevated cistern, play into an artificial basin. Such fountains
served the double purpose of use and ornament. They were covered
to keep them pure and cool, and the covering was frequently in the
form of a monopteral temple: there were also statues, the subjects
of which were suggested by the circumstance that every fountain was
sacred to some divinity, or they were taken from the whole range of
mythological legends. A very large proportion of the immense supply
of water brought to Rome by the aqueducts was devoted to the public
fountains, which were divided into two classes; namely, _lacus_,
ponds or reservoirs, and _salientes_, jets of water, besides which
many of the castella were so constructed as to be also fountains.
There were also many small private fountains in the houses and villas
of the wealthy.

[Illustration: Fountain. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)]

FŎRES. [DOMUS.]

FORNĀCĀLĬA, a festival in honour of Fornax, the goddess of furnaces,
in order that the corn might be properly baked. This ancient festival
is said to have been instituted by Numa. The time for its celebration
was proclaimed every year by the curio maximus, who announced in
tablets, which were placed in the forum, the different part which
each curia had to take in the celebration of the festival. Those
persons who did not know to what curia they belonged performed the
sacred rites on the _Quirinalia_, called from this circumstance the
_Stultorum feriae_, which fell on the last day of the Fornacalia.

FORNIX, in its primary sense, is synonymous with ARCUS, but more
commonly implies an arched vault, constituting both roof and ceiling
to the apartment which it encloses.

FŎRUM. [See CLASSICAL DICT.]

FRĂMĔA. [HASTA.]

FRĀTRES ARVĀLES. [ARVALES FRATRES.]

FRĒNUM (χαλινός), a bridle. That Bellerophon might be enabled to
perform the exploits required of him by the king of Lycia, he was
presented by Athena with a bridle as the means of subduing the winged
horse Pegasus, who submitted to receive it whilst he was slaking
his thirst at the fountain Peirene. Such was the Grecian account
of the invention of the bridle, and in reference to it Athena was
worshipped at Corinth, under the titles Ἵππια and Χαλινῖτις. The bit
(_orea_, δῆγμα, στόμιον), was commonly made of several pieces, and
flexible, so as not to hurt the horse’s mouth; although there was
likewise a bit which was armed with protuberances resembling wolves’
teeth, and therefore called _lupatum_.

[Illustration: Pegasus receiving the Bridle.]

FRĪGĬDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM.]

FRĬTILLUS (φιμός), a dice-box of a cylindrical form, and therefore
called also _turricula_, or _pyrgus_, and formed with parallel
indentations (_gradus_) on the inside, so as to make a rattling noise
when the dice were shaken in it.

FRŪMENTĀRĬAE LEGES. The supply of corn at Rome was considered
one of the duties of the government. The superintendence of the
corn-market belonged in ordinary times to the aediles, but when
great scarcity prevailed, an extraordinary officer was appointed
for the purpose under the title of _Praefectus Annonae_. Even in
early times it had been usual for the state on certain occasions,
and for wealthy individuals, to make occasional donations of corn to
the people (_donatio_, _largitio_, _divisio_; subsequently called
_frumentatio_). But such donations were only casual; and it was not
till B.C. 123, that the first legal provision was made for supplying
the poor at Rome with corn at a price much below its market value.
In that year C. Sempronius Gracchus brought forward the first _Lex
Frumentaria_, by which each citizen was entitled to receive every
month a certain quantity of wheat (_triticum_) at the price of 6⅓
asses for the modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and nearly 8 pints
English. This was only a trifle more than half the market price. Each
person probably received five modii monthly, as in later times. About
B.C. 91, the tribune M. Octavius brought forward the _Lex Octavia_,
which modified the law of Gracchus to some extent, so that the public
treasury did not suffer so much. Sulla went still further, and by his
_Lex Cornelia_, B.C. 82, did away altogether with these distributions
of corn; but in B.C. 73, the Lex Sempronia was renewed by the _Lex
Terentia Cassia_, which enacted that each Roman citizen should
receive 5 modii a month at the price of 6⅓ asses for each modius. The
Leges Frumentariae had _sold_ corn to the people; but by the _Lex
Clodia_ of the tribune Clodius, B.C. 58, the corn was distributed
without any payment; the abolition of the payment cost the state a
fifth part of its revenues. When Caesar became master of the Roman
world, he resolved to remedy the evils attending the system, so
far as he was able. He did not venture to abolish altogether these
distributions of corn, but he did the next best thing in his power,
which was reducing the number of the recipients. During the civil
wars numbers of persons, who had no claim to the Roman franchise,
had settled at Rome in order to obtain a share in the distributions.
Caesar excluded from this privilege every person who could not prove
that he was a Roman citizen; and thus the 320,000 persons, who had
previously received the corn, were at once reduced to 150,000. The
useful regulations of Caesar fell into neglect after his death; and
in B.C. 5, the number of recipients had amounted to 320,000. But
in B.C. 2, Augustus reduced the number of recipients to 200,000,
and renewed many of Caesar’s regulations. The chief of them seem to
have been: 1. That every citizen should receive monthly a certain
quantity of corn (probably 5 modii) on the payment of a certain
small sum. Occasionally, in seasons of scarcity, or in order to
confer a particular favour, Augustus made these distributions quite
gratuitous; they then became _congiaria_. [CONGIARIUM.] 2. That those
who were completely indigent should receive the corn gratuitously,
and should be furnished for the purpose with _tesserae nummariae_
or _frumentariae_, which entitled them to the corn without payment.
The system which had been established by Augustus, was followed by
his successors; but as it was always one of the first maxims of the
state policy of the Roman emperors to prevent any disturbance in the
capital, they frequently lowered the price of the public corn, and
also distributed it gratuitously as a _congiarium_. Hence, the cry
of the populace _panem et circenses_. In course of time, the sale
of the corn by the state seems to have ceased altogether, and the
distribution became altogether gratuitous. Every corn-receiver was
therefore now provided with a _tessera_, and this tessera, when
once granted to him, became his property. Hence it came to pass,
that he was not only allowed to keep the tessera for life, but even
to dispose of it by sale, and bequeath it by will. Every citizen
was competent to hold a tessera, with the exception of senators.
Further, as the corn had been originally distributed to the people
according to the thirty-five tribes into which they were divided, the
corn-receivers in each tribe formed a kind of corporation, which came
eventually to be looked upon as the tribe, when the tribes had lost
all political significance. Hence, the purchase of a tessera became
equivalent to the purchase of a place in a tribe; and, accordingly,
we find in the Digest the expressions _emere tribum_ and _emere
tesseram_ used as synonymous. Another change was also introduced at a
later period, which rendered the bounty still more acceptable to the
people. Instead of distributing the corn every month, wheaten bread,
called _annona civica_, was given to the people. It is uncertain at
what time this change was introduced, but it seems to have been the
custom before the reign of Aurelian (A.D. 270-275).

FRŪMENTĀRĬI, officers under the Roman empire, who acted as spies
in the provinces, and reported to the emperors anything which
they considered of importance. They appear to have been called
_Frumentarii_ because it was their duty to collect information in the
same way as it was the duty of other officers, called by the same
name, to collect corn.

FŪCUS (φῦκος), the paint which the Greek and Roman ladies employed
in painting their cheeks, eye-brows, and other parts of their
faces. The practice of painting the face was very general among
the Greek ladies, and probably came into fashion in consequence
of their sedentary mode of life, which robbed their complexions
of their natural freshness, and induced them to have recourse to
artificial means for restoring the red and white of nature. The
eye-brows and eye-lids were stained black with στίμμι or στίμμις,
a sulphuret of antimony, which is still employed by the Turkish
ladies for the same purpose. The eye-brows were likewise stained
with ἄσβολος, a preparation of soot. Among the Romans the art of
painting the complexion was carried to a still greater extent than
among the Greeks, and even Ovid did not disdain to write a poem on
the subject, which he calls (_de Art. Am._ iii. 206) “parvus, sed
cura grande, libellus, opus;” though the genuineness of the fragment
of the _Medicamina faciei_, ascribed to this poet, is doubtful.
The Roman ladies even went so far as to paint with blue the veins
on the temples. The ridiculous use of patches (_splenia_), which
were common among the English ladies in the reign of Queen Anne and
the first Georges, was not unknown to the Roman ladies. The more
effeminate of the male sex at Rome, and likewise in Greece, also
employed paint.

[Illustration: Girl painting herself. (From a Gem.)]

FŬGA LĀTA. [EXSILIUM.]

FŬGA LĪBĔRA. [EXSILIUM.]

FŬGĬTĪVUS. [SERVUS.]

FULLO (κναφεύς, γναφεύς), also called NACCA, a fuller, a washer or
scourer of cloth and linen. The fullones not only received the cloth
as it came from the loom in order to scour and smooth it, but also
washed and cleansed garments which had been already worn. The clothes
were first washed, which was done in tubs or vats, where they were
trodden upon and stamped by the feet of the fullones, whence Seneca
speaks of _saltus fullonicus_. The ancients were not acquainted with
soap, but they used in its stead different kinds of alkali, by which
the dirt was more easily separated from the clothes. Of these, by far
the most common was the urine of men and animals, which was mixed
with the water in which the clothes were washed. When the clothes
were dry, the wool was brushed and carded to raise the nap, sometimes
with the skin of a hedgehog, and sometimes with some plants of the
thistle kind. The clothes were then hung on a vessel of basket-work
(_viminea cavea_), under which sulphur was placed in order to whiten
the cloth. A fine white earth, called Cimolian by Pliny, was often
rubbed into the cloth to increase its whiteness. The establishment
or workshop of the fullers was called _Fullonica_, _Fullonicum_, or
_Fullonimn_. The Greeks were also accustomed to send their garments
to fullers to be washed and scoured. The word πλύνειν denoted the
washing of linen, and κναφεύειν or γναφεύειν the washing of woollen
clothes.

FŪNAMBŬLUS (καλοβάτης σχοινοβάτης), a rope-dancer. The art of
dancing on the tight-rope was carried to as great perfection among
the Romans as it is with us. The performers placed themselves in an
endless variety of graceful and sportive attitudes, and represented
the characters of bacchanals, satyrs, and other imaginary beings.
One of the most difficult exploits was running down the rope at the
conclusion of the performance. It was a strange attempt of Germanicus
and of the emperor Galba to exhibit elephants walking on the rope.

FUNDA (σφενδόνη), a sling. Slingers are not mentioned in the Iliad;
but the light troops of the Greek and Roman armies consisted in great
part of slingers (_funditores_, σφενδονήται). The most celebrated
slingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands. Besides
stones, plummets, called _glandes_ (μολυβδίδες), of a form between
acorns and almonds, were cast in moulds to be thrown with slings.
The manner in which the sling was wielded may be seen in the annexed
figure of a soldier with a provision of stones in the sinus of his
pallium, and with his arm extended in order to whirl the sling about
his head.

[Illustration: Funda, Sling. (Column of Trajan.)]

FUNDĬTŌRES. [FUNDA.]

[Illustration: Coffins. (Stackelberg, ‘Die Gräber der Hellenen,’ pl.
7, 8.)]

[Illustration: Tomb in Lycia.]

FŪNUS, a funeral.--(1) GREEK. The Greeks attached great importance
to the burial of the dead. They believed that souls could not enter
the Elysian fields till their bodies had been buried; and so strong
was this feeling among the Greeks, that it was considered a religious
duty to throw earth upon a dead body, which a person might happen
to find unburied; and among the Athenians, those children who
were released from all other obligations to unworthy parents, were
nevertheless bound to bury them by one of Solon’s laws. The neglect
of burying one’s relatives is frequently mentioned by the orators
as a grave charge against the moral character of a man; in fact,
the burial of the body by the relations of the dead was considered
one of the most sacred duties by the universal law of the Greeks.
Sophocles represents Antigone as disregarding all consequences in
order to bury the dead body of her brother Polyneices, which Creon,
the king of Thebes, had commanded to be left unburied. The common
expressions for the funeral rites, τὰ δίκαια, νόμιμα or νομιζόμενα,
προσήκοντα, show that the dead had, as it were, a legal and moral
claim to burial. After a person was dead, it was the custom first to
place in his mouth an obolus, called _danace_ (δανάκη), with which
he might pay the ferryman in Hades. The body was then washed and
anointed with perfumed oil, the head was crowned with the flowers
which happened to be in season, and the body dressed in as handsome
a robe as the family could afford. These duties were not performed
by hired persons, like the _pollinctores_ among the Romans, but by
the women of the family, upon whom the care of the corpse always
devolved. The corpse was then laid out (πρόθεσις, προτίθεσθαι) on a
bed, which appears to have been of the ordinary kind, with a pillow
for supporting the head and back. By the side of the bed there
were placed painted earthen vessels, called λήκυθοι, which were
also buried with the corpse. Great numbers of these painted vases
have been found in modern times; and they have been of great use
in explaining many matters connected with antiquity. A honey-cake,
called μελιττοῦτα, which appears to have been intended for Cerberus,
was also placed by the side of the corpse. Before the door a vessel
of water was placed, called ὄστρακον, ἀρδάλιον or ἀρδάνιον, in order
that persons who had been in the house might purify themselves by
sprinkling water on their persons. The relatives stood around the
bed, the women uttering great lamentations, rending their garments,
and tearing their hair. On the day after the πρόθεσις, or the third
day after death, the corpse was carried out (ἐκφορά, ἐκκομιδή)
for burial, early in the morning and before sunrise. A burial soon
after death was supposed to be pleasing to the dead. In some places
it appears to have been usual to bury the dead on the day following
death. The men walked before the corpse, and the women behind.
The funeral procession was preceded or followed by hired mourners
(θρηνῳδοί), who appear to have been usually Carian women, playing
mournful tunes on the flute. The body was either buried or burnt. The
word θάπτειν is used in connection with either mode; it is applied to
the collection of the ashes after burning, and accordingly we find
the words καίειν and θάπτειν used together. The proper expression
for interment in the earth is κατορύττειν. In Homer the bodies of
the dead are burnt; but interment was also used in very ancient
times. Cicero says that the dead were buried at Athens in the time
of Cecrops; and we also read of the bones of Orestes being found in
a coffin at Tegea. The dead were commonly buried among the Spartans
and the Sicyonians, and the prevalence of this practice is proved
by the great number of skeletons found in coffins in modern times,
which have evidently not been exposed to the action of fire. Both
burning and burying appear to have been always used to a greater or
less extent at different periods; till the spread of Christianity
at length put an end to the former practice. The dead bodies were
usually burnt on piles of wood, called _pyres_ (πυραί). The body
was placed on the top; and in the heroic times it was customary to
burn with the corpse animals and even captives or slaves. Oils and
perfumes were also thrown into the flames. When the pyre was burnt
down, the remains of the fire were quenched with wine, and the
relatives and friends collected the bones. The bones were then washed
with wine and oil, and placed in urns, which were sometimes made of
gold. The corpses which were not burnt were buried in coffins, which
were called by various names, as σοροί, πύελοι, ληνοί, λάρνακες,
δροῖται, though some of these names are also applied to the urns in
which the bones were collected. They were made of various materials,
but were usually of baked clay or earthenware. The following woodcut
contains two of the most ancient kind; the figure in the middle is
the section of one. The dead were usually buried outside the town,
as it was thought that their presence in the city brought pollution
to the living. At Athens none were allowed to be buried within the
city; but Lycurgus, in order to remove all superstition respecting
the presence of the dead, allowed of burial in Sparta. Persons who
possessed lands in Attica were frequently buried in them, and we
therefore read of tombs in the fields. Tombs, however, were most
frequently built by the side of roads, and near the gates of the
city. At Athens, the most common place of burial was outside of the
Itonian gate, near the road leading to the Peiraeeus, which gate
was for that reason called the burial gate. Those who had fallen in
battle were buried at the public expense in the outer Cerameicus, on
the road leading to the Academia. Tombs were called θῆκαι, τάφοι,
μνήματα, μνημεῖα, σήματα. Many of these were only mounds of earth
or stones (χώματα, κολῶναι τύμβοι). Others were built of stone,
and frequently ornamented with great taste. Some Greek tombs were
built under ground, and called _hypogea_ (ὑπόγαια or ὑπόγεια). They
correspond to the Roman _conditoria_. The monuments erected over the
graves of persons were usually of four kinds: 1. στῆλαι, pillars
or upright stone tablets; 2. κίονες, columns; 3. ναΐδια or ἡρῷα,
small buildings in the form of temples; and 4. τράπεζαι, flat square
stones, called by Cicero _mensae_. The term στῆλαι is sometimes
applied to all kinds of funeral monuments, but properly designates
upright stone tablets, which were usually terminated with an oval
heading, called ἐπίθημα. The epithema was frequently ornamented with
a kind of arabesque work, as in the preceding specimen. The κίονες,
or columns, were of various forms, as is shown by the two specimens
in the annexed cut.

[Illustration: Epithema or Heading of Tombstone. (Stackelberg, pl.
3.)]

[Illustration: Sepulchral Columns. (Paintings on Vases.)]

The inscriptions upon these funeral monuments usually contain
the name of the deceased person, and that of the demus to which
he belonged, as well as frequently some account of his life. The
following example of an ἡρῷον will give a general idea of monuments
of this kind.--Orations in praise of the dead were sometimes
pronounced; but Solon ordained that such orations should be confined
to persons who were honoured with a public funeral. In the heroic
ages games were celebrated at the funeral of a great man, as in
the case of Patroclus; but this practice does not seem to have been
usual in the historical times.--All persons who had been engaged in
funerals were considered polluted, and could not enter the temples
of the gods till they had been purified. After the funeral was over,
the relatives partook of a feast, which was called περίδειπνον or
νεκρόδειπνον. This feast was always given at the house of the nearest
relative of the deceased.

[Illustration: Sepulchral Heroon. (Painting on Vase.)]

Thus the relatives of those who had fallen at the battle of
Chaeroneia partook of the περίδειπνον at the house of Demosthenes,
as if he were the nearest relative to them all. On the second day
after the funeral a sacrifice to the dead was offered, called τρίτα;
but the principal sacrifice to the dead was on the ninth day, called
ἔννατα or ἔνατα. The mourning for the dead appears to have lasted
till the thirtieth day after the funeral, on which day sacrifices
were again offered. At Sparta the time of mourning was limited to
eleven days. During the time of mourning it was considered indecorous
for the relatives of the deceased to appear in public; they were
accustomed to wear a black dress, and in ancient times they cut
off their hair as a sign of grief.--The tombs were preserved by
the family to which they belonged with the greatest care, and were
regarded as among the strongest ties which attached a man to his
native land. In the Docimasia of the Athenian archons it was always
a subject of inquiry whether they had kept in proper repair the
tombs of their ancestors. On certain days the tombs were crowned
with flowers, and offerings were made to the dead, consisting of
garlands of flowers and various other things. The act of offering
these presents was called ἐναγίζειν, and the offerings themselves
ἐναγίσματα, or more commonly χοαί. The γενέσια mentioned by Herodotus
appear to have consisted in offerings of the same kind, which were
presented on the anniversary of the birth-day of the deceased. The
νεκύσια were probably offerings on the anniversary of the day of
the death; though, according to some writers, the νεκύσια were the
same as the γενέσια. Certain criminals, who were put to death by
the state, were also deprived of the rights of burial, which was
considered as an additional punishment. There were certain places,
both at Athens and Sparta, where the dead bodies of such criminals
were cast. A person who had committed suicide was not deprived of
burial, but the hand with which he had killed himself was cut off
and buried by itself.--(2) ROMAN. When a Roman was at the point of
death, his nearest relation present endeavoured to catch the last
breath with his mouth. The ring was taken off the finger of the
dying person; and as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth were
closed by the nearest relation, who called upon the deceased by
name, exclaiming _have_ or _vale_. The corpse was then washed, and
anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves, called _pollinctores_,
who belonged to the _libitinarii_, or undertakers. The libitinarii
appear to have been so called because they dwelt near the temple
of Venus Libitina, where all things requisite for funerals were
sold. Hence we find the expressions _vitare Libitinam_ and _evadere
Libitinam_ used in the sense of escaping death. At this temple an
account (_ratio, ephemeris_) was kept of those who died, and a small
sum was paid for the registration of their names. A small coin was
then placed in the mouth of the corpse, in order to pay the ferryman
in Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch in the vestibule of
the house, with its feet towards the door, and dressed in the best
robe which the deceased had worn when alive. Ordinary citizens were
dressed in a white toga, and magistrates in their official robes.
If the deceased had received a crown while alive as a reward for
his bravery, it was now placed on his head; and the couch on which
he was laid was sometimes covered with leaves and flowers. A branch
of cypress was also usually placed at the door of the house, if he
was a person of consequence. Funerals were usually called _funera
justa_ or _exsequiae_; the latter term was generally applied to
the funeral procession (_pompa funebris_). There were two kinds
of funerals, public and private; of which the former was called
_funus publicum_ or _indictivum_, because the people were invited
to it by a herald; the latter _funus tacitum_, _translatitium_, or
_plebeium_. A person appears to have usually left a certain sum of
money in his will to pay the expenses of his funeral; but if he did
not do so, nor appoint any one to bury him, this duty devolved upon
the persons to whom the property was left, and if he died without a
will, upon his relations, according to their order of succession to
the property. The expenses of the funeral were in such cases decided
by an arbiter, according to the property and rank of the deceased,
whence _arbitria_ is used to signify the funeral expenses.--The
following description of the mode in which a funeral was conducted
only applies strictly to the funerals of the great; the same pomp and
ceremony could not of course be observed in the case of persons in
ordinary circumstances. All funerals in ancient times were performed
at night, but afterwards the poor only were buried at night, because
they could not afford to have any funeral procession. The corpse was
usually carried out of the house (_efferebatur_) on the eighth day
after the death. The order of the funeral procession was regulated
by a person called _designator_ or _dominus funeris_, who was
attended by lictors dressed in black. It was headed by musicians
of various kinds (_cornicines, siticines_), who played mournful
strains, and next came mourning women, called _praeficae_, who were
hired to lament and sing the funeral song (_naenia_ or _lessus_) in
praise of the deceased. These were sometimes followed by players and
buffoons (_scurrae, histriones_), of whom one, called _archimimus_,
represented the character of the deceased, and imitated his words
and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated,
wearing the cap of liberty (_pileati_); the number of whom was
occasionally very great, since a master sometimes liberated all his
slaves, in his will, in order to add to the pomp of his funeral.
Before the corpse the images of the deceased and of his ancestors
were carried, and also the crowns or military rewards which he had
gained. The corpse was carried on a couch (_lectica_), to which the
name of _feretrum_ or _capulum_ was usually given; but the bodies
of poor citizens and of slaves were carried on a common kind of
bier or coffin, called _sandapila_. The _sandapila_ was carried by
bearers, called _vespae_ or _vespillones_, because they carried
out the corpses in the evening (_vespertino tempore_). The couches
on which the corpses of the rich were carried were sometimes made
of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. They were often carried
on the shoulders of the nearest relations of the deceased, and
sometimes on those of his freedmen. Julius Caesar was carried by
the magistrates, and Augustus by the senators. The relations of the
deceased walked behind the corpse in mourning; his sons with their
heads veiled, and his daughters with their heads bare and their hair
dishevelled, contrary to the ordinary practice of both. They often
uttered loud lamentations, and the women beat their breasts and tore
their cheeks, though this was forbidden by the Twelve Tables. If the
deceased was of illustrious rank, the funeral procession went through
the forum, and stopped before the _rostra_, where a funeral oration
(_laudatio_) in praise of the deceased was delivered. This practice
was of great antiquity among the Romans, and is said by some writers
to have been first introduced by Publicola, who pronounced a funeral
oration in honour of his colleague Brutus. Women also were honoured
by funeral orations. From the Forum the corpse was carried to the
place of burning or burial, which, according to a law of the Twelve
Tables, was obliged to be outside the city. The Romans in the most
ancient times buried their dead, though they also early adopted, to
some extent, the custom of burning, which is mentioned in the Twelve
Tables. Burning, however, does not appear to have become general
till the later times of the republic. Marius was buried, and Sulla
was the first of the Cornelian gens whose body was burned. Under the
empire burning was almost universally practised, but was gradually
discontinued as Christianity spread, so that it had fallen into
disuse in the fourth century. Persons struck by lightning were not
burnt, but buried on the spot, which was called _Bidental_, and was
considered sacred. [BIDENTAL.] Children also, who had not cut their
teeth, were not burnt, but buried in a place called _Suggrundarium_.
Those who were buried were placed in a coffin (_arca_ or _loculus_),
which was frequently made of stone, and sometimes of the Assian
stone, which came from Assos in Troas, and which consumed all the
body, with the exception of the teeth, in 40 days, whence it was
called _sarcophagus_. This name was in course of time applied to
any kind of coffin or tomb. The corpse was burnt on a pile of wood
(_pyra_ or _rogus_). This pile was built in the form of an altar,
with four equal sides, whence we find it called _ara sepulcri_ and
_funeris ara_. The sides of the pile were, according to the Twelve
Tables, to be left rough and unpolished, but were frequently covered
with dark leaves. Cypress trees were sometimes placed before the
pile. On the top of the pile the corpse was placed, with the couch on
which it had been carried, and the nearest relation then set fire to
the pile with his face turned away. When the flames began to rise,
various perfumes were thrown into the fire, though this practice was
forbidden by the Twelve Tables; cups of oil, ornaments, clothes,
dishes of food, and other things, which were supposed to be agreeable
to the deceased, were also thrown upon the flames. The place where
a person was burnt was called _bustum_, if he was afterwards buried
on the same spot, and _ustrina_ or _ustrinum_ if he was buried at a
different place. Sometimes animals were slaughtered at the pile, and
in ancient times captives and slaves, since the manes were supposed
to be fond of blood; but afterwards gladiators, called bustuarii,
were hired to fight round the burning pile. When the pile was burnt
down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes of
the deceased were gathered by the nearest relatives, who sprinkled
them with perfumes, and placed them in a vessel called _urna_, which
was made of various materials, according to the circumstances of
individuals.

[Illustration: Sepulchral Urn in British Museum]

The urnae were also of various shapes, but most commonly square or
round; and upon them there was usually an inscription or epitaph
(_titulus_ or _epitaphium_), beginning with the letters D. M. S.,
or only D. M., that is, DIS MANIBUS SACRUM, followed by the name of
the deceased, with the length of his life, &c. The woodcut opposite
is a representation of a sepulchral urn in the British Museum. It
is of an upright rectangular form, richly ornamented with foliage,
and supported at the sides with pilasters. It is to the memory of
Cossutia Prima. Its height is 21 inches, and its width at the base 14
inches 6-8ths. Below the inscription an infant genius is represented
driving a car drawn by four horses.--After the bones and ashes of
the deceased had been placed in the urn, the persons present were
thrice sprinkled by a priest with pure water from a branch of olive
or laurel for the purpose of purification; after which they were
dismissed by the _praefica_, or some other person, by the solemn
word _Ilicet_, that is, _ire licet_. At their departure they were
accustomed to bid farewell to the deceased by pronouncing the word
_Vale_. The urns were placed in sepulchres, which, as already stated,
were outside the city, though in a few cases we read of the dead
being buried within the city. Thus Valerius Publicola, Tubertus, and
Fabricius, were buried in the city; which right their descendants
also possessed, but did not use. The vestal virgins and the emperors
were buried in the city.--The verb _sepelire_, like the Greek
θάπτειν, was applied to every mode of disposing of the dead; and
_sepulcrum_ signified any kind of tomb in which the body or bones of
a man were placed. The term _humare_ was originally used for burial
in the earth, but was afterwards applied like _sepelire_ to any mode
of disposing of the dead: since it appears to have been the custom,
after the body was burnt, to throw some earth upon the bones.--The
places for burial were either public or private. The public places
of burial were of two kinds; one for illustrious citizens, who were
buried at the public expense, and the other for poor citizens, who
could not afford to purchase ground for the purpose. The former was
in the Campus Martius, which was ornamented with the tombs of the
illustrious dead, and in the Campus Esquilinus; the latter was also
in the Campus Esquilinus, and consisted of small pits or caverns,
called _puticuli_ or _puticulae_; but as this place rendered the
neighbourhood unhealthy, it was given to Maecenas, who converted it
into gardens, and built a magnificent house upon it. Private places
for burial were usually by the sides of the roads leading to Rome;
and on some of these roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombs formed
an almost uninterrupted street for many miles from the gates of
the city. They were frequently built by individuals during their
lifetime; thus Augustus, in his sixth consulship, built the Mausoleum
for his sepulchre between the Via Flaminia and the Tiber, and planted
round it woods and walks for public use. The heirs were often ordered
by the will of the deceased to build a tomb for him; and they
sometimes did it at their own expense.--Sepulchres were originally
called _busta_, but this word was afterwards employed in the manner
mentioned under Bustum. Sepulchres were also frequently called
_monumenta_, but this term was also applied to a monument erected to
the memory of a person in a different place from that where he was
buried. _Conditoria_ or _conditiva_ were sepulchres under ground,
in which dead bodies were placed entire, in contradistinction to
those sepulchres which contained the bones and ashes only.--The
tombs of the rich were commonly built of marble, and the ground
enclosed with an iron railing or wall, and planted round with trees.
The extent of the burying-ground was marked by cippi [CIPPUS]. The
name of mausoleum, which was originally the name of the magnificent
sepulchre erected by Artemisia to the memory of Mausolus, king of
Caria, was sometimes given to any splendid tomb. The open space
before a sepulchre was called forum, and neither this space nor the
sepulchre itself could become the property of a person by usucapion.
Private tombs were either built by an individual for himself and
the members of his family (_sepulcra familiaria_), or for himself
and his heirs (_sepulcra hereditaria_). A tomb, which was fitted up
with niches to receive the funeral urns, was called _columbarium_,
on account of the resemblance of these niches to the holes of a
pigeon-house. In these tombs the ashes of the freedmen and slaves of
great families were frequently placed in vessels made of baked clay,
called _ollae_, which were let into the thickness of the wall within
these niches, the lids only being seen, and the inscriptions placed
in front. Tombs were of various sizes and forms, according to the
wealth and taste of the owner. A sepulchre, or any place in which a
person was buried, was _religiosus_; all things which were left or
belonged to the Dii Manes were _religiosae_; those consecrated to
the Dii Superi were called _sacrae_. Even the place in which a slave
was buried was considered religiosus. Whoever violated a sepulchre
was subject to an action termed _sepulcri violati actio_. After the
bones had been placed in the urn at the funeral, the friends returned
home. They then underwent a further purification, called _suffitio_,
which consisted in being sprinkled with water and stepping over a
fire. The house itself was also swept with a certain kind of broom;
which sweeping or purification was called _exverrae_, and the
person who did it _everriator_. The _Denicales Feriae_ were also
days set apart for the purification of the family. The mourning and
solemnities connected with the dead lasted for nine days after the
funeral, at the end of which time a sacrifice was performed, called
_novendiale_.--A feast was given in honour of the dead, but it is
uncertain on what day; it sometimes appears to have been given at
the time of the funeral, sometimes on the novendiale, and sometimes
later. The name of _silicernium_ was given to this feast. Among the
tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral triclinium for the celebration
of these feasts, which is represented in the annexed woodcut. It is
open to the sky, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals
in the centre of compartments, which have borders of flowers. The
triclinium is made of stone, with a pedestal in the centre to receive
the table. After the funeral of great men, there was, in addition to
the feast for the friends of the deceased, a distribution of raw meat
to the people, called _visceratio_, and sometimes a public banquet.
Combats of gladiators and other games were also frequently exhibited
in honour of the deceased. Thus at the funeral of P. Licinius
Crassus, who had been Pontifex Maximus, raw meat was distributed to
the people, 120 gladiators fought, and funeral games were celebrated
for three days, at the end of which a public banquet was given in
the forum. Public feasts and funeral games were sometimes given on
the anniversary of funerals. At all banquets in honour of the dead,
the guests were dressed in white.--The Romans, like the Greeks, were
accustomed to visit the tombs of their relatives at certain periods,
and to offer to them sacrifices and various gifts, which were called
_inferiae_ and _parentalia_. The Romans appear to have regarded the
manes or departed souls of their ancestors as gods; whence arose
the practice of presenting to them oblations, which consisted of
victims, wine, milk, garlands of flowers, and other things. The
tombs were sometimes illuminated on these occasions with lamps. In
the latter end of the month of February there was a festival, called
_feralia_, in which the Romans were accustomed to carry food to the
sepulchres for the use of the dead. The Romans were accustomed to
wear mourning for their deceased friends, which appears to have been
black under the republic for both sexes. Under the empire the men
continued to wear black in mourning, but the women wore white. They
laid aside all kinds of ornaments, and did not cut either their hair
or beard. Men appear to have usually worn their mourning for only a
few days, but women for a year when they lost a husband or parent.
In a public mourning on account of some signal calamity, as, for
instance, the loss of a battle, or the death of an emperor, there
was a total cessation from business, called _justitium_, which was
usually ordained by public appointment. During this period the courts
of justice did not sit, the shops were shut, and the soldiers freed
from military duties. In a public mourning the senators did not wear
the latus clavus and their rings, nor the magistrates their badges of
office.

[Illustration: Funeral Triclinium at Pompeii. (Mazois, Pomp., 1, pl.
xx.)]

FURCA, which properly means a fork, was also the name of an
instrument of punishment. It was a piece of wood in the form of
the letter Λ, which was placed upon the shoulders of the offender,
whose hands were tied to it. Slaves were frequently punished in
this way, and were obliged to carry about the furca wherever they
went; whence the appellation of _furcifer_ was applied to a man
as a term of reproach. The furca was used in the ancient mode of
capital punishment among the Romans; the criminal was tied to it, and
then scourged to death. The _patibulum_ was also an instrument of
punishment, resembling the furca; it appears to have been in the form
of the letter Π. Both the furca and patibulum were also employed as
crosses, to which criminals appear to have been nailed.

FURĬŌSUS. [CURATOR.]

FUSCĬNA (τρίαινα), a trident, more commonly called _tridens_, meaning
_tridens stimulus_, because it was originally a three-pronged goad,
used to incite horses to greater swiftness. Neptune was supposed to
be armed with it when he drove his chariot, and it thus became his
usual attribute, perhaps with an allusion also to the use of the same
instrument in harpooning fish. It is represented in the cut on p.
84. In the contests of gladiators, the _retiarius_ was armed with a
trident. [GLADIATORES]

FUSTŬĀRĬUM (ξυλοκοπία), was a capital punishment inflicted upon
Roman soldiers for desertion, theft, and similar crimes. It was
administered in the following manner:--When a soldier was condemned,
the tribune touched him slightly with a stick, upon which all the
soldiers of the legion fell upon him with sticks and stones, and
generally killed him upon the spot. If, however, he escaped, for he
was allowed to fly, he could not return to his native country, nor
did any of his relatives dare to receive him into their houses.

FŪSUS (ἄτρακτος), the spindle, was always, when in use, accompanied
by the distaff (_colus_, ἠλακάτη), as an indispensable part of the
same apparatus. The wool, flax, or other material, having been
prepared for spinning, was rolled into a ball (τολύπη, _glomus_),
which was, however, sufficiently loose to allow the fibres to be
easily drawn out by the hand of the spinner. The upper part of the
distaff was then inserted into this mass of flax or wool, and the
lower part was held under the left arm in such a position as was
most convenient for conducting the operation. The fibres were drawn
out, and at the same time spirally twisted, chiefly by the use of
the fore-finger and thumb of the right hand; and the thread (_filum,
stamen_, νήμα) so produced was wound upon the spindle until the
quantity was as great as it would carry. The spindle was a stick,
10 or 12 inches long, having at the top a slit or catch (_dens_,
ἄγκιστρον) in which the thread was fixed, so that the weight of the
spindle might continually carry down the thread as it was formed. Its
lower extremity was inserted into a small wheel, called the whorl
(_vorticellum_), made of wood, stone, or metal (see woodcut), the
use of which was to keep the spindle more steady, and to promote its
rotation. The accompanying woodcut shows the operation of spinning,
at the moment when the woman has drawn out a sufficient length of
yarn to twist it by whirling the spindle with her right thumb and
fore-finger, and previously to the act of taking it out of the slit
to wind it upon the bobbin (πήνιον) already formed. It was usual to
have a basket to hold the distaff and spindle, with the balls of wool
prepared for spinning, and the bobbins already spun. [CALATHUS.]
The distaff and spindle, with the wool and thread upon them, were
carried in bridal processions; and, without the wool and thread, they
were often suspended by females as offerings of religious gratitude,
especially in old age, or on relinquishing the constant use of them.
They were most frequently dedicated to Pallas, the patroness of
spinning, and of the arts connected with it. They were exhibited in
the representations of the three Fates, who were conceived, by their
spinning, to determine the life of every man.

[Illustration: Fusus, spindle.]

GĂBINUS CINCTUS. [TOGA.]

GAESUM (γαισός), a term probably of Celtic origin, denoting a kind
of javelin which was used by the Gauls wherever their ramifications
extended. It was a heavy weapon, the shaft being as thick as a man
could grasp, and the iron head barbed, and of an extraordinary length
compared with the shaft.

GĂLĔA (κράνος, _poet_. κόρυς, πήληξ), a helmet; a casque. The
helmet was originally made of skin or leather, whence is supposed
to have arisen its appellation, κυνέη, meaning properly a helmet of
dog-skin, but applied to caps or helmets made of the hide of other
animals, and even to those which were entirely of bronze or iron.
The leathern basis of the helmet was also very commonly strengthened
and adorned by the addition of either bronze or gold. Helmets which
had a metallic basis were in Latin properly called _cassides_,
although the terms _galea_ and _cassis_ are often confounded.
The additions by which the external appearance of the helmet was
varied, and which served both for ornament and protection, were the
following:--1. Bosses or plates (φάλος), proceeding either from the
top or the sides, and varying in number from one to four (ἀμφίφαλος,
τετράφαλος). The φάλος was often an emblematical figure, referring
to the character of the wearer. Thus in the colossal statue of
Athena in the Parthenon at Athens, she bore a sphinx on the top of
her helmet, and a griffin on each side. 2. The helmet thus adorned
was very commonly surmounted by the crest (_crista_, λόφος), which
was often of horse-hair. 3. The two cheek-pieces (_bucculae_,
παραγναθίδες), which were attached to the helmet by hinges, so as to
be lifted up and down. They had buttons or ties at their extremities,
for fastening the helmet on the head. 4. The beaver, or visor,
a peculiar form of which is supposed to have been the αὐλῶπις
τρυφάλεια, _i.e._ the perforated beaver. The gladiators wore helmets
of this kind.

[Illustration: Galeae, helmets. (From ancient Gems,--size of
originals.)]

GĂLĒRUS or GALĒRUM, originally a covering for the head worn by
priests, especially by the _flamen dialis_. It appears to have been a
round cap made of leather, with its top ending in an apex or point.
[APEX.] In course of time the name was applied to any kind of cap
fitting close to the head like a helmet. _Galerus_ and its diminutive
_Galericulum_ are also used to signify a covering for the head made
of hair, and hence a wig.

GALLI, the priests of Cybelé, whose worship was introduced at Rome
from Phrygia. The Galli were, according to an ancient custom, always
castrated, and it would seem that, impelled by religious fanaticism,
they performed this operation on themselves. In their wild,
enthusiastic, and boisterous rites they resembled the Corybantes.
They seem to have been always chosen from a poor and despised class
of people, for, while no other priests were allowed to beg, the Galli
were permitted to do so on certain days. The chief priest among them
was called _archigallus_.

GĂMĒLĬA (γαμηλία). The demes and phratries of Attica possessed
various means to prevent intruders from assuming the rights of
citizens. Among other regulations, it was ordained that every bride,
previous to her marriage, should be introduced by her parents or
guardians to the phratria of her husband. This introduction of the
young women was accompanied by presents to their new phratores, which
were called _gamelia_. The women were enrolled in the lists of the
phratries, and this enrolment was also called _gamelia_.

GAUSĂPA, GAUSĂPE, or GAUSĂPUM, a kind of thick cloth, which was on
one side very woolly, and was used to cover tables and beds, and by
persons to wrap themselves up after taking a bath, or in general to
protect themselves against rain and cold. It was worn by men as well
as women. The word gausapa is also sometimes used to designate a
thick wig, such as was made of the hair of Germans, and worn by the
fashionable people at Rome at the time of the emperors.

GĔNĔSIA. [FUNUS.]

GĔNOS (γένος). [TRIBUS, GREEK.]

GENS. According to the traditional accounts of the old Roman
constitution, the _Gentes_ were subdivisions of the _curiae_, just
as the _curiae_ were subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the
_Ramnes_, _Titienses_, and _Luceres_. There were ten gentes in
each curia, and consequently one hundred gentes in each tribe, and
three hundred in the three tribes. Now if there is any truth in
the tradition of this original distribution of the population into
tribes, curiae, and gentes, it follows that there was no necessary
kinship among those families which belonged to a gens, any more than
among those families which belonged to one curia. The name of the
gens was always characterised by the termination _ia_, as Julia,
Cornelia, Valeria; and the gentiles, or members of a gens, all bore
the name of the gens to which they belonged. As the gentes were
subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the populus (in the ancient
sense) alone had gentes, so that to be a patrician and to have a gens
were synonymous; and thus we find the expressions gens and patricii
constantly united. Yet it appears that some gentes contained plebeian
familiae, which it is conjectured had their origin in marriages
between patricians and plebeians before there was connubium between
them. A hundred new members were added to the senate by the first
Tarquin. These were the representatives of the _Luceres_, the third
and inferior tribe; which is indicated by the gentes of this tribe
being called _minores_, by way of being distinguished from the older
gentes, _majores_, of the Ramnes and Tities, a distinction which
appears to have been more than nominal. [SENATUS.] There were certain
sacred rites (_sacra gentilitia_) which belonged to a gens, to which
all the members of a gens, as such, were bound. It was the duty of
the pontifices to look after the due observance of these gentile
sacra, and to see that they were not lost. Each gens seems to have
had its peculiar place (_sacellum_) for the celebration of these
sacra, which were performed at stated times. By the law of the Twelve
Tables the property of a person who died intestate devolved upon the
gens to which he belonged.

GĔŌMŎRI. [TRIBUS, GREEK.]

GĔROUSĬA (γερούσια), or _assembly of elders_, was the aristocratic
element of the Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta only,
but found in other Dorian states, just as a _Boulé_ (βουλή) or
democratical council was an element of most Ionian constitutions.
The _Gerousia_ at Sparta, including the two kings, its presidents,
consisted of thirty members (γέροντες): a number which seems
connected with the divisions of the Spartan people. Every Dorian
state, in fact, was divided into three tribes: the Hylleis, the
Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at Sparta were again subdivided
into _obae_ (ὠβαί), which were, like the _Gerontes_, thirty in
number, so that each oba was represented by its councillor: any
inference which leads to the conclusion that two obae at least of
the Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the royal house of the
Heracleids. No one was eligible to the council till he was sixty
years of age, and the additional qualifications were strictly of
an aristocratic nature. We are told, for instance, that the office
of a councillor was the reward and prize of virtue, and that it
was confined to men of distinguished character and station. The
election was determined by vote, and the mode of conducting it
was remarkable for its old-fashioned simplicity. The competitors
presented themselves one after another to the assembly of electors;
the latter testified their esteem by acclamations, which varied
in intensity according to the popularity of the candidates for
whom they were given. These manifestations of esteem were noted by
persons in an adjoining building, who could judge of the shouting,
but could not tell in whose favour it was given. The person whom
these judges thought to have been most applauded was declared the
successful candidate. The office lasted for life. The functions of
the councillors were partly deliberative, partly judicial, and partly
executive. In the discharge of the first, they prepared measures
and passed preliminary decrees, which were to be laid before the
popular assembly, so that the important privilege of initiating all
changes in the government or laws was vested in them. As a criminal
court, they could punish with death and civil degradation (ἀτιμία).
They also appear to have exercised, like the Areiopagus at Athens,
a general superintendence and inspection over the lives and manners
of the citizens, and probably were allowed a kind of patriarchal
authority, to enforce the observance of ancient usage and discipline.
It is not, however, easy to define with exactness the original
extent of their functions, especially as respects the last-mentioned
duty, since the ephors not only encroached upon the prerogatives of
the king and council, but also possessed, in very early times, a
censorial power, and were not likely to permit any diminution of its
extent.

GERRHA (γέῤῥα), in Latin, _Gerrae_, properly signified any thing made
of wicker-work, and was especially used as the name of the Persian
shields, which were made of wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter
than the Greek shields.

GLĂDĬĀTŌRES (μονομάχοι) were men who fought with swords in the
amphitheatre and other places, for the amusement of the Roman people.
They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etrurians, and to
have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives
at the funeral pyres of the deceased. [BUSTUM; FUNUS.] A show of
gladiators was called munus, and the person who exhibited (_edebat_)
it, _editor_, _munerator_, or _dominus_, who was honoured during the
day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of
a magistrate. Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264,
in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral
of their father. They were at first confined to public funerals, but
afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and
even at those of women. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at
entertainments, and especially at public festivals by the aediles
and other magistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers, with
the view of pleasing the people. Under the empire the passion of
the Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest height, and the
number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost
incredible. After Trajan’s triumph over the Dacians, there were more
than 10,000 exhibited. Gladiators consisted either of captives,
slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought
voluntarily. Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called
_auctorati_, and their hire _auctoramentum_ or _gladiatorium_. Even
under the republic, free-born citizens fought as gladiators, but
they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the
empire, however, both knights and senators fought in the arena,
and even women.--Gladiators were kept in schools (_ludi_), where
they were trained by persons called _lanistae_. The whole body of
gladiators under one lanista was frequently called _familia_. They
sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to
persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other
times they belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of
exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of
the ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar’s ludus at Capua. The
gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called _rudes_.
Great attention was paid to their diet, in order to increase the
strength of their bodies.--Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at
the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in
the amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]--The person who was to exhibit
a show of gladiators, published some days before the exhibition
bills (_libelli_), containing the number and frequently the names
of those who were to fight. When the day came, they were led along
the arena in procession, and matched by pairs; and their swords
were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp.
At first there was a kind of sham battle, called _praelusio_, in
which they fought with wooden swords, or the like, and afterwards
at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator
was wounded, the people called out _habet_ or _hoc habet_; and the
one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission.
His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down
their thumbs if they wished him to be saved, but turned them up if
they wished him to be killed, and ordered him to receive the sword
(_ferrum recipere_), which gladiators usually did with the greatest
firmness. If the life of a vanquished gladiator was spared, he
obtained his discharge for that day, which was called _missio_;
and hence in an exhibition of gladiators _sine missione_, the
lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition,
however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms were usually given to the
victorious gladiators. Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had
only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by
the editor, at the request of the people, who presented each of them
with a rudis or wooden sword; whence those who were discharged were
called _Rudiarii_.--Gladiators were divided into different classes,
according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other
circumstances. The names of the most important of these classes are
given in alphabetical order:--_Andabatae_ wore helmets without any
aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold,
and thus excited the mirth of the spectators.--_Catervarii_ was the
name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when
several fought together.--_Essedarii_ fought from chariots, like the
Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.]--_Hoplomachi_ appear to have been those
who fought in a complete suit of armour.--_Laqueatores_ were those
who used a noose to catch their adversaries.--_Meridiani_ were those
who fought in the middle of the day, after combats with wild beasts
had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly
armed.--_Mirmillones_ are said to have been so called from their
having the image of a fish (_mormyr_, μορμύρος) on their helmets.
Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they
were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the Retiarii
or Thracians.--_Provocatores_ fought with the Samnites, but we do
not know any thing respecting them except their name.--_Retiarii_
carried only a three-pointed lance, called _tridens_ or _fuscina_
[FUSCINA], and a net (_rete_), which they endeavoured to throw over
their adversaries, and they then attacked them with the fuscina while
they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic,
and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the
net, he betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net
for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena
in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His
adversary was usually a _secutor_ or a _mirmillo_. In the following
woodcut a combat is represented between a retiarius and a mirmillo;
the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is
proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind
the retiarius.--_Samnites_ were so called, because they were armed
in the same way as that people, and were particularly distinguished
by the oblong _scutum_.--_Secutores_ are supposed by some writers to
be so called because the secutor in his combat with the retiarius
pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net.

[Illustration: A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. (Winckelmann, ‘Monum.
Ined.,’ pl. 197.)]

Other writers think that they were the same as the _supposititii_,
who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were
wearied or were killed.--_Thraces_ or _Threces_ were armed, like the
Thracians, with a round shield or buckler, and a short sword or
dagger (_sica_). They were usually matched, as already stated, with
the mirmillones. The following woodcut represents a combat between
two Thracians. A lanista stands behind each.

[Illustration: Thracians. (Winckelmann, l. c.)]

GLĂDĬUS (ξίφος, _poet._ ἄορ, φάσγανον), a sword or glaive, by the
Latin poets called _ensis_. The ancient sword had generally a
straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and nearly of equal width
from hilt to point. The Greeks and Romans wore them on the left side,
so as to draw them out of the sheath (_vagina_, κολεός) by passing
the right hand in front of the body to take hold of the hilt with the
thumb next to the blade. The early Greeks used a very short sword.
Iphicrates, who made various improvements in armour about 400 B.C.,
doubled its length. The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and more
formidable than the Greek.

GLANDES. [FUNDA.]

GRAECŎSTĂSIS, a place in the Roman forum, on the right of the
Comitium, so called because the Greek ambassadors, and perhaps also
deputies from other foreign or allied states, were allowed to stand
there to hear the debates. When the sun was seen from the Curia
coming out between the Rostra and the Graecostasis, it was mid-day;
and an accensus of the consul announced the time with a clear loud
voice.

GRAMMĂTEUS (γραμματεύς), a clerk or scribe. Among the great number
of scribes employed by the magistrates and government of Athens,
there were three of a higher rank, who were real state-officers. One
of them was appointed by lot, by the senate, to serve the time of
the administration of each prytany, though he always belonged to a
different prytany from that which was in power. He was, therefore,
called γραμματεὺς κατὰ πρυτανείαν. His province was to keep the
public records, and the decrees of the people which were made during
the time of his office, and to deliver to the thesmothetae the
decrees of the senate.--The second _grammateus_ was elected by the
senate, by χειροτονία, and was entrusted with the custody of the
laws. His usual name was γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς.--A third _grammateus_
was called γραμματεὺς τῆς πόλεως, or γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς καὶ
τοῦ δήμου. He was appointed by the people, by χειροτονία, and the
principal part of his office was to read any laws or documents which
were required to be read in the assembly or in the senate.

GRĂPHĒ (γραφή). [DICE.]

GRĂPHĬĀRĬUM. [STILUS.]

GRĂPHIS. [PICTURA.]

GRĂPHĬUM. [STILUS.]

GŬBERNĀCŬLUM (πηδάλιον). [NAVIS.]

GUSTĀTĬO. [COENA.]

[Illustration: Guttus on Coin of L. Plancus.]

GUTTUS, a vessel with a narrow mouth or neck, from which the liquid
was poured in drops, whence its name. It was especially used in
sacrifices, and hence we find it represented on the Roman coins
struck by persons who held any of the priestly offices. The guttus
was also used for keeping the oil, with which persons were anointed
in the baths. [See p. 56.]

[Illustration: Gymnasium, after the description of Vitruvius.]

GYMNĀSIUM (γυμνάσιον). The whole education of a Greek youth was
divided into three parts,--grammar, music, and gymnastics (γράμματα,
μουσική, γυμναστική), to which Aristotle adds a fourth, the art
of drawing or painting. Gymnastics, however, were thought by the
ancients a matter of such importance, that this part of education
alone occupied as much time and attention as all the others put
together; and while the latter necessarily ceased at a certain period
of life, gymnastics continued to be cultivated by persons of all
ages, though those of an advanced age naturally took lighter and less
fatiguing exercises than boys and youths. The ancients, and more
especially the Greeks, seem to have been thoroughly convinced that
the mind could not possibly be in a healthy state, unless the body
was likewise in perfect health, and no means were thought, either
by philosophers or physicians, to be more conducive to preserve
or restore bodily health than well-regulated exercise. The word
gymnastics is derived from γυμνός (naked), because the persons who
performed their exercises in public or private gymnasia were either
entirely naked, or merely covered by the short _chiton_. Gymnastic
exercises among the Greeks seem to have been as old as the Greek
nation itself; but they were, as might be supposed, of a rude and
mostly of a warlike character. They were generally held in the open
air, and in plains near a river, which afforded an opportunity for
swimming and bathing. It was about the time of Solon that the Greek
towns began to build their regular gymnasia as places of exercise for
the young, with baths, and other conveniences for philosophers and
all persons who sought intellectual amusements. There was probably
no Greek town of any importance which did not possess its gymnasium.
Athens possessed three great gymnasia, the Lyceum (Λύκειον),
Cynosarges (Κυνόσαργες), and the Academia (Ἀκαδημία); to which,
in later times, several smaller ones were added. Respecting the
superintendence and administration of the gymnasia at Athens, we know
that Solon in his legislation thought them worthy of great attention;
and the transgression of some of his laws relating to the gymnasia
was punished with death. His laws mention a magistrate, called the
gymnasiarch (γυμνασίαρχος or γυμνασιάρχης), who was entrusted with
the whole management of the gymnasia, and with everything connected
therewith. His office was one of the regular liturgies like the
choregia and trierarchy, and was attended with considerable expense.
He had to maintain and pay the persons who were preparing themselves
for the games and contests in the public festivals, to provide them
with oil, and perhaps with the wrestlers’ dust. It also devolved upon
him to adorn the gymnasium, or the place where the agones were held.
The gymnasiarch was a real magistrate, and invested with a kind of
jurisdiction over all those who frequented or were connected with the
gymnasia. Another part of his duties was to conduct the solemn games
at certain great festivals, especially the torch-race (λαμπαδηφορία),
for which he selected the most distinguished among the ephebi of
the gymnasia. The number of gymnasiarchs was ten, one from every
tribe. An office of very great importance, in an educational point of
view, was that of the _Sophronistae_ (σωφρονίσται). Their province
was to inspire the youths with a love of σωφροσύνη, and to protect
this virtue against all injurious influences. In early times their
number at Athens was ten, one from every tribe, with a salary of one
drachma per day. Their duty not only required them to be present at
all the games of the ephebi, but to watch and correct their conduct
wherever they might meet them, both within and without the gymnasium.
The instructions in the gymnasia were given by the _Gymnastae_
(γυμνασταί) and the _Paedotribae_ (παιδοτριβαί); at a later period
_Hypopaedotribae_ were added. The Paedotribae were required to
possess a knowledge of all the various exercises which were performed
in the gymnasia; the Gymnastes was the practical teacher, and was
expected to know the physiological effects and influences on the
constitution of the youths, and therefore assigned to each of them
those exercises which he thought most suitable. The anointing of
the bodies of the youths and strewing them with dust, before they
commenced their exercises, as well as the regulation of their diet,
was the duty of the aliptae. [ALIPTAE.]--Among all the different
tribes of the Greeks the exercises which were carried on in a Greek
gymnasium were either mere games, or the more important exercises
which the gymnasia had in common with the public contests in the
great festivals. Among the former we may mention, 1. The game at ball
(σφαιριστική), which was in universal favour with the Greeks. [PILA.]
Every gymnasium contained one large room for the purpose of playing
at ball in it (σφαιριστήριον). 2. Παίζειν ἑλκυστίνδα, διελκυστίνδα,
or διὰ γραμμῆς, was a game in which one boy, holding one end of a
rope, tried to pull the boy who held its other end, across a line
marked between them on the ground. 3. The top (βεμβηξ, βέμβιξ,
ῥόμβος, στρόβιλος), which was as common an amusement with Greek boys
as it is with ours. 4. The πεντάλιθος, which was a game with five
stones, which were thrown up from the upper part of the hand and
caught in the palm. 5. Σκαπέρδα, which was a game in which a rope was
drawn through the upper part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on
each side of the post, turning their backs towards one another, took
hold of the ends of the rope and tried to pull each other up. This
sport was also one of the amusements at the Attic Dionysia. The more
important games, such as running (δρόμος), throwing of the δίσκος
and the ἄκων, jumping and leaping (ἅλμα, with and without ἁλτῆρες),
wrestling (πάλη), boxing (πυγμή), the pancratium (παγκράτιον),
πένταθλος, λαμπαδηφορία, dancing (ὀρχήσις), &c., are described in
separate articles. A gymnasium was not a Roman institution. The
regular training of boys in the Greek gymnastics was foreign to Roman
manners, and even held in contempt. Towards the end of the republic,
many wealthy Romans who had acquired a taste for Greek manners,
used to attach to their villas small places for bodily exercise,
sometimes called gymnasia, sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn them
with beautiful works of art. The emperor Nero was the first who built
a public gymnasium at Rome.

GYMNĒSII or GYMNĒTES (γυμνήσιοι, or γυμνῆτες), a class of
bond-slaves at Argos, who may be compared with the Helots at Sparta.
Their name shows that they attended their masters on military service
in the capacity of light-armed troops.

GYMNŎPAEDĬA (γυμνοπαιδία), the festival of “naked youths,” was
celebrated at Sparta every year in honour of Apollo Pythaeus,
Artemis, and Leto. The statues of these deities stood in a part of
the agora called χορός, and it was around these statues that, at the
gymnopaedia, Spartan youths performed their choruses and dances in
honour of Apollo. The festival lasted for several, perhaps for ten,
days, and on the last day men also performed choruses and dances in
the theatre; and during these gymnastic exhibitions they sang the
songs of Thaletas and Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus. The
leader of the chorus (προστάτης or χοροποιός) wore a kind of chaplet
in commemoration of the victory of the Spartans at Thyrea. This
event seems to have been closely connected with the gymnopaedia, for
those Spartans who had fallen on that occasion were always praised
in songs at this festival. The boys in their dances performed such
rhythmical movements as resembled the exercises of the palaestra and
the pancration, and also imitated the wild gestures of the worship
of Dionysus. The whole season of the gymnopaedia, during which
Sparta was visited by great numbers of strangers, was one of great
merriment and rejoicings, and old bachelors alone seem to have been
excluded from the festivities. The introduction of the gymnopaedia is
generally assigned to the year 665 B.C.

GỸNAECONĪTIS. [DOMUS, GREEK.]

GỸNAECŎNŎMI or GỸNAECŎCOSMI (γυναικονόμοι or γυναικοκόσμοι),
magistrates at Athens, originally appointed to superintend the
conduct of Athenian women. Their power was afterwards extended in
such a manner that they became a kind of police for the purpose of
preventing any excesses or indecencies, whether committed by men
or by women. Hence they superintended the meetings of friends even
in private houses, for instance, at weddings and on other festive
occasions.

HALTĒRES (ἁλτῆρες) were certain masses of stone or metal, which were
used in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans. Persons who
practised leaping frequently performed their exercises with halteres
in both hands; but they were also frequently used merely to exercise
the body in somewhat the same manner as our dumb-bells.

[Illustration: Halteres. (Tassie, ‘Catalogue,’ pl. 46.)]

HARMĂMAXA (ἁρμάμαξα), a carriage for persons, covered overhead and
inclosed with curtains. It was in general large, often drawn by four
horses, and attired with splendid ornaments. It occupied among the
Persians the same place which the carpentum did among the Romans,
being used, especially upon state occasions, for the conveyance of
women and children, of eunuchs, and of the sons of the king with
their tutors.

HARMOSTAE (ἁρμοσταί, from ἁρμόζω, to fit or join together), the name
of the governors whom the Lacedaemonians, after the Peloponnesian
war, sent into their subject or conquered towns, partly to keep
them in submission, and partly to abolish the democratical form of
government, and establish in its stead one similar to their own.
Although in many cases they were ostensibly sent for the purpose of
abolishing the tyrannical government of a town, and to restore the
people to freedom, yet they themselves acted like kings or tyrants.

[Illustration: Flesh-hook. (British Museum.)]

HARPĂGO (ἁρπάγη: λύκος: κρεάγρα), a grappling-iron, a drag, a
flesh-hook. In war the grappling-iron, thrown at an enemy’s ship,
seized the rigging, and was then used to drag the ship within reach,
so that it might be easily boarded or destroyed. These instruments
appear to have been much the same as the _manus ferreae_. The
flesh-hook (κρεάγρα) was an instrument used in cookery, resembling a
hand with the fingers bent inwards, used to take boiled meat out of
the caldron.

HARPASTUM. [PILA.]

HĂRUSPĬCES, or ĂRUSPĬCES (ἱεροσκόποι), soothsayers or diviners,
who interpreted the will of the gods. They originally came to Rome
from Etruria, whence haruspices were often sent for by the Romans
on important occasions. The art of the haruspices resembled in many
respects that of the augurs; but they never acquired that political
importance which the latter possessed, and were regarded rather
as means for ascertaining the will of the gods than as possessing
any religious authority. They did not in fact form any part of the
ecclesiastical polity of the Roman state during the republic; they
are never called sacerdotes, they did not form a collegium, and
had no magister at their head. The art of the haruspices, which
was called _haruspicina_, consisted in explaining and interpreting
the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails (_exta_)
of animals offered in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes called
_extispices_, and their art _extispicium_; and also from lightning,
earthquakes, and all extraordinary phenomena in nature, to which the
general name of _portenta_ was given. Their art is said to have been
invented by the Etruscan Tages, and was contained in certain books
called _libri haruspicini_, _fulgurales_, and _tonitruales_. This
art was considered by the Romans so important at one time, that the
senate decreed that a certain number of young Etruscans, belonging
to the principal families in the state, should always be instructed
in it. In later times, however, their art fell into disrepute among
well-educated Romans; and Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that he
wondered that one haruspex did not laugh when he saw another. The
name of haruspex is sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer or
prophet.

[Illustration: Hastae, spears.]

HASTA (ἔγχος), a spear. The spear is defined by Homer, δόρυ χαλκήρες,
“a pole fitted with bronze,” and δόρυ χαλκοβάρες, “a pole heavy with
bronze.” The bronze, for which iron was afterwards substituted,
was indispensable to form the point (αἰχμή, ἀκωκή, Homer; λόγχη,
Xenophon; _acies_, _cuspis_, _spiculum_) of the spear. Each of these
two essential parts is often put for the whole, so that a spear is
called δόρυ and δοράτιον, αἰχμή, and λόγχη. Even the more especial
term μελία, meaning an ash-tree, is used in the same manner, because
the pole of the spear was often the stem of a young ash, stripped
of its bark and polished. The bottom of the spear was often inclosed
in a pointed cap of bronze, called by the Ionic writers σαυρωτῆρ
and οὐρίαχος, and in Attic or common Greek στύραξ. By forcing this
into the ground the spear was fixed erect. Many of the lancers who
accompanied the king of Persia, had, instead of this spike at the
bottom of their spears, an apple or a pomegranate, either gilt or
silvered. Fig. 1. in the annexed woodcut shows the top and bottom of
a spear, which is held by one of the king’s guards in the sculptures
at Persepolis. The spear was used as a weapon of attack in three
different ways:--1. It was thrown from catapults and other engines
[TORMENTUM]. 2. It was thrust forward as a pike. 3. It was commonly
thrown by the hand. The spear frequently had a leathern thong tied
to the middle of the shaft, which was called ἀγκύλη by the Greeks,
and _amentum_ by the Romans, and which was of assistance in throwing
the spear. The annexed figure represents the amentum attached to the
spear at the centre of gravity, a little above the middle.

[Illustration: Hasta with Amentum. (From a Painting on a Vase.)]

Under the general terms _hasta_ and ἔγχος were included various
kinds of missiles, of which the principal were as follow:--_Lancea_
(λόγχη), the lance, a comparatively slender spear commonly used by
the Greek horsemen. The appendage shown in woodcut, Fig. 2, enabled
them to mount their horses with greater facility.--_Pilum_ (ὑσσός),
the javelin, much thicker and stronger than the Grecian lance. Its
shaft, often made of cornel, was 4½ feet (three cubits) long, and
the barbed iron head was of the same length, but this extended half
way down the shaft, to which it was attached with extreme care, so
that the whole length of the weapon was about 6 feet 9 inches. It
was used either to throw or to thrust with; it was peculiar to the
Romans, and gave the name of _pilani_ to the division of the army by
which it was adopted.--Whilst the heavy-armed Roman soldiers bore the
long lance and the thick and ponderous javelin, the light-armed used
smaller missiles, which, though of different kinds, were included
under the general term _hastae velitares_ (γρόσφοι). The γρόσφος was
a dart, with a shaft about three feet long and an inch in thickness:
the iron head was a span long, and so thin and acuminated as to be
bent by striking against anything, and thus rendered unfit to be
sent back against the enemy. Fig. 3, in the preceding woodcut, shows
one which was found in a Roman entrenchment in Gloucestershire.--The
light infantry of the Roman army used a similar weapon, called _a
spit_ (_veru_, _verutum_; σαύνιον). It was adopted by them from
the Samnites and the Volsci. Its shaft was 3½ feet long, its point
5 inches. Fig. 4, in the preceding woodcut, represents the head
of a dart in the Royal Collection at Naples; it may be taken as
a specimen of the _verutum_, and may be contrasted with fig. 5,
which is the head of a lance in the same collection.--The Romans
adopted in like manner the _gaesum_, which was properly a Celtic
weapon; it was given as a reward to any soldier who wounded an
enemy. [GAESUM.]--_Sparus_ is evidently the same word with the
English _spar_ and _spear_. It was the rudest missile of the whole
class.--Besides the terms _jaculum_ and _spiculum_ (ἄκων, ἀκόντιον),
which probably denoted darts, resembling in form the lance and
javelin, but much smaller, adapted consequently to the light-armed
(_jaculatores_), and used in hunting as well as in battle, we find
in classical authors the names of various other spears, which were
characteristic of particular nations.--Thus, the _sarissa_ was the
spear peculiar to the Macedonians. This was used both to throw and
as a pike. It exceeded in length all other missiles.--The Thracian
_romphea_, which had a very long point, like the blade of a sword,
was probably not unlike the sarissa.--With these weapons we may also
class the Illyrian _sibina_, which resembled a hunting-pole.--The
iron head of the German spear, called _framea_, was short and narrow,
but very sharp. The Germans used it with great effect either as a
lance or a pike: they gave to each youth a framea and a shield on
coming of age.--The _Falarica_ or _Phalarica_ was the spear of the
Saguntines, and was impelled by the aid of twisted ropes; it was
large and ponderous, having a head of iron a cubit in length, and a
ball of lead at its other end; it sometimes carried flaming pitch and
tow.--The _matura_ and _tragula_ were chiefly used in Gaul and Spain:
the tragula was probably barbed, as it required to be cut out of the
wound.--The _Aclis_ and _Cateia_ were much smaller missiles.--Among
the decorations which the Roman generals bestowed on their soldiers,
more especially for saving the life of a fellow-citizen, was a spear
without a head, called _hasta pura_. The _celibaris hasta_, having
been fixed into the body of a gladiator lying dead on the arena,
was used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was
erected at auctions [AUCTIO], and when tenders were received for
public offices (_locationes_). It served both to announce, by a
conventional sign conspicuous at a distance, that a sale was going
on, and to show that it was conducted under the authority of the
public functionaries. Hence an auction was called _hasta_, and an
auction-room _hastarium_. It was also the practice to set up a spear
in the court of the CENTUMVIRI.

HASTĀTI. [EXERCITUS, p. 168, b.]

HĔCĂTOMBĒ. [SACRIFICIUM.]

HECTĒ or HECTEUS (ἕκτη, ἑκτεύς), and its half, _Hemiecton_ or
_Hemiecteon_ (ἡμίεκτον, ἡμιεκτέον). In dry measures, the _hecteus_
was the sixth part of the _medimnus_, and the _hemiecteon_, of
course, the twelfth part. The _hecteus_ was equal to the Roman
_modius_, as each contained 16 ξέσται or sextarii. The _Hecte_ or
_Hecteus_ and _Hemiecton_ were also the names of coins, but the
accounts we have of their value are very various. The only consistent
explanation is, that there were different _hectae_, derived from
different units; in fact, that these coins were not properly
_denominations_ of money, but _subdivisions_ of the recognised
denominations.

HĔLĔPŎLIS (ἑλέπολις), “the taker of cities,” a machine constructed
by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he besieged the city of Salamis in
Cyprus. Its form was that of a square tower, each side being 90
cubits high and 45 wide. It rested on four wheels, each eight cubits
high. It was divided into nine stories, the lower of which contained
machines for throwing great stones, the middle large catapults for
throwing spears, and the highest other machines for throwing smaller
stones, together with smaller catapults. It was manned with 200
soldiers, besides those who moved it by pushing the parallel beams
at the bottom. At the siege of Rhodes, B.C. 306, Demetrius employed
an helepolis of still greater dimensions and more complicated
construction. In subsequent ages we find the name of “helepolis”
applied to moving towers which carried battering rams, as well as
machines for throwing spears and stones.

HELLĀNŎDĬCAE (ἑλλανοδίκαι), the judges in the Olympic games, of whom
an account is given under OLYMPIA. The same name was also given to
the judges or court-martial in the Lacedaemonian army, and they were
probably first called by this name when Sparta was at the head of the
Greek confederacy.

HELLĒNOTĂMĬAE (ἑλληνοταμίαι), or treasurers of the Greeks, were
magistrates appointed by the Athenians to receive the contributions
of the allied states. They were first appointed B.C. 477, when
Athens, in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, had obtained the
command of the allied states. The money paid by the different states,
which was originally fixed at 460 talents, was deposited in Delos,
which was the place of meeting for the discussion of all common
interests; and there can be no doubt that the hellenotamiae not only
received, but were also the guardians of, these monies. The office
was retained after the treasury was transferred to Athens on the
proposal of the Samians, but was of course abolished on the conquest
of Athens by the Lacedaemonians.

HĒLŌTES (εἴλωτες), a class of bondsmen peculiar to Sparta. They were
Achaeans, who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the last, and had
been reduced to slavery as the punishment of their obstinacy. The
Helots were regarded as the property of the state, which, while it
gave their services to individuals, reserved to itself the power of
emancipating them. They were attached to the land, and could not
be sold away from it. They cultivated the land, and paid to their
masters as rent a certain measure of corn, the exact amount of which
had been fixed at a very early period, the raising of that amount
being forbidden under heavy imprecations. Besides being engaged in
the cultivation of the land, the Helots attended on their masters
at the public meal, and many of them were no doubt employed by the
state in public works. In war the Helots served as light-armed troops
(ψίλοι), a certain number of them attending every heavy-armed Spartan
to the field; at the battle of Plataeae there were seven Helots to
each Spartan. These attendants were probably called ἀμπίτταρες(i.e.
ἀμφίσταντες), and one of them in particular, the θεράπων, or
_servant_. The Helots only served as hoplites in particular
emergencies; and on such occasions they were generally emancipated.
The first instance of this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas,
B.C. 424. The treatment to which the Helots were subjected was marked
by the most wanton cruelty; and they were regarded by the Spartans
with the greatest suspicion. Occasionally the ephors selected
young Spartans for the secret service (κρυπτεία) of wandering over
the country, in order to kill the Helots. The Helots might be
emancipated, but there were several steps between them and the free
citizens, and it is doubtful whether they were ever admitted to all
the privileges of citizenship. The following classes of emancipated
Helots are enumerated:--ἀφεταί, ἀδεσπότοι, ἐρυκτῆρες, δεσποσιοναύται,
and νεοδαμώδεις. Of these the ἀφεταί were probably released from all
service; the ἐρυκτῆρες were those employed in war; the δεσποσιοναύται
served on board the fleet; and the νεοδαμώδεις were those who had
been possessed of freedom for some time. Besides these, there were
the μόθωνες or μόθακες, who were domestic slaves, brought up with the
young Spartans, and then emancipated. Upon being emancipated they
received permission to dwell where they wished.

HĒMĔRŎDRŎMI (ἡμεροδρόμοι), couriers in the Greek states, who could
keep on running all day, and were often employed to carry news of
important events. They were trained for the purpose, and could
perform the longest journeys in an almost incredibly short space
of time. Such couriers were in times of danger stationed on some
eminence in order to observe anything of importance that might
happen, and carry the intelligence with speed to the proper quarter.
Hence we frequently find them called _Hemeroscopi_ (ἡμεροσκόποι).

HĒMĬCYCLĬUM (ἡμικύκλιον), a semicircular seat, for the accommodation
of persons engaged in conversation; also the semicircular seat round
the tribunal in a basilica.

HĒMĬNA (ἡμίνα), the name of a Greek and Roman measure, seems to
be nothing more than the dialectic form used by the Sicilian and
Italian Greeks for ἡμίσυ. It was therefore applied to the half of the
standard fluid measure, the ξέστης, which the other Greeks called
κοτύλη, and the word passed into the Roman metrical system, where it
is used with exactly the same force, namely for a measure which is
half of the _sextarius_, and equal to the Greek _cotylé_.

HENDĔCA (οἱ ἕνδεκα), the Eleven, were magistrates at Athens of
considerable importance. They were annually chosen by lot, one from
each of the ten tribes, and a secretary (γραμματεύς), who must
properly be regarded as their servant (ὑπηρέτης), though he formed
one of their number. The principal duty of the Eleven was the care
and management of the public prison (δεσμωτήριον), which was entirely
under their jurisdiction. The prison, however, was seldom used by
the Athenians as a mere place of confinement, serving generally for
punishments and executions. When a person was condemned to death he
was immediately given into the custody of the Eleven, who were then
bound to carry the sentence into execution according to the laws.
The most common mode of execution was by hemlock juice (κώνειον),
which was drunk after sunset. The Eleven had under them gaolers,
executioners, and torturers. When torture was inflicted in causes
affecting the state, it was either done in the immediate presence
of the Eleven, or by their servant (ὁ δήμιος). The Eleven usually
had only to carry into execution the sentence passed in the courts
of law and the public assemblies; but in some cases they possessed
jurisdiction. This was the case in those summary proceedings called
_apagoge_, _ephegesis_ and _endeixis_, in which the penalty was
fixed by law, and might be inflicted by the court on the confession
or conviction of the accused, without appealing to any of the jury
courts.

HĒPHAESTEIA. [LAMPADEPHORIA.]

HĒRAEA (ἡραῖα), the name of festivals celebrated in honour of Hera
in all the towns of Greece where the worship of this divinity was
introduced. The original seat of her worship was Argos; whence her
festivals in other places were, more or less, imitations of those
which were celebrated at Argos. Her service was performed by the
most distinguished priestesses of the place; one of them was the
high-priestess, and the Argives counted their years by the date of
her office. The Heraea of Argos were celebrated every fifth year.
One of the great solemnities which took place on the occasion, was
a magnificent procession to the great temple of Hera, between Argos
and Mycenae. A vast number of young men assembled at Argos, and
marched in armour to the temple of the goddess. They were preceded
by one hundred oxen (ἑκατόμβη, whence the festival is also called
ἑκατόμβαια). The high-priestess accompanied this procession, riding
in a chariot drawn by two white oxen. The 100 oxen were sacrificed,
and their flesh distributed among all the citizens; after which
games and contests took place. Of the Heraea celebrated in other
countries, those of Samos, which island derived the worship of Hera
from Argos, were perhaps the most brilliant of all the festivals
of this divinity. The Heraea of Elis, which were celebrated in the
fourth year of every Olympiad, were also conducted with considerable
splendour.

HĒRES.--(1) GREEK. To obtain the right of inheritance as well as
citizenship at Athens (ἀγχιστεία and πολιτεία), legitimacy was a
necessary qualification. When an Athenian died leaving legitimate
sons, they shared the inheritance, like our heirs in gavelkind; the
only advantage possessed by the eldest son being the first choice
in the division. Every man of full age and sound mind, not under
durance or improper influence, was competent to make a will; but if
he had a son he could not disinherit him, although his will might
take effect in case the son did not complete his seventeenth year.
If there was but one son, he took the whole estate; but if he had
sisters, it was incumbent on him to provide for them, and give them
suitable marriage portions; they were then called ἐπίπροικοι. On
failure of sons and their issue, daughters and daughters’ children
succeeded, and there seems to have been no limit to the succession in
the descending line. It will assist the student to be informed, that
ἀνεψιός signifies a first cousin. Ἀνεψιαδοῦς is a first cousin’s son;
formed in the same manner as ἀδελφιδοῦς from ἀδελφός, and θυγατριδοῦς
from θυγατήρ. Κλῆρος is the subject-matter of inheritance, or (in one
sense of the word) the inheritance; κληρόνομος the heir. Ἀγχιστεία,
proximity of blood in reference to succession, and sometimes right of
succession. Συγγένεια, natural consanguinity. Συγγενεῖς, collateral
relations, are opposed to ἔκγονοι, lineal descendants.--(2) ROMAN. A
person might become an heres by being named as such (_institutus_,
_scriptus_, _factus_) in a will executed by a competent person,
according to the forms required by law [TESTAMENTUM]. The testator
might either name one person as heres, or he might name several
heredes (_coheredes_), and he might divide the hereditas among
them as he pleased. The shares of the heredes were generally
expressed by reference to the divisions of the As: thus, “heres ex
asse” is heres to the whole property; “heres ex dodrante,” heres
to three-fourths; “heres ex semuncia,” heir to one twenty-fourth.
If there were several heredes named, without any definite shares
being given to them, the property belonged to them in equal shares.
As a general rule, only Roman citizens could be named as heredes
in the will of a Roman citizen; but a slave could also be named
heres, though he had no power to make a will, and a filius-familias
could also be named heres, though he was under the same incapacity.
Persons, not Roman citizens, who had received the commercium, could
take hereditates, legata and fideicommissa by testament.--Heredes
were either Necessarii, Sui et Necessarii, or Extranei. The heres
necessarius was a slave of the testator, who was made an heres and
liber at the same time; and he was called necessarius, because of
the necessity that he was under of accepting the hereditas. The
heredes sui et necessarii were sons and daughters, and the sons
and daughters of a son, who were in the power of a testator. These
heredes sui were called necessarii, because of the necessity that
they were under, according to the civil law, of taking the hereditas
with its incumbrances. But the praetor permitted such persons to
refuse the hereditas (_abstinere se ab hereditate_), and to allow
the property to be sold to pay the testator’s debts; and he gave the
same privilege to a mancipated son (_qui in causa mancipii est_). All
other heredes are called extranei, and comprehend all persons who
are not in the power of a testator, such as emancipated children. A
certain time was allowed to extranei for the _cretio hereditatis_,
that is, for them to determine whether they would take the hereditas
or not: hence the phrase, “cernere hereditatem.”--If a man died
intestate, the hereditas came to the heredes sui, and was then called
_legitima hereditas_. If an intestate had no sui heredes, the Twelve
Tables gave the hereditas to the agnati [COGNATI], and if there were
no agnati, to the gentiles. If a man had a son in his power, he was
bound either to make him heres, or to exheredate (_exheredare_) him
expressly (_nominatim_). If he passed him over in silence (_silentio
praetericrit_), the will was altogether void (_inutile_, _non jure
factum_). Other liberi could be passed over, and the will would
still be a valid will; but the liberi so passed over took a certain
portion of the hereditas _adcrescendo_, as it was termed, or _jure
adcrescendi_. It was necessary either to institute as heredes, or
to exheredate posthumous children _nominatim_, otherwise the will,
which was originally valid, became invalid (_ruptum_); and the will
became invalid by the birth either of a posthumous son or daughter,
or, as the phrase was, _adgnascendo rumpitur testamentum_. The heres
represented the testator and intestate, and had not only a claim to
all his property and all that was due to him, but was bound by all
his obligations. He succeeded to the sacra privata, and was bound
to maintain them, but only in respect of the property, for the
obligation of the sacra privata was attached to property and to the
heres only as the owner of it. Hence the expression “sine sacris
hereditas” meant an hereditas unencumbered with sacra.

HERMAE (ἑρμαῖ), and the diminutive Hermuli (ἑρμίδια), statues
composed of a head, usually that of the god Hermes, placed on a
quadrangular pillar, the height of which corresponds to the stature
of the human body. Such statues were very numerous at Athens. So
great was the demand for these works that the words ἑρμογλύφος,
ἑρμογλυφικὴ τέχνη, and ἑρμογλυφεῖον, were used as the generic terms
for a sculptor, his art, and his studio. Houses in Athens had one of
these statues placed at the door, called ἑρμῆς στροφαῖος or στροφεύς;
and sometimes also in the peristyle. The great reverence attached to
them is shown by the alarm and indignation which were felt at Athens
in consequence of the mutilation of the whole number in a single
night, just before the sailing of the Sicilian expedition. They were
likewise placed in front of temples, near to tombs, in the gymnasia,
palaestrae, libraries, porticoes, and public places, at the corners
of streets, on high roads as sign-posts, with distances inscribed
upon them, and on the boundaries of lands and states, and at the
gates of cities. Small Hermae were also used as pilasters, and as
supports for furniture and utensils. Many statues existed of other
deities, of the same form as the Hermae; which no doubt originated
in the same manner; and which were still called by the generic name
of _Hermae_; even though the bust upon them was that of another
deity. Some statues of this kind are described by a name compounded
of that of Hermes and another divinity: thus we have _Hermanubis_,
_Hermares_, _Hermathena_, _Hermeracles_, _Hermeros_, _Hermopan_.
There is another class of these works, in which the bust represented
no deity at all, but was simply the portrait of a man. Even these
statues, however, retained the names of _Hermae_ and _Termini_. The
Hermae were used by the wealthy Romans for the decoration of their
houses. The following engraving exhibits a Hermes decorated with
garlands and surrounded with the implements of his worship.

[Illustration: Hermes. (From a Bas-relief.)]

HERMAEA (ἕρμαια), festivals of Hermes, celebrated in various parts
of Greece. As Hermes was the tutelary deity of the gymnasia and
palaestrae, the boys at Athens celebrated the Hermaea in the gymnasia.

HESTIĀSIS (ἑστίασις), was a species of liturgy, and consisted in
giving a feast to one of the tribes at Athens (τὴν φυλὴν ἑστιᾶν). It
was provided for each tribe at the expense of a person belonging to
that tribe, who was called ἑστιάτωρ.

HĬĔRODŪLI (ἱερόδουλοι), persons of both sexes, who were devoted like
slaves to the worship of the gods. They were of Eastern origin, and
are most frequently met with in connection with the worship of the
deities of Syria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. They consisted of two
classes; one composed of slaves, properly so called, who attended
to all the lower duties connected with the worship of the gods,
cultivated the sacred lands, &c., and whose descendants continued
in the same servile condition; and the other comprising persons who
were personally free, but had dedicated themselves as slaves to the
gods, and who were either attached to the temples, or were dispersed
throughout the country and brought to the gods the money they had
gained. To the latter class belonged the women, who prostituted their
persons, and presented to the gods the money they had obtained by
this means. This class was only found in Greece, in connection with
the worship of those divinities who were of Eastern origin, or whose
religious rites were borrowed from the East. This was the case with
Aphrodite (Venus), who was originally an Oriental goddess.

HĬĔRŎMNĒMŎNES (ἱερομνήμονες), the more honourable of the two classes
of representatives who composed the Amphictyonic council. An account
of them is given under AMPHICTYONES.--We also read of hieromnemones
in Grecian states, distinct from the Amphictyonic representatives
of this name. Thus the priests of Poseidon, at Megara, were called
hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, which was a colony of Megara, the
chief magistrate in the state appears to have been called by this
name.

HĬĔRŎNĪCAE. [ATHLETAE.]

HĬĔRŎPOII (ἱεροποιοί), sacrificers at Athens, of whom ten were
appointed every year, and conducted all the usual sacrifices, as well
as those belonging to the quinquennial festivals, with the exception
of those of the Panathenaea.

HĬLĂRĬA (ἱλάρια), a Roman festival, celebrated on the 25th of March,
in honour of Cybelé, the mother of the gods.

HIPPŎBŎTAE (ἱπποβόται), the feeders of horses, the name of the
nobility of Chalcis in Euboea, corresponding to the ἱππεῖς in other
Greek states.

HIPPŎDRŎMUS (ἱππόδρομος), the name by which the Greeks designated
the place appropriated to the horse-races, both of chariots and of
single horses, which formed a part of their games. The word was also
applied to the races themselves. In Homer’s vivid description (_Il._
xxiii., 262-650) the nature of the contest and the arrangements for
it are very clearly indicated. There is no artificially constructed
hippodrome; but an existing land-mark or monument (σῆμα) is chosen
as the goal (τέρμα), round which the chariots had to pass, leaving
it on the left hand, and so returning to the Greek ships on the
sea-shore, from which they had started. The chariots were five in
number, each with two horses and a single driver, who stood upright
in his chariot. The critical point of the race was to turn the goal
as sharp as possible, with the nave of the near wheel almost grazing
it, and to do this safely: very often the driver was here thrown out,
and the chariot broken in pieces. The account in Homer will give us
an equally good idea of a chariot-race at Olympia, or in any other of
the Greek games of later times. The general form of the hippodrome
was an oblong, with a semicircular end. For an account of the chariot
races at Rome see CIRCUS.

HISTRĬO (ὑποκριτής), an actor.--(1) GREEK. It is shown in the
articles CHORUS and DIONYSIA that the Greek drama originated in the
chorus which at the festivals of Dionysus danced around his altar,
and that at first one person detached himself from the chorus, and,
with mimic gesticulation, related his story either to the chorus
or in conversation with it. If the story thus acted required more
than one person, they were all represented in succession by the same
actor, and there was never more than one person on the stage at a
time. This custom was retained by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus
introduced a second and a third actor; and the number of three
actors was but seldom exceeded in any Greek drama. The three regular
actors were distinguished by the technical names of πρωταγωνιστής,
δευτεραγωνιστής, and τριταγωνιστής, which indicated the more or
less prominent part which an actor had to perform in the drama. The
female characters of a play were always performed by young men.
A distinct class of persons, who made acting on the stage their
profession, was unknown to the Greeks during the period of their
great dramatists. The earliest and greatest dramatic poets, Thespis,
Sophocles, and probably Aeschylus also, acted in their own plays, and
in all probability as protagonistae. It was not thought degrading
in Greece to perform on the stage. At a later period persons began
to devote themselves exclusively to the profession of actors, and
distinguished individuals received even as early as the time of
Demosthenes exorbitant sums for their performances.--(2) ROMAN. The
word _histrio_, by which the Roman actor was called, is said to have
been formed from the Etruscan _hister_, which signified a ludio or
dancer. In the year 364 B.C. Rome was visited by a plague, and as
no human means could stop it, the Romans are said to have tried to
avert the anger of the gods by scenic plays (_ludi scenici_), which,
until then, had been unknown to them; and as there were no persons at
Rome prepared for such performances, the Romans sent to Etruria for
them. The first histriones, who were thus introduced from Etruria,
were dancers, and performed their movements to the accompaniment of
a flute. Roman youths afterwards not only imitated these dancers,
but also recited rude and jocose verses, adapted to the movements
of the dance and the melody of the flute. This kind of amusement,
which was the basis of the Roman drama, remained unaltered until the
time of Livius Andronicus, who introduced a slave upon the stage for
the purpose of singing or reciting the recitative, while he himself
performed the appropriate dance and gesticulation. A further step in
the development of the drama, which is likewise ascribed to Livius,
was, that the dancer and reciter carried on a dialogue, and acted a
story with the accompaniment of the flute. The name histrio, which
originally signified a dancer, was now applied to the actors in
the drama. The atellanae were played by freeborn Romans, while the
regular drama was left to the histriones, who formed a distinct class
of persons. The histriones were not citizens; they were not contained
in the tribes, nor allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the Roman
legions; and if any citizen entered the profession of an histrio, he,
on this account, was excluded from his tribe. The histriones were
therefore always either freedmen, strangers, or slaves, and many
passages of Roman writers show that they were generally held in great
contempt. Towards the close of the republic it was only such men as
Cicero, who, by their Greek education, raised themselves above the
prejudices of their countrymen, and valued the person no less than
the talents of an Aesopus and a Roscius. But notwithstanding this
low estimation in which actors were generally held, distinguished
individuals among them attracted immense crowds to the theatres, and
were exorbitantly paid. Roscius alone received every day that he
performed one thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son a fortune of
200,000 sesterces, which he had acquired solely by his profession.
The pay of the actors was called _lucar_, which word was perhaps
confined originally to the payment made to those who took part in the
religious services celebrated in groves.

HŎMOEI (ὅμοιοι), the Equals, were those Spartans who possessed the
full rights of citizenship, and are opposed to the ὑπομείονες,
or those who had undergone some kind of civil degradation. This
distinction between the citizens was no part of the ancient Spartan
constitution. In the institution ascribed to Lycurgus, every
citizen had a certain portion of land; but as in course of time
many citizens lost their lands through various causes, they were
unable to contribute to the expenses of the syssitia, and therefore
ceased to possess the full rights of Spartan citizens. Hence the
distinction appears to have arisen between the ὅμοιοι and ὑπομείονες,
the former being those who were in the possession of their land,
and consequently able to contribute to the syssitia, the latter
those who through having no land were unable to do so. The Homoei
were the ruling class in the state. They filled all the public
offices with the exception of the Ephoralty, and they probably met
together to determine upon public affairs under the name of ἔκκλητοι
in an assembly of their own, which is called ἡ μικρὰ ἐκκλησία,
to distinguish it from the assembly of the whole body of Spartan
citizens.

HŎNŌRES, the high offices of the state to which qualified individuals
were called by the votes of the Roman citizens. The words
“magistratus” and “honores” are sometimes coupled together. The
capacity of enjoying the honores was one of the distinguishing marks
of citizenship. [CIVITAS.] _Honor_ was distinguished from _munus_.
The latter was an office connected with the administration of the
state, and was attended with cost (_sumptus_) but not with rank
(_dignitas_). Honor was properly said _deferri, dari_; munus was said
_imponi_. A person who held a magistrates might be said to discharge
_munera_, but only as incident to the office, for the office itself
was the _honor_. Such munera as these were public games and other
things of the kind.

HOPLĪTAE. [EXERCITUS.]

HŌRA. [DIES.]

HŌRŎLŎGĬUM (ὡρολόγιον), the name of the various instruments by means
of which the ancients measured the time of the day and night. The
earliest and simplest horologia of which mention is made, were called
_polos_ (πόλος) and _gnomon_ (γνώμων). Both divided the day into
twelve equal parts, and were a kind of sun-dial. The _gnomon_, which
was also called _stoicheion_ (στοιχεῖον), was the more simple of the
two, and probably the more ancient. It consisted of a staff or pillar
standing perpendicular, in a place exposed to the sun (σκιάθηρον),
so that the length of its shadow might be easily ascertained. The
shadow of the gnomon was measured by feet, which were probably marked
on the place where the shadow fell. In later times the name gnomon
was applied to any kind of sun-dial, especially to its finger which
threw the shadow, and thus pointed to the hour. The _polos_ or
_heliotropion_ (ἡλιοτρόπιον), on the other hand, seems to have been a
more perfect kind of sun-dial; but it appears, nevertheless, not to
have been much used. It consisted of a basin (λεκανίς), in the middle
of which the perpendicular staff or finger (γνώμων) was erected, and
in it the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines.--Another
kind of horologium, was the _clepsydra_ (κλεψύδρα). It derived its
name from κλέπτειν and ὕδωρ, as in its original and simple form it
consisted of a vessel with several little openings (τρυπήματα) at
the bottom, through which the water contained in it escaped, as it
were by stealth. This instrument seems at first to have been used
only for the purpose of measuring the time during which persons were
allowed to speak in the courts of justice at Athens. It was a hollow
globe, probably somewhat flat at the top-part, where it had a short
neck (αὐλός), like that of a bottle, through which the water was
poured into it. This opening might be closed by a lid or stopper
(πῶμα), to prevent the water running out at the bottom. As the time
for speaking in the Athenian courts was thus measured by water, the
orators frequently use the term ὕδωρ instead of the time allowed to
them. An especial officer (ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ) was appointed in the courts
for the purpose of watching the clepsydra, and stopping it when any
documents were read, whereby the speaker was interrupted. The time,
and consequently the quantity of water allowed to a speaker, depended
upon the importance of the case. The clepsydra used, in the courts of
justice was, properly speaking, no horologium; but smaller ones, made
of glass, and of the same simple structure, were undoubtedly used
very early in families for the purposes of ordinary life, and for
dividing the day into twelve equal parts. In these glass-clepsydrae
the division into twelve parts must have been visible, either on the
glass globe itself, or in the basin into which the water flowed.--The
first horologium with which the Romans became acquainted was a
sun-dial (_solarium_ or _horologium sciothericum_), and was said to
have been brought to Rome by Papirius Cursor twelve years before the
war with Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless when the sky was
cloudy, P. Scipio Nasica, in his censorship, 159 B.C., established a
public clepsydra, which indicated the hours both of day and night.
This clepsydra was in after times generally called solarium. After
the time of Scipio Nasica several horologia, chiefly solaria, seem
to have been erected in various public places at Rome. Clepsydrae
were used by the Romans in their camps, chiefly for the purpose of
measuring accurately the four vigiliae into which the night was
divided. The custom of using clepsydrae as a check upon the speakers
in the courts of justice at Rome, was introduced by a law of Cn.
Pompeius, in his third consulship. Before that time the speakers had
been under no restrictions, but spoke as long as they deemed proper.
At Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to the speakers depended upon
the importance of the case.

HORRĔUM (ὡρεῖον, σιτοφυλακεῖον, ἀποθήκη) was, according to its
etymological signification, a place in which ripe fruits, and
especially corn, were kept, and thus answered to our granary. During
the empire the name horreum was given to any place destined for the
safe preservation of things of any kind. Thus we find it applied
to a place in which beautiful works of art were kept, to cellars
(_horrea subterranea_, _horrea vinaria_), to depôts for merchandise,
and all sorts of provisions (_horreum penarium_). Seneca even calls
his library a horreum. But the more general application of the word
horreum was to places for keeping fruit and corn; and as some kinds
of fruit required to be kept more dry than others, the ancients had
besides the horrea subterranea, or cellars, two other kinds, one of
which was built like every other house upon the ground; but others
(_horrea pensilia_ or _sublimia_) were erected above the ground,
and rested upon posts or stone pillars, that the fruits kept in
them might remain dry.--From about the year 140 after Christ, Rome
possessed two kinds of public horrea. The one class consisted of
buildings in which the Romans might deposit their goods, and even
their money, securities, and other valuables. The second and more
important class of horrea, which may be termed public granaries, were
buildings in which a plentiful supply of corn was constantly kept at
the expense of the state, and from which, in seasons of scarcity, the
corn was distributed among the poor, or sold at a moderate price.

HORTUS (κῆπος), garden. Our knowledge of the horticulture of the
Greeks is very limited. In fact the Greeks seem to have had no
great taste for landscape beauties, and the small number of flowers
with which they were acquainted afforded but little inducement to
ornamental horticulture. At Athens the flowers most cultivated
were probably those used for making garlands, such as violets and
roses. In the time of the Ptolemies the art of gardening seems to
have advanced in the favourable climate of Egypt so far, that a
succession of flowers was obtained all the year round. The Romans,
like the Greeks, laboured under the disadvantage of a very limited
flora. This disadvantage they endeavoured to overcome, by arranging
the materials they did possess in such a way as to produce a striking
effect. We have a very full description of a Roman garden in a letter
of the younger Pliny, in which he describes his Tuscan villa. In
front of the _porticus_ there was generally a _xystus_, or flat piece
of ground, divided into flower-beds of different shapes by borders
of box. There were also such flower-beds in other parts of the
garden. Sometimes they were raised so as to form terraces, and their
sloping sides planted with evergreens or creepers. The most striking
features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees, among which
the plane appears to have been a great favourite, planted in regular
order; alleys or walks (_ambulationes_) formed by closely clipped
hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other evergreens; beds of acanthus,
rows of fruit-trees, especially of vines, with statues, pyramids,
fountains, and summer-houses (_diaetae_). The trunks of the trees
and the parts of the house or any other buildings which were visible
from the garden, were often covered with ivy. In one respect the
Roman taste differed most materially from that of the present day,
namely, in their fondness for the _ars topiaria_, which consisted in
tying, twisting, or cutting trees and shrubs (especially the box)
into the figures of animals, ships, letters, &c. Their principal
garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they also
had the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth,
and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned
by Martial. Flowers and plants were also kept in the central place
of the peristyle [DOMUS], on the roofs and in the windows of houses.
An ornamental garden was also called _viridarium_, and the gardener
_topiarius_ or _viridarius_. The common name for a gardener is
villicus or cultor hortorum.

[Illustration: Hortus, Garden. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]

HOSPĬTĬUM (ξενία, προξενία), hospitality, was in Greece, as well as
at Rome, of a two-fold nature, either private or public, in so far as
it was either established between individuals, or between two states.
(_Hospitium privatum_ and _hospitium publicum_, ξενία and προξενία.)
In ancient Greece the stranger, as such (ξένος and _hostis_), was
looked upon as an enemy; but whenever he appeared among another tribe
or nation without any sign of hostile intentions, he was considered
not only as one who required aid, but as a suppliant, and Zeus was
the protecting deity of strangers and suppliants (Ζεὺς ξένιος).
On his arrival, therefore, the stranger was kindly received, and
provided with every thing necessary to make him comfortable. It
seems to have been customary for the host, on the departure of the
stranger, to break a die (ἀστράγαλος) in two, one half of which he
himself retained, while the other half was given to the stranger;
and when at any future time they or their descendants met, they had
a means of recognising each other, and the hospitable connection was
renewed. Hospitality thus not only existed between the persons who
had originally formed it, but was transferred as an inheritance from
father to son. What has been said hitherto, only refers to _hospitium
privatum_; but of far greater importance was the _hospitium publicum_
(προξενία, sometimes simply ξενία) or public hospitality, which
existed between two states, or between an individual or a family on
the one hand, and a whole state on the other. Of the latter kind of
public hospitality many instances are recorded, such as that between
the Peisistratids and Sparta, in which the people of Athens had no
share. The hospitium publicum among the Greeks arose undoubtedly from
the hospitium privatum, and it may have originated in two ways. When
the Greek tribes were governed by chieftains or kings, the private
hospitality existing between the ruling families of two tribes may
have produced similar relations between their subjects, which, after
the abolition of the kingly power, continued to exist between the new
republics as a kind of political inheritance of former times. Or a
person belonging to one state might have either extensive connections
with the citizens of another state, or entertain great partiality
for the other state itself, and thus offer to receive all those who
came from that state either on private or public business, and to
act as their patron in his own city. This he at first did merely
as a private individual, but the state to which he offered this
kind service would naturally soon recognise and reward him for it.
When two states established public hospitality, and no individuals
came forward to act as the representatives of their state, it was
necessary that in each state persons should be appointed to show
hospitality to, and watch over the interests of, all persons who
came from the state connected by hospitality. The persons who were
appointed to this office as the recognised agents of the state
for which they acted were called _proxeni_ (πρόξενοι), but those
who undertook it voluntarily _etheloproxeni_ (ἐθελοπρόξενοι). The
office of _proxenus_, which bears great resemblance to that of a
modern consul or minister-resident, was in some cases hereditary in
a particular family. When a state appointed a proxenus, it either
sent out one of its own citizens to reside in the other state, or it
selected one of the citizens of this state, and conferred upon him
the honour of proxenus. The former was, in early times, the custom
of Sparta, where the kings had the right of selecting from among the
Spartan citizens those whom they wished to send out as proxeni to
other states. But in subsequent times this custom seems to have been
given up, for we find that at Athens the family of Callias were the
proxeni of Sparta, and at Argos, the Argive Alciphron. The principal
duties of a proxenus were to receive those persons, especially
ambassadors, who came from the state which he represented; to procure
for them admission to the assembly, and seats in the theatre; to
act as the patron of the strangers, and to mediate between the two
states if any disputes arose. If a stranger died in the state, the
proxenus of his country had to take care of the property of the
deceased.--The hospitality of the Romans was, as in Greece, either
hospitium privatum or publicum. Private hospitality with the Romans,
however, seems to have been more accurately and legally defined than
in Greece. The character of a _hospes_, _i.e._ a person connected with
a Roman by ties of hospitality, was deemed even more sacred, and to
have greater claims upon the host, than that of a person connected by
blood or affinity. The relation of a hospes to his Roman friend was
next in importance to that of a cliens. The obligations which the
connection of hospitality with a foreigner imposed upon a Roman, were
to receive in his house his hospes when travelling; and to protect,
and, in case of need, to represent him as his patron in the courts of
justice. Private hospitality thus gave to the hospes the claims upon
his host which the client had on his patron, but without any degree
of the dependence implied in the clientele. Private hospitality
was established between individuals by mutual presents, or by the
mediation of a third person, and hallowed by religion; for Jupiter
hospitalis was thought to watch over the jus hospitii, as Zeus xenios
did with the Greeks, and the violation of it was as great a crime and
impiety at Rome as in Greece. When hospitality was formed, the two
friends used to divide between themselves a _tessera hospitalis_,
by which, afterwards, they themselves or their descendants--for the
connection was hereditary as in Greece--might recognise one another.
Hospitality, when thus once established, could not be dissolved
except by a formal declaration (_renuntiatio_), and in this case the
tessera hospitalis was broken to pieces. Public hospitality seems
likewise to have existed at a very early period among the nations
of Italy; but the first direct mention of public hospitality being
established between Rome and another city, is after the Gauls had
departed from Rome, when it was decreed that Caere should be rewarded
for its good services by the establishment of public hospitality
between the two cities. The public hospitality after the war with the
Gauls gave to the Caerites the right of isopolity with Rome, that is,
the civitas without the suffragium and the honores. [COLONIA.] In
the later times of the republic we no longer find public hospitality
established between Rome and a foreign state; but a relation which
amounted to the same thing was introduced in its stead, that is,
towns were raised to the rank of municipia, and thus obtained the
civitas without the suffragium and the honores; and when a town was
desirous of forming a similar relation with Rome, it entered into
clientela to some distinguished Roman, who then acted as patron of
the client-town. But the custom of granting the honour of hospes
publicus to a distinguished foreigner by a decree of the senate,
seems to have existed down to the end of the republic. His privileges
were the same as those of a municeps, that is, he had the civitas,
but not the suffragium or the honores. Public hospitality was, like
the hospitium privatum, hereditary in the family of the person to
whom it had been granted.

HỸĂCINTHĬA (ὑακίνθια), a great national festival, celebrated every
year at Amyclae by the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in honour of
the Amyclaean Apollo and Hyacinthus together. This Amyclaean Apollo,
however, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated in later times, must
not be confounded with Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians.
The festival was called after the youthful hero Hyacinthus, who
evidently derived his name from the flower hyacinth (the emblem of
death among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo accidentally struck
dead with a quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days, and began
on the longest day of the Spartan month Hecatombeus, at the time
when the tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of the sun, drooped
their languid heads. On the first and last day of the Hyacinthia
sacrifices were offered to the dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was
lamented. During these two days, nobody wore any garlands at the
repasts, nor took bread, but only cakes and similar things, and when
the solemn repasts were over, everybody went home in the greatest
quiet and order. The second day, however, was wholly spent in public
rejoicings and amusements, such as horse-races, dances, processions,
&c. The great importance attached to this festival by the Amyclaeans
and Lacedaemonians is seen from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even
when they had taken the field against an enemy, always returned home
on the approach of the season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not
be obliged to neglect its celebration; and that in a treaty with
Sparta, B.C. 421, the Athenians, in order to show their good-will
towards Sparta, promised every year to attend the celebration of this
festival.

HYBRĔŌS GRĂPHĒ (ὕβρεως γραφή), an action prescribed by the Attic law
for wanton and contumelious injury to the person, whether in the
nature of indecent (δι’ αἰσχρουργίας) or other assaults (διὰ πληγῶν).
The severity of the sentence extended to confiscation or death.

HYDRAULIS (ὕδραυλις), an hydraulic organ, invented by Ctesibius
of Alexandria, who lived about B.C. 200. Its pipes were partly of
bronze, and partly of reed. The number of its stops, and consequently
of its rows of pipes, varied from one to eight. It continued in use
so late as the ninth century of our era. The organ was well adapted
to gratify the Roman people in the splendid entertainments provided
for them by the emperors and other opulent persons. Nero was very
curious about organs, both in regard to their musical effect and
their mechanism. A contorniate coin of this emperor, in the British
Museum, shows an organ with a sprig of laurel on one side, and a man
standing on the other.

[Illustration: Hydraulis, water-organ. (Coin of Nero in British
Museum.)]

HYDRĬAPHŎRĬA (ὑδριαφορία), was the carrying of a vessel with water
(ὑδρία), which service the married alien (μέτοικοι) women had to
perform to the married part of the female citizens of Athens, when
they walked to the temple of Athena in the great procession at the
Panathenaea.

HỸPORCHĒMA (ὑπόρχημα), a lively kind of mimic dance which accompanied
the songs used in the worship of Apollo, especially among the
Dorians. A chorus of singers at the festivals of Apollo usually
danced around the altar, while several other persons were appointed
to accompany the action of the song with an appropriate mimic
performance (ὑπορχεῖσθαι). The hyporchema was thus a lyric dance, and
often passed into the playful and comic.

IDUS. [CALENDARIUM.]

IGNŌMĬNĬA. [CENSOR; INFAMIA.]

IGNŌBĬLES. [NOBILES.]

ĬMĀGO, a representation or likeness, an image or figure of a person.
Among the Romans those persons, who had filled any of the higher or
curule magistracies of the state, had the right of having images of
themselves. Respecting this _jus imaginum_ see NOBILES.

IMMŪNĬTAS (from _in_ and _munus_), signifies, (1) A freedom from
taxes. (2) A freedom from services which other citizens had to
discharge. With respect to the first kind of immunitas we find that
the emperors frequently granted it to separate persons, or to certain
classes of persons, or to whole states. The second kind of immunitas
was granted to all persons who had a valid excuse (_excusatio_)
to be released from such, services, and also to other persons as
a special favour. The immunitas might be either general, from all
services which a citizen owed to the state, or special, such as from
military service, from taking the office of tutor or guardian, and
the like.

IMPĔRĀTOR. [IMPERIUM.]

IMPĔRĬUM, was under the republic a power, without which no military
operation could be carried on as in the name and on the behalf of the
state. It was not incident to any office, and was always specially
conferred by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed in the comitia
curiata. Consequently, not even a consul could act as commander of
an army, unless he were empowered by a lex curiata. It could not be
held or exercised within the city in the republican period; but it
was sometimes conferred specially upon an individual for the day
of his triumph within the city, and at least, in some cases, by a
plebiscitum. As opposed to _potestas, imperium_ is the power which
was conferred by the state upon an individual who was appointed to
command an army. The phrases _consularis potestas_ and _consulare
imperium_ might both be properly used; but the expression _tribunitia
potestas_ only could be used, as the tribuni never received the
imperium. In respect of his imperium, he who received it was styled
_imperator_. After a victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute
their commander as imperator, but this salutation neither gave nor
confirmed the title, since the title as a matter of course was given
with the imperium. Under the republic the title came properly after
the name; thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Cilicia, could
properly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Imperator, for the term
merely expressed that he had the imperium. The emperors Tiberius and
Claudius refused to assume the praenomen of imperator, but the use
of it as a praenomen became established among their successors. The
term imperium was applied in the republican period to express the
sovereignty of the Roman state. Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have
come under the imperium and ditio of the populus Romanus.

IMPLŬVĬUM. [DOMUS.]

IMPŪBES. An infans was incapable of doing any legal act. An impubes,
who had passed the limits of infantia, could do any legal act with
the auctoritas of his tutor. With the attainment of pubertas, a
person obtained the full power over his property, and the tutela
ceased: he could also dispose of his property by will; and he could
contract marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a male, was attained
with the completion of the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the
completion of the twelfth year. Upon attaining the age of puberty a
Roman youth assumed the toga virilis, but until that time he wore the
toga praetexta, the broad purple hem of which (_praetexta_) at once
distinguished him from other persons. The toga virilis was assumed
at the Liberalia in the month of March, and though no age appears to
have been positively fixed for the ceremony, it probably took place
as a general rule on the feast which next followed the completion of
the fourteenth year; though it is certain that the completion of the
fourteenth year was not always the time observed. Still, so long as a
male wore the praetexta, he was impubes, and when he assumed the toga
virilis, he was pubes.

INAUGŬRĀTĬO, was in general the ceremony by which the augurs
obtained, or endeavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods to
something which had been decreed by man; in particular, however,
it was the ceremony by which things or persons were consecrated
to the gods, whence the terms _dedicatio_ and _consecratio_ were
sometimes used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not only were priests
inaugurated, but also the higher magistrates, who for this purpose
were summoned by the augurs to appear on the capitol, on the third
day after their election. This inauguratio conferred no priestly
dignity upon the magistrates, but was merely a method of obtaining
the sanction of the gods to their election, and gave them the right
to take auspicia; and on important emergencies it was their duty to
make use of this privilege.

INAURIS, an ear-ring; called in Greek ἐνώτιον, because it was worn in
the ear (οὗς), and ἐλλόβιον, because it was inserted into the lobe
of the ear (λοβός), which was bored for the purpose. Ear-rings were
worn by both sexes in oriental countries. Among the Greeks and Romans
they were worn only by females. This ornament consisted of the ring
(κρίκος), and of the drops (_stalagmia_). The ring was generally
of gold, although the common people also wore ear-rings of bronze.
Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The drops were sometimes of
gold, very finely wrought, and sometimes of pearls.

INCENDĬUM, the crime of setting any object on fire, by which
the property of a man is endangered. A law of the Twelve Tables
inflicted a severe punishment on the person who set fire to property
maliciously (_sciens_, _prudens_); but if it was done by accident
(_casu_, _id est_, _negligentia_), the law obliged the offender to
repair the injury he had committed. Sulla, in his _Lex Cornelia
de Sicariis_, punished malicious (_dolo malo_) incendium, but only
in the city, or within a thousand paces of it, with aquae et ignis
interdictio. Cn. Pompeius, in B.C. 52, made incendium a crime of
_Vis_ by his _Lex Pompeia de Vi_, in consequence of the burning of
the Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial of Clodius; and
Julius Caesar also included it in his _Lex Julia de Vi_. Besides the
two criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cornelia and Lex Julia,
a person could also bring actions to recover compensation for the
injury done to his property.

INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is non castum, and signifies generally
all immoral and irreligious acts. In a narrower sense it denotes the
unchastity of a Vestal, and sexual intercourse of persons within
certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest with a Vestal was punished
with the death of both parties. [VESTALES.]

INCŪNĀBŬLA or CŪNABŬLA (σπάργανον), swaddling-clothes, in which a
new-born child was wrapped. It was one of the peculiarities of the
Lacedaemonian education to dispense with the use of incunabula, and
to allow children to enjoy the free use of their limbs.

[Illustration: Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at
Rome.)]

INDUTUS. [AMICTUS.]

INFĀMĬA, was a consequence of condemnation for certain crimes,
and also a direct consequence of certain acts, such as adultery,
prostitution, appearing on the public stage as an actor, &c. A
person who became _infamis_ lost the suffragium and honores, and
was degraded to the condition of an aerarian. Infamia should be
distinguished from the _Nota Censoria_, the consequence of which was
only _ignominia_. [CENSOR.]

INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman law there were several distinctions of
age which were made with reference to the capacity for doing legal
acts:--1. The first period was from birth to the end of the seventh
year, during which time persons were called _Infantes_, or _Qui fari
non possunt_. 2. The second period was from the end of seven years
to the end of fourteen or twelve years, according as the person was
a male or a female, during which persons were defined as those _Qui
fari possunt_. The persons included in these first two classes were
_Impuberes_. 3. The third period was from the end of the twelfth or
fourteenth to the end of the twenty-fifth year, during which period
persons were _Adolescentes_, _Adulti_. The persons included in these
three classes were minores xxv annis or annorum, and were often,
for brevity’s sake, called minores only [CURATOR]; and the persons
included in the third and fourth class were _Puberes_. 4. The fourth
period was from the age of twenty-five, during which persons were
_Majores_.

INFĔRĬAE. [FUNUS.]

INFŬLA, a flock of white and red wool, which was slightly twisted,
drawn into the form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the Romans for
ornament on festive and solemn occasions. In sacrificing it was tied
with a white band [VITTA] to the head of the victim and also of the
priest.

INGĔNŬI, were those freemen who were born free. Consequently,
freedmen (_libertini_) were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini
were ingenui; nor could a libertinus by adoption become ingenuus.
The words _ingenuus_ and _libertinus_ are often opposed to one
another; and the title of freeman (_liber_), which would comprehend
_libertinus_, is sometimes limited by the addition of _ingenuus_
(_liber et ingenuus_.) Under the empire a person, not ingenuus by
birth, could be made ingenuus by the emperor.

INJŪRĬA. _Injuria_, in the general sense, is opposed to _Jus_. In a
special sense _injuria_ was done by striking or beating a man either
with the hand or with anything; by abusive words (_convicium_); by
the proscriptio bonorum, when the claimant knew that the alleged
debtor was not really indebted to him; by libellous writings or
verses; by soliciting a materfamilias, &c. The Twelve Tables had
various provisions on the subject of Injuria. Libellous songs or
verses were followed by capital punishment. In the case of a limb
being mutilated the punishment was Talio. In the case of a broken
bone, the penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done to a freeman,
and 150 if it was done to a slave. In other cases the Tables fixed
the penalty at 25 asses. These penalties were afterwards considered
to be insufficient; and the injured person was allowed by the praetor
to claim such damages as he thought that he was entitled to, and the
judex might give the full amount or less. Infamia was a consequence
of condemnation in an actio Injuriarum.

ĪNŌA (ἰνῶα), festivals celebrated in several parts of Greece, in
honour of Ino.

INQUĬLĪNUS. [EXSILIUM.]

INSTĬTA (περιπόδιον), a flounce; a fillet. The Roman matrons
sometimes wore a broad fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom
of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use of it indicated a
superior regard to decency and propriety of manners.

INSŬLA was, properly, a house not joined to the neighbouring houses
by a common wall. An insula, however, generally contained several
separate houses, or at least separate apartments or shops, which
were let to different families; and hence the word _domus_ under
the emperors seems to be applied to the house where a family lived,
whether it were an insula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings.

INTERCESSĬO was the interference of a magistrates to whom an appeal
[APPELLATIO] was made. The object of the intercessio was to put a
stop to proceedings, on the ground of informality or other sufficient
cause. Any magistratus might _intercedere_, who was of equal rank
with or of rank superior to the magistratus from or against whom
the appellatio was. Cases occur in which one of the praetors
interposed (_intercessit_) against the proceedings of his colleague.
The intercessio is most frequently spoken of with reference to
the tribunes, who originally had not jurisdictio, but used the
intercessio for the purpose of preventing wrong which was offered to
a person in their presence. The intercessio of the tribunes of the
plebs was auxilium, and it might be exercised either _in jure_ or
_in judicio_. The tribune _qui intercessit_ could prevent a judicium
from being instituted. The tribunes could also use the intercessio
to prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune could
effect this, and against the opinion of his colleagues.

INTERCĪSI DĬES. [DIES.]

INTERDICTUM. “In certain cases (_certis ex causis_) the praetor or
proconsul, in the first instance (_principaliter_), exercises his
authority for the termination of disputes. This he chiefly does
when the dispute is about possession or quasi-possession; and the
exercise of his authority consists in ordering something to be done,
or forbidding something to be done. The formulae and the terms,
which he uses on such occasions, are called either _interdicta_ or
_decreta_. They are called _decreta_ when he orders something to be
done, as when he orders something to be produced (_exhiberi_) or to
be restored: they are called _interdicta_ when he forbids something
to be done, as when he orders that force shall not be used against
a person who is in possession rightfully (_sine vitio_), or that
nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred ground. Accordingly all
interdicta are either restitutoria, or exhibitoria, or prohibitoria.”
This passage, which is taken from Gaius, the Roman jurist, contains
the essential distinction between an _actio_ and an _interdictum_.
In the case of an actio, the praetor pronounces no order or decree,
but he gives a judex, whose business it is to investigate the
matter in dispute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently with
the formula, which is his authority for acting. In the case of an
actio, therefore, the praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to
be done, but he says, _Judicium dabo_. In the case of an interdict,
the praetor makes an order that something shall be done or shall not
be done, and his words are accordingly words of command; _Restituas,
Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto_. This _immediate_ interposition of the
praetor is appropriately expressed by the word _principaliter_.

INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class of persons became very numerous
and necessary to the Romans as their empire extended. In large
mercantile towns the interpreters, who formed a kind of agents
through whom business was done, were sometimes very numerous. All
Roman praetors, proconsuls, and quaestors, who were entrusted with
the administration of a province, had to carry on all their official
proceedings in the Latin language, and as they could not be expected
to be acquainted with the language of the provincials, they had
always among their servants [APPARITORES] one or more interpreters,
who were generally Romans, but in most cases undoubtedly freedmen.
These interpreters had not only to officiate at the conventus
[CONVENTUS], but also explained to the Roman governor everything
which the provincials might wish to be laid before him.

INTERREGNUM. [INTERREX.]

INTERREX. This office is said to have been instituted on the death of
Romulus, when the senate wished to share the sovereign power among
themselves, instead of electing a king. For this purpose, according
to Livy, the senate, which then consisted of one hundred members,
was divided into ten decuries; and from each of these decuries one
senator was nominated. These together formed a board of ten, with the
title of _Interreges_, each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal
power and its badges for five days; and if no king was appointed at
the expiration of fifty days, the rotation began anew. The period
during which they exercised their power was called an _Interregnum_.
These ten interreges were the _Decem Primi_, or ten leading senators,
of whom the first was chief of the whole senate. The interreges
agreed among themselves who should be proposed as king, and if the
senate approved of their choice, they summoned the assembly of the
curiae, and proposed the person whom they had previously agreed
upon; the power of the curiae was confined to accepting or rejecting
him. Interreges were appointed under the republic for holding the
comitia for the election of the consuls, when the consuls, through
civil commotions or other causes, had been unable to do so in their
year of office. Each held the office for only five days, as under
the kings. The comitia were hardly ever held by the first interrex;
more usually by the second or third; but in one instance we read of
an eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The interreges
under the republic, at least from B.C. 482, were elected by the
senate from the whole body, and were not confined to the decem primi
or ten chief senators, as under the kings. Plebeians, however, were
not admissible to this office; and consequently, when plebeians were
admitted into the senate, the patrician senators met without the
plebeian members to elect an interrex. For this reason, as well as on
account of the influence which the interrex exerted in the election
of the magistrates, we find that the tribunes of the plebs were
strongly opposed to the appointment of an interrex. The interrex had
jurisdictio. Interreges continued to be appointed occasionally till
the time of the second Punic war, but after that time we read of no
interrex, till the senate, by command of Sulla, created an interrex
to hold the comitia for his election as dictator, B.C. 82. In B.C. 55
another interrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in which Pompey
and Crassus were elected consuls; and we also read of interreges in
B.C. 53 and 52, in the latter of which years an interrex held the
comitia in which Pompey was appointed sole consul.

ISTHMĬA (ἴσθμια), the Isthmian games, one of the four great national
festivals of the Greeks. This festival derived its name from the
Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. Subsequent to the age of
Theseus the Isthmia were celebrated in honour of Poseidon; and this
innovation is ascribed to Theseus himself. The celebration of the
Isthmia was conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus had reserved
for his Athenians some honourable distinctions: those Athenians who
attended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic gulf in a sacred
vessel (θεωρίς), and an honorary place (προεδρία), as large as the
sail of their vessel, was assigned to them during the celebration
of the games. In times of war between the two states a sacred truce
was concluded, and the Athenians were invited to attend at the
solemnities. These games were celebrated regularly every other year,
in the first and third years of each Olympiad. After the fall of
Corinth, in 146 B.C., the Sicyonians were honoured with the privilege
of conducting the Isthmian games; but when the town of Corinth was
rebuilt by Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the solemnities
was restored to the Corinthians. The season of the Isthmian
solemnities was, like that of all the great national festivals,
distinguished by general rejoicings and feasting. The contests and
games of the Isthmia were the same as those at Olympia, and embraced
all the varieties of athletic performances, such as wrestling,
the pancratium, together with horse and chariot racing. Musical
and poetical contests were likewise carried on, and in the latter
women were also allowed to take part. The prize of a victor in the
Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, and
afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor
in these games gained the greatest distinction and honour among
his countrymen; and a victory not only rendered the individual who
obtained it a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over his family,
and the whole town or community to which he belonged. Hence Solon
established by a law, that every Athenian who gained the victory at
the Isthmian games should receive from the public treasury a reward
of one hundred drachmae. His victory was generally celebrated in
lofty odes, called Epinikia, or triumphal odes, of which we still
possess some beautiful specimens among the poems of Pindar.

JĂCŬLUM. [HASTA.]

JĀNŬA (θύρα), a door. Besides being applicable to the doors of
apartments in the interior of a house, which were properly called
_ostia_, this term more especially denoted the first entrance into
the house, _i.e._ the front or street door, which was also called
_anticum_, and in Greek θύρα αὔλειος, αὐλεία, αὔλιος, or αὐλία. The
houses of the Romans commonly had a back door, called _posticum_,
_postica_, or _posticula_, and in Greek παράθυρα, _dim._ παραθύριον.
The door-way, when complete, consisted of four indispensable
parts; the threshold, or sill (_limen_, βηλός, οὖδας); the lintel
(_jugumentum, limen superum_); and the two jambs (_postes_, σταθμοί).
The door itself was called _foris_ or _valva_, and in Greek σανίς,
κλισιάς, or θύρετρον. These words are commonly found in the plural,
because the door-way of every building of the least importance
contained two doors folding together. When _foris_ is used in the
singular, it denotes one of the folding doors only. The fastenings
of the door (_claustra_, _obices_) commonly consisted of a bolt
(_pessulus_; μάνδαλος, κατοχεύς, κλεῖθρον) placed at the base of each
_foris_, so as to admit of being pushed into a socket made in the
sill to receive it. By night, the front-door of the house was further
secured by means of a wooden and sometimes an iron bar (_sera_,
_repagula_, μοχλός) placed across it, and inserted into sockets on
each side of the door-way. Hence it was necessary to remove the bar
(τὸν μοχλὸν παράφερειν) in order to open the door (_reserare_). It
was considered improper to enter a house without giving notice to its
inmates. This notice the Spartans gave by shouting; the Athenians and
all other nations by using the knocker, or more commonly by rapping
with the knuckles or with a stick (κρούειν, κόπτειν). In the houses
of the rich a porter (_janitor_, _custos_, θυρωρός) was always in
attendance to open the door. He was commonly an eunuch or a slave,
and was chained to his post. To assist him in guarding the entrance,
a dog was universally kept near it, being also attached by a chain
to the wall; and in reference to this practice, the warning _cave
canem_, εὐλαβοῦ τὴν κύνα, was sometimes written near the door. The
appropriate name for the portion of the house immediately behind the
door (θυρών) denotes that it was a kind of apartment; it corresponded
to the hall or lobby of our houses. Immediately adjoining it, and
close to the front door, there was in many houses a small room for
the porter.

JENTĀCŬLUM. [COENA.]

JŪDEX, JŪDĬCĬUM. A Roman magistratus generally did not investigate
the facts in dispute in such matters as were brought before him:
he appointed a judex for that purpose, and gave him instructions.
[ACTIO.] Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was expressed
by the two phrases _Jus_ and _Judicium_, of which the former
comprehended all that took place before the magistratus (_in
jure_), and the latter all that took place before the judex (_in
judicio_). In many cases a single judex was appointed: in others,
several were appointed, and they seem to have been sometimes
called recuperatores, as opposed to the single judex. Under certain
circumstances the judex was called arbiter: thus judex and arbiter
are named together in the Twelve Tables. A judex when appointed was
bound to discharge the functions of the office, unless he had some
valid excuse (_excusatio_). There were certain seasons of the year
when legal business was done at Rome, and at these times the services
of the judices were required. These legal terms were regulated
according to the seasons, so that there were periods of vacation.
When the judex was appointed, the proceedings _in jure_ or before the
praetor were terminated. The parties appeared before the judex on
the third day (_comperendinatio_), unless the praetor had deferred
the judicium for some sufficient reason. The judex was generally
aided by advisers (_jurisconsulti_) learned in the law, who were
said _in consilio adesse_; but the judex alone was empowered to give
judgment. The matter was first briefly stated to the judex (_causae
conjectio, collectio_), and the advocates of each party supported
his cause in a speech. Witnesses were produced on both sides, and
examined orally: the witnesses on one side were also cross-examined
by the other. After all the evidence was given and the advocates had
finished, the judex gave sentence: if there were several judices, a
majority decided. If the matter was one of difficulty, the hearing
might be adjourned as often as was necessary (_ampliatio_); and if
the judex could not come to a satisfactory conclusion, he might
declare this upon oath, and so release himself from the difficulty.
This was done by the form of words _non liquere_ (N. L.). The
sentence was pronounced orally, and was sometimes first written on a
tablet. If the defendant did not make his appearance after being duly
summoned, judgment might be given against him.--According to Cicero,
all judicia had for their object, either the settlement of disputes
between individuals (_controversiae_), or the punishment of crimes
(_maleficia_). This refers to a division of judicia, which appears
in the jurists, into _judicia publica_ and _judicia privata_. The
former, the _judicia publica_, succeeded to the _judicia populi_ of
the early republican period: the latter were so called because in
them the populus acted as judices. Originally the kings presided in
all criminal cases, and the consuls succeeded to their authority. But
after the passing of the Lex Valeria (B.C. 507), which gave an appeal
to the populus (that is, the comitia curiata) from the magistratus,
the consul could not sit in judgment on the caput of a Roman
citizen, but such cases were tried in the comitia, or persons were
appointed to preside at such inquiries, who were accordingly called
_Quaesitores_ or _Quaestores parricidii_ or _rerum capitalium_. In
course of time, as such cases became of more frequent occurrence,
such quaestiones were made perpetual, that is, particular magistrates
were appointed for the purpose. It was eventually determined,
that while the _praetor urbanus_ and _peregrinus_ should continue
to exercise their usual jurisdictions, the other praetors should
preside at public trials. In such trials any person might be an
accuser (_accusator_). The praetor generally presided as quaesitor,
assisted by a judex quaestionis, and a body of judices called his
consilium. The judices were generally chosen by lot out of those who
were qualified to act; but in some cases the accuser and the accused
(_reus_) had the privilege of choosing (_edere_) a certain number of
judices out of a large number, who were thence called _Edititii_.
Both the accusator and the reus had the privilege of rejecting or
challenging (_rejicere_) such judices as they did not like. In many
cases a lex was passed for the purpose of regulating the mode of
procedure.--The judices voted by ballot, at least generally, and a
majority determined the acquittal or condemnation of the accused.
Each judex was provided with three tablets (_tabulae_), on one of
which was marked A, _Absolvo_; on a second C, _Condemno_; and on
a third N. L., _Non liquet_. The judices voted by placing one of
these tablets in the urns, which were then examined for the purpose
of ascertaining the votes. It was the duty of the magistratus to
pronounce the sentence of the judices; in the case of condemnation,
to adjudge the legal penalty; of acquittal, to declare the accused
acquitted; and of doubt, to declare that the matter must be further
investigated (_amplius cognoscendum_).--A _judicium populi_, properly
so called, was one in which the case was tried in the comitia
curiata, but afterwards in the comitia centuriata and tributa.
The accuser, who must be a magistratus, commenced by declaring in
a contio that he would on a certain day accuse a certain person,
whom he named, of some offence, which he also specified. This was
expressed by the phrase _diem dicere_. If the offender held any
high office, it was necessary to wait till his time of service had
expired, before proceedings could be thus commenced against him. The
accused was required to give security for his appearance on the day
of trial; the security was called _vades_ in a causa capitalis, and
_praedes_ when the penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary. If
such security was not given, the accused was kept in confinement. If
nothing prevented the inquiry from taking place at the time fixed for
it, the trial proceeded, and the accuser had to prove his case by
evidence. The investigation of the facts was called _anquisitio_ with
reference to the proposed penalty: accordingly, the phrases _pecunia,
capite_ or _capitis anquirere_, are used. When the investigation was
concluded, the magistratus promulgated a rogatio, which comprehended
the charge and the punishment or fine. It was a rule of law that a
fine should not be imposed together with another punishment in the
same rogatio. The rogatio was made public during three nundinae, like
any other lex, and proposed at the comitia for adoption or rejection.
The accused sometimes withdrew into exile before the votes were
taken; or he might make his defence. The offences which were the
chief subject of judicia populi and publica were majestas, adulteria
and stupra, parricidium, falsum, vis publica and privata, peculatus,
repetundae, ambitus.--With the passing of special enactments for
the punishment of particular offences, was introduced the practice
of forming a body of judices for the trial of such offences as the
enactments were directed against. The _Album Judicum_ was the body
out of which judices were to be chosen. It is not known what was
the number of the body so constituted, but it has been conjectured
that the number was 350, and that ten were chosen from each tribe,
and thus the origin of the phrase _Decuriae Judicum_ is explained.
It is easy to conceive that the judicia populi, properly so called,
would be less frequent, as special leges were framed for particular
offences, the circumstances of which could be better investigated
by a smaller body of judices than by the assembled people. The Lex
Servilia (B.C. 104) enacted that the judices should not be under
thirty nor above sixty years of age, that the accuser and accused
should severally propose one hundred judices, and that each might
reject fifty from the list of the other, so that one hundred would
remain for the trial. Up to B.C. 122 the judices were always
senators, but in this year the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus took the
judicia from the senators and gave them to the equites. This state
of things lasted nearly fifty years, till Sulla (B.C. 80) restored
the judicia to the senate, and excluded the equites from the album
judicum. A Lex Aurelia (B.C. 70) enacted that the judices should be
chosen from the three classes--of senators, equites, and tribuni
aerarii; and accordingly the judicia were then said to be divided
between the senate and the equites. The tribuni aerarii were taken
from the rest of the citizens, and were, or ought to have been,
persons of some property. Thus the three decuriae of judices were
formed; and it was either in consequence of the Lex Aurelia or the
Lex Fufia that, instead of one urn for all the tablets, the decuriae
had severally their balloting urn, so that the votes of the three
classes were known. It is not known if the Lex Aurelia determined the
number of judices in any given case. The Lex Pompeia de Vi and De
Ambitu (B.C. 52) determined that eighty judices were to be selected
by lot, out of whom the accuser and the accused might reject thirty.
In the case of Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there were
fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that the number fixed for a
given case, by the Lex Aurelia, was seventy judices. Augustus added
to the existing three decuriae judicum a fourth decuria, called that
of the _Ducenarii_, who had a lower pecuniary qualification, and only
decided in smaller matters. Caligula added a fifth decuria, in order
to diminish the labours of the judices.

JŪGĔRUM, a Roman measure of surface, 240 feet in length and 120 in
breadth, containing therefore 28,800 square feet. It was the double
of the _Actus Quadratus_, and from this circumstance, according to
some writers, it derived its name. [ACTUS.] The uncial division [AS]
was applied to the _jugerum_, its smallest part being the _scrupulum_
of 10 feet square, = 100 square feet. Thus the _jugerum_ contained
288 scrupula. The jugerum was the common measure of land among the
Romans. Two _jugera_ formed an _heredium_, a hundred _heredia_ a
_centuria_, and four _centuriae_ a _saltus_. These divisions were
derived from the original assignment of landed property, in which two
_jugera_ were given to each citizen as heritable property.

JŬGUM (ζυγός, ζυγόν), signified in general that which joined two
things together, such as the transverse beam which united the upright
posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, a scale-beam, &c., but
it denoted more especially the yoke by which ploughs and carriages
were drawn. The following woodcut shows two examples of the yoke:
the upper one is provided with two collars, the lower one with
excavations cut in the yoke, in order to give more ease and freedom
to the animals. The latter figure shows the method of tying the
yoke to the pole (_temo_, ῥυμός) by means of a leathern strap. The
word jugum is often used to signify _slavery_, or the condition in
which men are compelled, against their will, like oxen or horses, to
labour for others. Hence, to express symbolically the subjugation
of conquered nations, the Romans made their captives pass under a
yoke (_sub jugum mittere_), which, however, was not made like the
yoke used in drawing carriages or ploughs, but consisted of a spear
supported transversely by two others placed upright.

[Illustration: Jugum, yoke.]

JŪRISCONSULTI or JŪRĔCONSULTI arose among the Romans after the
separation of the Jus Civile from the Jus Pontificium. Such a body
certainly existed before the time of Cicero, and the persons who
professed to expound the law were called by the various names of
_jurisperiti_, _jurisconsulti_, or _consulti_ simply. They were also
designated by other names, as _jurisprudentes_, _prudentiores_,
_peritiores_, and _juris auctores_. The business of the early
jurisconsulti consisted both in advising and acting on behalf of
their clients (_consultores_) gratuitously. They gave their advice
or answers (_responsa_) either in public places which they attended
at certain times, or at their own houses; and not only on matters
of law, but on any thing else that might be referred to them. The
words _scribere_ and _cavere_ referred to their employment in
drawing up formal instruments, such as contracts or wills, &c. At a
later period, many of these functions were performed by persons who
were paid by a fee, and thus there arose a body of practitioners
distinct from those who gave responsa and who were writers and
teachers. Tiberius Coruncanius, a plebeian, who was consul B.C. 281,
and also the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, is mentioned as the
first who publicly professed (_publice professus est_), and he was
distinguished both for his knowledge of the law and his eloquence.

JŪRISDICTIO, signifies generally the authority of the magistrate “qui
jus dicit,” and is mostly applied to the authority of the praetor in
civil cases, such as the giving of the formula in an actio and the
appointment of a judex. [ACTIO.]

JŪS. The law peculiar to the Roman state is sometimes called _Jus
Civile Romanorum_, but more frequently _Jus Civile_ only. The _Jus
Quiritium_ is equivalent to the _Jus Civile Romanorum_. The _jus
civil_e of the Romans is divisible into two parts, _jus civile_ in
the narrower sense, and _jus pontificium_, or the law of religion.
This opposition is sometimes expressed by the words _Jus_ and _Fas_.
The law of religion, or the _Jus Pontificium_, was under the control
of the pontifices, who in fact originally had the control of the
whole mass of the law; and it was only after the separation of the
jus civile in its wider sense into the two parts of the jus civile,
in its narrower sense, and the jus pontificium, that each part had
its proper and peculiar limits. Still, even after the separation,
there was a mutual relation between these two branches of law; for
instance, an adrogatio was not valid by the jus civile unless it was
valid by the jus pontificium. Again, jus pontificium, in its wider
sense, as the law of religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus
augurum, pontificium, &c.

JŪS CĪVĪLE. [JUS.]

JŪS LĂTĪI. [CIVITAS; LATINITAS.]

JUS PONTĬFĬCĬUM. [JUS.]

JUS QUĬRĪTĬUM. [JUS.]

JUSJŪRANDUM (ὅρκος), an oath. (1) GREEK. An oath is an appeal to
some superior being, calling on him to bear witness that the swearer
speaks the truth, or intends to perform the promise which he makes.
We find early mention in the Greek writers of oaths being taken
on solemn and important occasions, as treaties, alliances, vows,
compacts, and agreements, both between nations and individuals.
The Greeks paid high regard to the sanctity of oaths. The poets
frequently allude to the punishment of perjury after death, which
they assign to the infernal gods or furies, and we find many proofs
of a persuasion that perjurers would not prosper in this world.
Anciently the person who took an oath stood up, and lifted his hands
to heaven, as he would in prayer; for an oath was a species of
prayer, and required the same sort of ceremony. Oaths were frequently
accompanied with sacrifice or libation. The parties used also to
lay their hands upon the victims, or on the altar or some other
sacred thing, as if by so doing they brought before them the deity
by whom the oath was sworn, and made him witness of the ceremony.
Hence the expressions πρὸς τὸν βωμὸν ἐξορκίζειν, ὀμνύναι καθ’
ἱερῶν. The hand especially was regarded as a pledge of fidelity,
and the allusions to the junction of hands in making contracts and
agreements abound in the ancient writers. The different nations of
Greece swore by their own peculiar gods and heroes; as the Thebans
by Hercules, Iolaus, &c., the Lacedaemonians by Castor and Pollux,
the Corinthians by Poseidon; the Athenians swore principally by Zeus,
Athena, Apollo (their πατρῷος θεὸς), Demeter, and Dionysus. The
office or character of the party, or the place, or the occasion often
suggested the oath to be taken. As swearing became a common practice
with men upon trivial occasions, and in ordinary conversation, they
used to take oaths by any god, person, or thing, as their peculiar
habits or predilections, or the fancy of the moment, dictated. Women
also had their favourite oaths. As the men preferred swearing by
Hercules, Apollo, &c., so the other sex used to swear by Aphrodite,
Demeter, and Persephone, Hera, Hecate, Artemis; and Athenian women by
Aglauros, Pandrosus, &c.--(2) ROMAN. I. _Oaths taken by magistrates
and other persons who entered the service of the republic._--After
the establishment of the republic the consuls, and subsequently all
the other magistrates, were obliged, within five days after their
appointment, to promise on oath that they would protect and observe
the laws of the republic (_in leges jurare_). Vestal virgins and the
flamen dialis were not allowed to swear on any occasion. During the
later period of the republic we also find that magistrates, when the
time of their office had expired, addressed the people and swore that
during their office they had undertaken nothing against the republic,
but had done their utmost to promote its welfare. All Roman soldiers
after they were enlisted for a campaign, had to take the military
oath (_sacramentum_). It may here be remarked that any oath might be
taken in two ways: the person who took it, either framed it himself,
or it was put to him in a set form, and in this case he was said
in _verba jurare_, or _jurare verbis conceptis_.--II. _Oaths taken
in transactions with foreign nations in the name of the republic._
According to the most ancient form the pater patratus pronounced
the oath in the name of his country, and struck the victim with a
flint-stone, calling on Jupiter to destroy the Roman nation in like
manner, as he (the pater patratus) destroyed the animal, if the
people should violate the oath. The chiefs or priests of the other
nation then swore in a similar manner by their own gods. In swearing
to a treaty with a foreign nation, a victim (a pig or a lamb) was
in the early times always sacrificed by the fetialis (whence the
expressions _foedus icere_, ὅρκια τέμνειν), and the priest while
pronouncing the oath probably touched the victim or the altar. The
jus fetiale, however, fell into disuse as the Romans extended their
conquests; and as in most cases of treaties with foreign nations, the
Romans were not the party that chose to promise anything on oath, we
hear no more of oaths on their part. At first the Romans were very
scrupulous in observing their oaths in contracts or treaties with
foreigners, and even with enemies; but from the third Punic war to
the end of the republic, perjury was common among the Romans in their
dealings with foreigners as well as among themselves.--III. _Oaths or
various modes of swearing in common life._ The practice of swearing
in ordinary conversations, was as common among the Romans as among
the Greeks. The forms used were sometimes simple invocations of one
or more gods, as _Hercle_ or _Mehercle_, that is, ita me Hercules
juvet, amet, or servet; _Pol_, _Perpol_ or _Aedepol_, that is, per
Pollucem; _per Jovem Lapidem_ or simply _per Jovem_; _per superos_;
_per deos immortales_; _medius fidius_, that is, ita me Dius (Δίος)
filius juvet; _ita me deus amet_, or _dii ament_. Women as well as
men swore by most of the gods; but some oaths were peculiar to one
of the sexes. Thus women never swore by Hercules, and men never by
Castor. Sometimes oaths were accompanied with an execration, in case
the swearer was stating a falsehood: as _Dii me perdant_; _dii me
interficiant_; _dispeream_; _ne vivam_; _ne salvus sim_, &c.--IV.
_Oaths taken before the praetor or in courts of justice._ There might
be a _jusjurandum_ either _in jure_ or _in judicio_. The _jusjurandum
in jure_ is the oath which one party proposed to his adversary
(_detulit_) that he should make about the matter in dispute; and
the effect of the oath being taken or refused was equivalent to a
judicium. The _jusjurandum in judicio (jusjurandum judiciale)_ was
required by the judex, and not by either of the parties, though
either of the parties might suggest it.

JUSTĬTĬUM, a cessation of public business of every kind. Thus the
courts of law and the treasury were shut up, no ambassadors were
received in the senate, and no auctions took place. The _Justitium_
was proclaimed (_edicere_, _indicere_) by the senate and the
magistrates in times of public alarm and danger; and after confidence
and tranquillity had been restored, the Justitium was removed
(_remittere_, _exuere_) by the same authorities. As such times of
alarm are usually accompanied with general sorrow, a _Justitium_
came in course of time to be ordained as a mark of public mourning,
and under the empire was only employed for this reason.

JŬVĔNĀLĬA, or JŬVĔNĀLES LŪDI, scenic games instituted by Nero, in
A.D. 59, in commemoration of his shaving his beard for the first
time, thus intimating that he had passed from youth to manhood. He
was then in the twenty-second year of his age. These games were not
celebrated in the circus, but in a private theatre erected in a
pleasure-ground (_nemus_), and consisted of every kind of theatrical
performance, Greek and Roman plays, mimetic pieces, and the like. The
Juvenalia continued to be celebrated by subsequent emperors, but not
on the same occasion. The name was given to those games which were
exhibited by the emperors on the 1st of January in each year. They no
longer consisted of scenic representations, but of chariot races and
combats of wild beasts.

LĂBĂRUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]

LĂBRUM. [BALNEUM.]

LĂBỸRINTHUS (λαβύρινθος), a labyrinth, a large and complicated
subterraneous cavern with numerous and intricate passages, similar
to those of a mine. The earliest and most renowned labyrinth was
that of Egypt, which lay beyond lake Moeris. It had 3000 apartments,
1500 under ground, and the same number above it, and the whole was
surrounded by a wall. It was divided into courts, each of which
was surrounded by colonnades of white marble. The second labyrinth
mentioned by the ancients was that of Crete, in the neighbourhood
of Cnossus, where the Minotaur is said to have dwelt. Although the
Cretan labyrinth is very frequently mentioned by ancient authors,
yet none of them speaks of it as an eyewitness. It was probably some
natural cavern in the neighbourhood of Cnossus. A third labyrinth,
the construction of which belongs to a more historical age, was
that in the island of Lemnos. A fabulous edifice in Etruria is also
mentioned, to which Pliny applies the name of labyrinth. It is
described as being in the neighbourhood of Clusium, and as the tomb
of Lar Porsena; but no writer says that he ever saw it, or remains of
it.

LĂCERNA (μανδύας, μανδύη), a cloak worn by the Romans over the toga.
It differed from the paenula in being an open garment like the Greek
pallium, and fastened on the right shoulder by means of a buckle
(_fibula_), whereas the paenula was what is called a _vestimentum
clausum_ with an opening for the head. The Lacerna appears to have
been commonly used in the army. In the time of Cicero it was not
usually worn in the city, but it soon afterwards became quite common
at Rome. The lacerna was sometimes thrown over the head for the
purpose of concealment; but a _cucullus_ or cowl was generally used
for that purpose, which appears to have been frequently attached to
the lacerna, and to have formed a part of the dress.

LĂCĬNĬAE, the angular extremities of the toga, one of which was
brought round over the left shoulder. It was generally tucked into
the girdle, but sometimes was allowed to hang down loose.

LĂCŌNĬCUM. [BALNEUM.]

LĂCŪNAR. [DOMUS.]

LĂCUS. [FONS.]

LAENA (χλαῖνα), a woollen cloak, the cloth of which was twice the
ordinary thickness, shaggy upon both sides, and worn over the pallium
or the toga for the sake of warmth. In later times the laena seems,
to a certain extent, to have been worn as a substitute for the toga.

LAMPĂDĒPHŎRĬA (λαμπαδηφορία), _torch-bearing_, LAMPADEDROMIA
(λαμπαδηδρομία), _torch-race_, and often simply LAMPAS (λαμπάς),
was a game common throughout Greece. At Athens we know of five
celebrations of this game: one to Prometheus at the Prometheia, a
second to Athena at the Panathenaca, a third to Hephaestos at the
Hephaesteia, a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thracian Artemis
or Bendis. The first three are of unknown antiquity; the fourth was
introduced soon after the battle of Marathon; the last in the time of
Socrates. The race was usually run on foot, horses being first used
in the time of Socrates; sometimes also at night. The preparation for
it was a principal branch of the _Gymnasiarchia_, so much so indeed
in later times, that the _Lampadarchia_ (λαμπαδαρχία) seems to have
been pretty much equivalent to the _Gymnasiarchia_. The gymnasiarch
had to provide the lampas, which was a candlestick with a kind of
shield set at the bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the flame of
the candle; as is seen in the following woodcut, taken from a coin.
He had also to provide for the training of the runners, which was
of no slight consequence, for the race was evidently a severe one,
with other expenses, which on the whole were very heavy, so that
Isaeus classes this office with the _choregia_ and _trierarchia_, and
reckons that it had cost him 12 minae.

[Illustration: Lampae. (From a Coin.)]

LAMPAS. [LAMPADEPHORIA.]

LANCĔA. [HASTA.]

LĂNISTA. [GLADIATORES.]

LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some other metal, and sometimes
embossed, used at splendid entertainments to hold meat or fruit; and
consequently at sacrifices and funeral banquets.

LAPHRĬA (Λάφρια), an annual festival, celebrated at Patrae in Achaia,
in honour of Artemis, surnamed Laphria.

LĂPĬCĪDĪNAE. [LAUTUMIAE.]

LĂQUĔAR. [DOMUS, p. 144, _b._]

LĂQŬEĀTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.]

LĂQUĔUS, a rope, was used to signify the punishment of death by
strangling. This mode of execution was never performed in public,
but only in prison and generally in the Tullianum. Hence we find the
words _carcer_ and _laqueus_ frequently joined together. Persons
convicted of treason were most frequently put to death by strangling,
as for instance the Catilinarian conspirators (_laqueo gulam
fregere_).

LĂRĀRĬUM, a place in the inner part of a Roman house, which was
dedicated to the Lares, and in which their images were kept and
worshipped. It seems to have been customary for religious Romans in
the morning, immediately after they rose, to perform their prayers in
the lararium.

LĀRENTĀLĬA, sometimes written LĀRENTINĀLIA and LAURENTĀLIA, a Roman
festival in honour of Acca Larentia, the wife of Faustulus and the
nurse of Romulus and Remus. It was celebrated in December, on the
10th before the calends of January.

LARGĪTĬO. [AMBITUS.]

LĂTER πλίνθος, a brick. The Romans distinguished between those bricks
which were merely dried by the sun and air (_lateres crudi_), and
those which were burnt in the kiln (_cocti_ or _coctiles_). They
preferred for brick making clay which was either whitish or decidedly
red. Pliny calls the brickfield _lateraria_, and to make bricks
_lateres ducere_, corresponding to the Greek πλίνθους ἕλκειν or
ἔρυειν.

LĀTĬCLĀVĬI. [CLAVUS.]

LĂTĪNAE FĔRĬAE. [FERIAE.]

LĂTĪNĬTAS, LĂTĬUM, JUS LĂTĬI. All these expressions are used to
signify a certain status intermediate between that of cives and
peregrini. Before the passing of the Lex Julia de Civitate (B.C.
90) the above expressions denoted a certain nationality, and as part
of it a certain legal status with reference to Rome; but after the
passing of that lex, these expressions denoted only a certain status,
and had no reference to any national distinction. About the year
B.C. 89, a Lex Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Transpadani,
and consequently the privilege of obtaining the Roman civitas by
having filled a magistratus in their own cities. To denote the status
of these Transpadani, the word Latinitas was used, which since the
passing of the Lex Julia had lost its proper signification; and this
was the origin of that Latinitas which thenceforth existed to the
time of Justinian. This new Latinitas or jus Latii was given to whole
towns and countries; as, for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of
Spain. It is not certain wherein this new Latinitas differed from
that Latinitas which was the characteristic of the Latini before the
passing of the Lex Julia. It is, however, clear that all the old
Latini had not the same right with respect to Rome; and that they
could acquire the civitas on easier terms than those by which the new
Latinitas was acquired.

LĂTRUNCŬLI (πεσσοί, ψήφοι), draughts. The invention of a game
resembling draughts was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes;
and it is mentioned by Homer. There were two sets of men, one set
being black, the other white or red. Being intended to represent
a miniature combat between two armies, they were called soldiers
(_milites_), foes (_hostes_), and marauders (_latrones_, dim.
_latrunculi_); also _calculi_, because stones were often employed for
the purpose. The Romans often had twelve lines on the draught-board,
whence the game so played was called _duodecim scripta_.

LAUDĀTĬO. [FUNUS.]

LAURENTĀLĬA. [LARENTALIA.]

LAUTŬMĬAE, LAUTŎMIAE, LĀTOMIAE, Or LĀTUMIAE (λιθοτομίαι,
λατομίαι,Lat. _Lapicidinae_), literally places where stones are cut,
or quarries, and more particularly the public prison of Syracuse. It
lay in the steep and almost inaccessible part of the town which was
called Epipolae, and had been built by Dionysius the tyrant. It was
cut to an immense depth into the solid rock, so that nothing could be
imagined to be a safer or stronger prison, though it had no roof, and
thus left the prisoners exposed to the heat of the sun, the rain, and
the coldness of the nights. The Tullianum at Rome was also sometimes
called lautumiae. [CARCER.]

LECTICA (κλίνη, κλινίδιον, or φορεῖον), was a kind of couch or
litter, in which persons, in a lying position, were carried from one
place to another. Lecticae were used for carrying the dead [FUNUS] as
well as the living. The Greek lectica consisted of a bed or mattress,
and a pillow to support the head, placed upon a kind of bedstead or
couch. It had a roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, extending over
the couch and resting on four posts. The sides of this lectica were
covered with curtains. In the republican period it appears to have
been chiefly used by women, and by men only when they were in ill
health. When this kind of lectica was introduced among the Romans,
it was chiefly used in travelling, and very seldom in Rome itself.
But towards the end of the republic, and under the empire, it was
commonly used in the city, and was fitted up in the most splendid
manner. Instead of curtains, it was frequently closed on the sides
with windows made of transparent stone (_lapis specularis_), and was
provided with a pillow and bed. When standing, it rested on four
feet, generally made of wood. Persons were carried in a lectica by
slaves (_lecticarii_), by means of poles (_asseres_) attached to it,
but not fixed, so that they might easily be taken off when necessary.
The number of lecticarii employed in carrying one lectica varied
according to its size, and the display of wealth which a person
might wish to make. The ordinary number was probably two; but it
varied from two to eight, and the lectica is called _hexaphoron_ or
_octophoron_, accordingly as it was carried by six or eight persons.

LECTISTERNIUM. Sacrifices being of the nature of feasts, the Greeks
and Romans, on occasion of extraordinary solemnities, placed images
of the gods reclining on couches, with tables and viands before them,
as if they were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice.
This ceremony was called a _lectisternium_. The woodcut here
introduced exhibits one of these couches, which is represented with
a cushion covered by a cloth hanging in ample folds down each side.
This beautiful _pulvinar_ is wrought altogether in white marble, and
is somewhat more than two feet in height.

[Illustration: Pulvinar used at Lectisternium. (From the Glyptothek
at Munich.)]

LECTUS (λέχος, κλίνη, εὐνή), a bed. The complete bed (εὐνή) of a
wealthy Greek in later times generally consisted of the following
parts:--κλίνη, ἐπίτονοι, τυλεῖον or κνέφαλον, προσκεφάλειον, and
στρώματα. The κλίνη is, properly speaking, merely the bedstead, and
seems to have consisted only of posts fitted into one another and
resting upon four feet. At the head part alone there was a board
(ἀνάκλιντρον or ἐπίκλιντρον) to support the pillow and prevent its
falling out. Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a bedstead
was likewise protected by a board, so that in this case a Greek
bedstead resembled what we call a French bedstead. The bedstead was
provided with girths (τόνοι, ἐπίτονοι, κειρία) on which the bed or
mattress (κνέφαλον, τυλεῖον, or τύλη) rested. The cover or ticking
of a mattress was made of linen or woollen cloth, or of leather,
and the usual material with which it was filled was either wool
or dried weeds. At the head part of the bed, and supported by the
ἐπίκλιντρον, lay a round pillow (προσκεφάλειον) to support the head.
The bed-covers (στρώματα) were generally made of cloth, which was
very thick and woolly, either on one or on both sides. The beds
of the Romans (_lecti cubiculares_) in the earlier periods of the
republic were probably of the same description as those used in
Greece; but towards the end of the republic and during the empire,
the richness and magnificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans far
surpassed every thing we find described in Greece. The bedstead was
generally rather high, so that persons entered the bed (_scandere_,
_ascendere_) by means of steps placed beside it (_scamnum_). It was
sometimes made of metal, and sometimes of costly kinds of wood,
or veneered with tortoise-shell or ivory; its feet (_fulcra_)
were frequently of silver or gold. The bed or mattress (_culcita_
and _torus_) rested upon girths or strings (_restes_, _fasciae_,
_institae_, or _funes_), which connected the two horizontal
side-posts of the bed. In beds destined for two persons the two sides
are distinguished by different names; the side at which persons
entered was open, and bore the name _sponda_; the other side, which
was protected by a board, was called _pluteus_. The two sides of such
a bed are also distinguished by the names _torus exterior_ and _torus
interior_, or _sponda exterior_ and _sponda interior_; and from these
expressions it is not improbable that such lecti had two beds or
mattresses, one for each person. Mattresses were in the earlier times
filled with dry herbs or straw, and such beds continued to be used
by the poor. But in subsequent times wool, and, at a still later
period, feathers, were used by the wealthy for the beds as well as
the pillows. The cloth or ticking (_operimentum_ or _involucrum_)
with which the beds or mattresses were covered, was called _toral_,
_torale_, _linteum_, or _segestre_. The blankets or counterpanes
(_vestes stragulae_, _stragula_, _peristromata_, _peripetasmata_)
were in the houses of wealthy Romans of the most costly description,
and generally of a purple colour, and embroidered with beautiful
figures in gold. Covers of this sort were called _peripetasmata
Attalica_, because they were said to have been first used at the
court of Attalus. The pillows were likewise covered with magnificent
casings. The _lectus genialis_ or _adversus_ was the bridal bed,
which stood in the atrium, opposite the janua, whence it derived
the epithet _adversus_. It was generally high, with steps by its
side, and in later times beautifully adorned. Respecting the lectus
funebris see FUNUS. An account of the disposition of the couches used
at entertainments is given under TRICLINIUM.

LĒGĀTĬO LĪBĔRA. [LEGATUS.]

LĒGĀTUM, a part of the hereditas which a testator gives out of it,
from the heres (_ab herede_); that is, it is a gift to a person out
of that whole (_universum_) which is diminished to the heres by
such gift. There were several laws limiting the amount of property
which a person might give in legacies; and it was at last fixed by
the Lex Falcidia (B.C. 40), that he should not bequeath more than
three-fourths of his property in legacies, and thus a fourth was left
to the heres. By the Law of the Twelve Tables a man could dispose
of his property as he pleased, and he might exhaust (_erogare_) the
whole hereditas by legacies and bequests of freedom to slaves, so as
to leave the heres nothing. The consequence was that in such cases
the scripti heredes refused to take the hereditas, and there was of
course an intestacy. Legata were inutilia or void, if they were given
before a heres was instituted by the will, for the will derived all
its legal efficacy from such institution; there was the same rule as
to a gift of freedom.

LĒGĀTUS, from _lego_, a person commissioned or deputed to do certain
things. They may be divided into three classes:--1. Legati or
ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign nations; 2. Legati or ambassadors
sent from Rome to foreign nations and into the provinces; 3. Legati
who accompanied the Roman generals into the field, or the proconsuls
and praetors into the provinces. 1. Foreign legati at Rome, from
whatever country they came, had to go to the temple of Saturn, and
deposit their names with the quaestors. Previous to their admission
into the city, foreign ambassadors seem to have been obliged to give
notice from what nation they came and for what purpose; for several
instances are mentioned, in which ambassadors were prohibited from
entering the city, especially in case of a war between Rome and the
state from which they came. In such cases the ambassadors were either
not heard at all, and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience was given
to them by the senate (_senatus legatis datur_) outside the city,
in the temple of Bellona. This was evidently a sign of mistrust,
but the ambassadors were nevertheless treated as public guests, and
some public villa outside the city was sometimes assigned for their
reception. In other cases, however, as soon as the report of the
landing of foreign ambassadors on the coast of Italy was brought to
Rome, especially if they were persons of great distinction, or if
they came from an ally of the Roman people, some one of the inferior
magistrates, or a legatus of a consul, was despatched by the senate
to receive, and conduct them to the city at the expense of the
republic. When they were introduced into the senate by the praetor
or consul, they first explained what they had to communicate, and
then the praetor invited the senators to put their questions to the
ambassadors. The whole transaction was carried on by interpreters,
and in the Latin language. [INTERPRES.] After the ambassadors had
thus been examined, they were requested to leave the assembly of the
senate, who now began to discuss the subject brought before them. The
result was communicated to the ambassadors by the praetor. In some
cases ambassadors not only received rich presents on their departure,
but were at the command of the senate conducted by a magistrate, and
at the public expense, to the frontier of Italy, and even farther.
By the Lex Gabinia it was decreed, that from the 1st of February
to the 1st of March, the senate should every day give audience to
foreign ambassadors. There was a place on the right-hand side of
the senate-house, called Graecostasis, in which foreign ambassadors
waited. All ambassadors, whencesoever they came, were considered by
the Romans throughout the whole period of their existence as sacred
and inviolable. 2. Legati to foreign nations in the name of the Roman
republic were always sent by the senate; and to be appointed to such
a mission was considered a great honour, which was conferred only
on men of high rank or eminence: for a Roman ambassador had the
powers of a magistrate and the venerable character of a priest. If
a Roman during the performance of his mission as ambassador died or
was killed, his memory was honoured by the republic with a public
sepulchre and a statue in the Rostra. The expenses during the journey
of an ambassador were, of course, paid by the republic; and when he
travelled through a province, the provincials had to supply him with
every thing he wanted. 3. The third class of legati, to whom the name
of ambassadors cannot be applied, were persons who accompanied the
Roman generals on their expeditions, and in later times the governors
of provinces also. They are mentioned at a very early period as
serving along with the tribunes, under the consuls. They were
nominated (_legabantur_) by the consul or the dictator under whom
they served, but the sanction of the senate was an essential point,
without which no one could be legally considered a legatus. The
persons appointed to this office were usually men of great military
talents, and it was their duty to advise and assist their superior
in all his undertakings, and to act in his stead both in civil
and military affairs. The legati were thus always men in whom the
consul placed great confidence, and were frequently his friends or
relations: but they had no power independent of the command of their
general. Their number varied according to the greatness or importance
of the war, or the extent of the province: three is the smallest
number that we know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had fifteen legati.
Whenever the consuls were absent from the army, or when a proconsul
left his province, the legati or one of them took his place, and then
had the insignia as well as the power of his superior. He was in
this case called legatus pro praetore, and hence we sometimes read
that a man governed a province as legatus without any mention being
made of the proconsul whose vicegerent he was. During the latter
period of the republic, it sometimes happened that a consul carried
on a war, or a proconsul governed his province, through his legati,
while he himself remained at Rome, or conducted some other more
urgent affairs. When the provinces were divided at the time of the
empire [PROVINCIA], those of the Roman people were governed by men
who had been either consuls or praetors, and the former were always
accompanied by three legati, the latter by one. The provinces of the
emperor, who was himself the proconsul, were governed by persons whom
the emperor himself appointed, and who had been consuls or praetors,
or were at least senators. These vicegerents of the emperor were
called _legati augusti pro praetore_, _legati praetorii_, _legati
consulares_, or simply _legati_, and they, like the governors of
the provinces of the Roman people, had one or three legati as their
assistants. During the latter period of the republic it had become
customary for senators to obtain from the senate the permission
to travel through or stay in any province at the expense of the
provincials, merely for the purpose of managing and conducting their
own personal affairs. There was no restraint as to the length of time
the senators were allowed to avail themselves of this privilege,
which was a heavy burden upon the provincials. This mode of
sojourning in a province was called _legatio libera_, because those
who availed themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of a public
legatus or ambassador, without having any of his duties to perform.
At the time of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera was abused to
a very great extent. Cicero, therefore, in his consulship (B.C. 63)
endeavoured to put an end to it, but, owing to the opposition of a
tribune, he only succeeded in limiting the time of its duration to
one year. Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time during which a
senator might avail himself of the legatio libera to five years.

LĔGĬO. [EXERCITUS.]

LEITURGIA (λειτουργία, from λεῖτον, Ion. λήϊτον, _i.e._ δημόσιον, or,
according to others, πρυτανεῖον), a liturgy, is the name of certain
personal services which, at Athens, every citizen who possessed
a certain amount of property had to perform towards the state.
These personal services, which in all cases were connected with
considerable expenses, were at first a natural consequence of the
greater political privileges enjoyed by the wealthy, who, in return,
had also to perform heavier duties towards the republic; but when the
Athenian democracy was at its height the original character of these
liturgies became changed, for, as every citizen now enjoyed the same
rights and privileges as the wealthiest, they were simply a tax upon
property connected with personal labour and exertion. All liturgies
may be divided into two classes: 1, ordinary or encyclic liturgies
(ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι); and 2, extraordinary liturgies. The former
were called encyclic, because they recurred every year at certain
festive seasons, and comprised the _Choregia_, _Gymnasiarchia_,
_Lampadarchia_, _Architheoria_, and _Hestiasis_. Every Athenian who
possessed three talents and above was subject to them, and they were
undertaken in turns by the members of every tribe who possessed the
property qualification just mentioned, unless some one volunteered to
undertake a liturgy for another person. But the law did not allow any
one to be compelled to undertake more than one liturgy at a time, and
he who had in one year performed a liturgy was free for the next, so
that legally a person had to perform a liturgy only every other year.
Those whose turn it was to undertake any of the ordinary liturgies
were always appointed by their own tribe. The persons who were exempt
from all kinds of liturgies were the nine archons, heiresses, and
orphans until after the commencement of the second year of their
coming of age. Sometimes the exemption from liturgies (ἀτελεία) was
granted to persons for especial merits towards the republic. The only
kind of extraordinary liturgy to which the name is properly applied
is the _trierarchia_ (τριηραρχία); in the earlier times, however, the
service in the armies was in reality no more than an extraordinary
liturgy. [See EISPHORA and TRIERARCHIA.] In later times, during and
after the Peloponnesian war, when the expenses of a liturgy were
found too heavy for one person, we find that in many instances two
persons combined to defray its expenses. Such was the case with the
choragia and the trierarchy.

LEMBUS, a skiff or small boat, used for carrying a person from a ship
to the shore. The name was also given to the light boats which were
sent ahead of a fleet to obtain information of the enemy’s movements.

LEMNISCUS (λημνίσκος), a kind of coloured ribbon which hung down
from crowns or diadems at the back part of the head. Coronae adorned
with lemnisci were a greater distinction than those without them.
This serves to explain an expression of Cicero (_palma lemniscata,
pro Rosc. Am._ 35), where palma means a victory, and the epithet
lemniscata indicates the contrary of infamis, and at the same time
implies an honourable as well as lucrative victory. Lemnisci were
also worn alone and without being connected with crowns, especially
by ladies, as an ornament for the head.

LĔMŬRĬA, a festival for the souls of the departed, which was
celebrated at Rome every year in the month of May. It was said to
have been instituted by Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus,
whom he had slain, and to have been called originally Remuria. It
was celebrated at night and in silence, and during three alternate
days, that is, on the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth of May. During
this season the temples of the gods were closed, and it was thought
unlucky for women to marry at this time and during the whole month
of May, and those who ventured to marry were believed to die soon
after, whence the proverb, _mense Maio malae nubent_. Those who
celebrated the Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their hands three
times, and threw black beans nine times behind their backs, believing
by this ceremony to secure themselves against the Lemures. As regards
the solemnities on each of the three days, we only know that on the
second there were games in the circus in honour of Mars, and that on
the third day the images of the thirty Argei, made of rushes, were
thrown from the Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins
[ARGEI]. On the same day there was a festival of the merchants,
probably because on this day the temple of Mercury had been dedicated
in the year 495 B.C.

LĒNAEA. [DIONYSIA.]

LESCHĒ (λέσχη), an Ionic word, signifying _council_ or
_conversation_, and _a place for council or conversation_. There is
frequent mention of places of public resort, in the Greek cities, by
the name of _Leschae_, some set apart for the purpose, and others so
called because they were so used by loungers; to the latter class
belong the agora and its porticoes, the gymnasia, and the shops
of various tradesmen. The former class were small buildings or
porticoes, furnished with seats, and exposed to the sun, to which
the idle resorted to enjoy conversation, and the poor to obtain
warmth and shelter: at Athens alone there were 360 such. In the
Dorian states the word retained the meaning of a place of meeting for
deliberation and intercourse, a council-chamber or club-room. There
were generally chambers for council and conversation, called by this
name, attached to the temples of Apollo. The _Lesche_ at Delphi was
celebrated through Greece for the paintings with which it was adorned
by Polygnotus.

LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with reference to the mode of enactment,
there were properly two kinds, _Leges Curiatae_ and _Leges
Centuriatae_. Plebiscita are improperly called leges, though they
were laws, and in the course of time had the same effect as leges.
[PLEBISCITUM.] Originally the leges curiatae were the only leges,
and they were passed by the populus in the comitia curiata. After
the establishment of the comitia centuriata, the comitia curiata
fell almost into disuse; but so long as the republic lasted, and
even under Augustus, a shadow of the old constitution was preserved
in the formal conferring of the imperium by a lex curiata only,
and in the ceremony of adrogation being effected only in these
comitia. [ADOPTIO.] Those leges, properly so called, with which
we are acquainted, were passed in the comitia centuriata, and were
proposed (_rogabantur_) by a magistratus of senatorial rank, after
the senate had approved of them by a decretum. Such a lex was
also designated by the name _Populi Scitum_.--The word _rogatio_
(from the verb _rogo_) properly means any measure proposed to the
legislative body, and therefore is equally applicable to a proposed
lex and a proposed plebiscitum. It corresponds to our word _bill_,
as opposed to _act_. When the measure was passed, it became a lex
or plebiscitum; though rogationes, after they had become laws, were
sometimes, but improperly, called rogationes. A rogatio began with
the words _velitis_, _jubeatis_, &c., and ended with the words _ita
vos Quirites rogo_. The corresponding expression of assent to the
rogatio on the part of the sovereign assembly was _uti rogas_. The
phrases for proposing a law are _rogare legem_, _legem ferre_, and
_rogationem promulgare_; the phrase _rogationem accipere_ applies
to the enacting body. The terms relating to legislation are thus
explained by Ulpian the jurist:--“A lex is said either _rogari_ or
_ferri_; it is said _abrogari_, when it is repealed; it is said
_derogari_, when a part is repealed; it is said _subrogari_, when
some addition is made to it; and it is said _obrogari_, when some
part of it is changed.”--A _privilegium_ is an enactment that had
for its object a single person, which is indicated by the form of
the word (_privilegium_), _privae res_ being the same as _singulae
res_. The word privilegium did not convey any notion of the character
of the legislative measures; it might be beneficial to the party to
whom it referred, or it might not. Under the empire, the word is
used in the sense of a special grant proceeding from the imperial
favour.--The title of a lex was generally derived from the gentile
name of the magistratus who proposed it, as the _Lex Hortensia_ from
the dictator Hortensius. Sometimes the lex took its name from the
two consuls or other magistrates, as the _Acilia Calpurnia_, _Aelia_
or _Aelia Sentia_, _Papia_ or _Papia Poppaea_, and others. It seems
to have been the fashion to omit the word _et_ between the two
names, though instances occur in which it was used. A lex was also
designated, with reference to its object, as the _Lex Cincia de Donis
et Muneribus_, _Lex Furia Testamentaria_, _Lex Julia Municipalis_,
and many others. Leges which related to a common object, were often
designated by a collective name, as _Leges Agrariae_, _Judiciariae_,
and others. A lex sometimes took its name from the chief contents
of its first chapter, as _Lex Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus_.
Sometimes a lex comprised very various provisions, relating to
matters essentially different, and in that case it was called _Lex
Satura_.--The number of leges was greatly increased in the later
part of the republican period, and Julius Caesar is said to have
contemplated a revision of the whole body. Under him and Augustus
numerous enactments were passed, which are known under the general
name of Juliae Leges. It is often stated that no leges, properly so
called, or plebiscita, were passed after the time of Augustus; but
this is a mistake. Though the voting might be a mere form, still
the form was kept. Besides, various leges are mentioned as having
been passed under the Empire, such as the Lex Junia under Tiberius,
the Lex Visellia, the Lex Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia
on the tutela of women. It does not appear when the ancient forms
of legislation were laid aside. A particular enactment is always
referred to by its name. The following is a list of the principal
leges, properly so called; but the list includes also various
plebiscita and privilegia:--

ACĪLĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. xxxii. 29.)

ACĪLIA. [REPETUNDAE.]

ACĪLIA CALPURNĬA or CALPURNIA. [AMBITUS.]

AEBUTĬA, of uncertain date, which with two Juliae Leges put an end
to the Legis Actiones, except in certain cases. This or another
lex of the same name prohibited the proposer of a lex, which
created any office or power (_curatio ac potestas_), from having
such office or power, and even excluded his collegae, cognati, and
affines.

AELIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex, passed about the end of the sixth
century of the city, gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio,
or power of preventing or dissolving the comitia, by observing the
omens and declaring them to be unfavourable.

AELĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. xxxiv. 53.)

AELĬA SENTĬA, passed in the time of Augustus (about A.D. 3). This
lex contained various provisions as to the manumission of slaves.

AEMĬLĬA. A lex passed in the dictatorship of Mamercus Aemilius
(B.C. 433), by which the censors were elected for a year and
a half, instead of a whole lustrum. After this lex they had
accordingly only a year and a half allowed them for holding the
census and letting out the public works to farm.

AEMĬLĬA BAEBĬA. [CORNELIA BAEBIA.]

AEMĬLĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

AGRĀRÏAE, the name of laws which had relation to the ager
publicus. [AGER PUBLICUS.] The most important of these are
mentioned under the names of their proposers. [APPULEIA; CASSIA;
CORNELIA; FLAMINIA; FLAVIA; JULIA; LICINIA; SEMPRONIA; SERVILIA;
THORIA.]

AMBĬTUS. [AMBITUS.]

AMPĬA, to allow Cn. Pompeius to wear a crown of bay at the Ludi
Circenses, &c. Proposed by T. Ampius and T. Labienus, tr. pl. B.C.
64.

ANNĀLIS or VILLĬA, proposed by L. Villius Tapulus in B.C. 179,
fixed the age at which a Roman citizen might become a candidate for
the higher magistracies. It appears that until this law was passed,
any office might be enjoyed by a citizen after completing his
twenty-seventh year. The Lex Annalis fixed 31 as the age for the
quaestorship, 37 for the aedileship, 40 for the praetorship, and 43
for the consulship.

ANTĬA. [SUMPTUARIAE LEGES.]

ANTŌNĬA DE THERMENSIBUS, about B.C. 72, by which Thermessus in
Pisidia was recognised as Libera.

ANTŌNĬAE, the name of various enactments proposed or passed by the
influence of M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator J. Caesar.

APPŬLĒIA, respecting sureties.

APPŬLĒIA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus,
B.C. 101.

APPŬLĒIA FRŪMENTĀRĬA, proposed about the same time by the same
tribune.

APPŬLĒIA, DE COLONIIS DEDUCENDIS. (Cic. _pro Balbo_, 21.)

APPŬLĒIA MAJESTĀTIS. [MAJESTAS.]

ATERNIA TARPĒIA, B.C. 455. This lex empowered all magistrates to
fine persons who resisted their authority; but it fixed the highest
fine at two sheep and thirty cows, or two cows and thirty sheep,
for the authorities vary in this.

ĂTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS (B.C. 63), proposed by the tribune T. Atius
Labienus, repealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis.

ĂTĪLĬA MARCĬA, B.C. 312, empowered the populus to elect 16 tribuni
militum for each of four legions.

ĂTĪLĬA, respecting tutores.

ĂTĪNĬA, respecting thefts.

ĂTĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum which gave the rank
of senator to a tribune. This measure probably originated with C.
Atinius, who was tribune B.C. 130.

AUFĬDĬA. [AMBITUS.]

AURĒLĬA (B.C. 70), enacted that the judices should be chosen from
the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii. [JUDEX.]

AURĒLĬA TRĬBŪNĬCĬA, respecting the tribunes.

BAEBĬA (B.C. 192 or 180), enacted that four praetors and six
praetors should be chosen alternately; but the law was not observed.

BAEBĬA CORNĒLĬA. [AMBITUS.]

CAECĬLĬA DE CENSŌRĬBUS or CENSŌRIA (B.C. 54), proposed by Metellus
Scipio, repealed a Clodia Lex (B.C. 58), which had prescribed
certain regular forms of proceeding for the censors in exercising
their functions as inspectors of mores, and had required the
concurrence of both censors to inflict the nota censoria. When
a senator had been already convicted before an ordinary court,
the lex permitted the censors to remove him from the senate in a
summary way.

CAECĬLĬA DE VECTĪGĀLĬBUS (B.C. 62), released lands and harbours in
Italy from the payment of taxes and dues (_portoria_). The only
vectigal remaining after the passing of this lex was the Vicesima.

CAECĬLĬA DĪDĬA (B.C. 98) forbade the proposing of a Lex Satura, on
the ground that the people might be compelled either to vote for
something which they did not approve, or to reject something which
they did approve, if it was proposed to them in this manner. This
lex was not always operative.

CAELIA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.]

CĂLĬGŬLAE LEX AGUĀRĬA. [MAMILIA.]

CALPURNĬA DE AMBĬTU. [AMBITUS.]

CALPURNĬA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.]

CĂNŬLĒIA. (B.C. 445) established connubium between the patres and
plebs, which had been taken away by the law of the Twelve Tables.

CASSĬA (B.C. 104), proposed by the tribune L. Cassius Longinus,
did not allow a person to remain a senator who had been convicted
in a judicium populi, or whose imperium had been abrogated by the
populus.

CASSĬA empowered the dictator Caesar to add to the number of the
patricii, to prevent their extinction.

CASSĬA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the consul Sp. Cassius, B.C. 486. This
is said to have been the first agrarian law. It enacted that of
the land taken from the Hernicans, half should be given to the
Latins, and half to the plebs, and likewise that part of the public
land possessed by the patricians should be distributed among the
plebeians. This law met with the most violent opposition, and
appears not to have been carried. Cassius was accused of aiming at
the sovereignty, and was put to death. [AGER PUBLICUS.]

CASSĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.]

CASSĬA TĔRENTĬA FRŪMENTĀRĬA (B.C. 73) for the distribution of corn
among the poor citizens and the purchasing of it.

CINCĬA DE DŌNIS ET MŪNĔRĬBUS, a plebiscitum passed in the time of
the tribune M. Cincius Alimentus (B.C. 204). It forbade a person
to take any thing for his pains in pleading a cause. In the time
of Augustus, the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus-consultum,
and a penalty of four times the sum received was imposed on the
advocate. The law was so far modified in the time of Claudius, that
an advocate was allowed to receive ten sestertia; if he took any
sum beyond that, he was liable to be prosecuted for repetundae.
It appears that this permission was so far restricted in Trajan’s
time, that the fee could not be paid till the work was done.

CLAUDĬA, passed under the emperor Claudius, took away the agnatorum
tutela in case of women.

CLAUDĬA DE SENATORIBUS, B.C. 218 (Liv. xxi. 63), the provisions of
which are alluded to by Cicero as antiquated and dead in his time.

CLŌDIAE, the name of various plebiscita, proposed by Clodius, when
tribune, B.C. 58.

CLODIA DE AUSPICIIS prevented the magistratus from dissolving the
comitia tributa, by declaring that the auspices were unfavourable.
This lex therefore repealed the Aelia and Fufia. It also enacted
that a lex might be passed on the dies fasti. [AELIA LEX.]

CLODIA DE CENSORIBUS. [CAECILIA.]

CLODIA DE CIVIBUS ROMANIS INTEREMPTIS, to the effect that
“qui civem Romanum indemnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni
interdiceretur.” It was in consequence of this lex that the
interdict was pronounced against Cicero, who considers the whole
proceeding as a privilegium.

CLODIA FRUMENTARIA, by which the corn, which had formerly been sold
to the poor citizens at a low rate, was given.

CLODIA DE SODALITATIBUS or DE COLLEGIIS restored the Sodalitia,
which had been abolished by a senatus-consultum of the year B.C.
80, and permitted the formation of new Sodalitia.

CLODIA DE LIBERTINORUM SUFFRAGIIS. (Cic. _pro Mil._ 12, 33.)

CLODIA DE REGE PTOLEMAEO ET DE EXSULIBUS BYZANTINIS. (Vell. Pat.
ii. 45.)

There were other so-called Leges Clodiae, which were however
privilegia.

COMMISSORĬA LEX, respecting sales.

CORNĒLĬAE. Various leges passed in the dictatorship of Sulla, and
by his influence, are so called.

AGRARIA, by which many of the inhabitants of Etruria and Latium
were deprived of the complete civitas, and retained only the
commercium, and a large part of their lands were made public, and
given to military colonists.

DE CIVITATE. (Liv., _Epit._ 86.)

DE FALSIS, against those who forged testaments or other deeds, and
against those who adulterated or counterfeited the public coin,
whence Cicero calls it _testamentaria_ and _nummaria_.

DE INJURIIS. [INJURIA.]

JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX.]

DE MAGISTRATIBUS, partly a renewal of old plebiscita. (Appian, B.C.
i. 100, 101.)

MAJESTATIS. [MAJESTAS.]

DE PARRICIDIO. [See below: DE SICARIIS.]

DE PROSCRIPTIONE ET PROSCRIPTIS. [PROSCRIPTIO.]

DE PROVINCIIS ORDINANDIS. (Cic. _ad Fam._ i. 9; iii. 6, 8, 10.)

DE REPETUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.]

DE SACERDOTIIS. [SACERDOS.]

DE SICARIIS ET VENEFICIS, contained provisions as to death or fire
caused by _dolus malus_, and against persons going about armed with
the intention of killing or thieving. The law not only provided
for cases of poisoning, but contained provisions against those who
made, sold, bought, possessed, or gave poison for the purpose of
poisoning; also against a magistratus or senator who conspired in
order that a person might be condemned in a _judicium publicum_, &c.

SUMPTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

TRIBUNICIA, which diminished the power of the Tribuni Plebis.

UNCIARIA appears to have been a lex which lowered the rate of
interest, and to have been passed about the same time with the
Leges Sumptuariae of Sulla.

CORNĒLĬAE, which were proposed by the tribune C. Cornelius about
B.C. 67. One limited the edictal power by compelling the praetors
_Jus dicere ex edictis suis perpetuis_.--Another lex of the same
tribune enacted that no one _legibus solveretur_, unless such a
measure was agreed on in a meeting of the senate at which two
hundred members were present, and afterwards approved by the
people; and it enacted that no tribune should put his veto on such
a senatus-consultum.--There was also a Lex Cornelia concerning the
wills of those Roman citizens who died in captivity (_apud hostes_).

CORNĒLIA DE NOVIS TABELLIS, proposed by P. Corn. Dolabella, B.C. 47.

CORNĒLIA ET CAECĬLĪA, B.C. 57, gave Cn. Pompeius the
superintendence of the Res Frumentaria for five years.

CORNĒLĬA BAEBĬA DE AMBĬTU, proposed by the consuls P. Cornelius
Cethegus and M. Baebius Tamphilus, B.C. 181. This law is sometimes,
but erroneously, attributed to the consuls of the preceding year,
L. Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [AMBITUS.]

CŪRIĀTA LEX DE IMPERIO. [IMPERIUM.]

CŪRIĀTA LEX DE ADOPTIONE. [ADOPTIO.]

DĔCEMVĬRĀLIS. [LEX DUODECIM TABULARUM.]

DĔCĬA DE DUUMVIRIS NAVALIBUS. (Liv. ix. 30.)

DĪDĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

DOMĬTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS. [SACERDOS.]

DUĪLĬA (B.C. 449), a plebiscitum proposed by the tribune Duilius,
which enacted that whoever left the people without tribunes, or
created a magistrate from whom there was no appeal (_provocatio_),
should be scourged and beheaded.

DUĪLĬA MAENĬA, proposed by the tribunes Duilius and Maenius
(B.C. 357), restored the old uncial rate of interest (_unciarium
fenus_), which had been fixed by the Twelve Tables. [FENUS.] The
same tribunes carried a measure which was intended, in future, to
prevent such unconstitutional proceedings as the enactment of a lex
by the soldiers out of Rome, on the proposal of the consul.

DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM. In the year B.C. 454 the Senate assented to a
Plebiscitum, pursuant to which commissioners were to be sent to
Athens and the Greek cities generally, in order to make themselves
acquainted with their laws. Three commissioners were appointed
for the purpose. On the return of the commissioners, B.C. 452,
it was agreed that persons should be appointed to draw up the
code of laws (decemviri Legibus scribundis), but they were to be
chosen only from the Patricians, with a provision that the rights
of the Plebeians should be respected by the decemviri in drawing
up the laws. In the following year (B.C. 451) the Decemviri were
appointed in the Comitia Centuriata, and during the time of their
office no other magistratus were chosen. The body consisted of
ten Patricians, including the three commissioners who had been
sent abroad: Appius Claudius, Consul designatus, was at the head
of the body. Ten Tables of Laws were prepared during the year,
and after being approved by the Senate were confirmed by the
Comitia Centuriata. As it was considered that some further Laws
were wanted, Decemviri were again elected B.C. 450, consisting of
Appius Claudius and his friends. Two more Tables were added by
these Decemviri, which Cicero calls “Duae tabulae iniquarum legum.”
The provision which allowed no connubium between the Patres and
the Plebs is referred to the Eleventh Table. The whole Twelve
Tables were first published in the consulship of L. Valerius and
M. Horatius after the downfall of the Decemviri, B.C. 449. This
the first attempt to make a code remained also the only attempt
for near one thousand years, until the legislation of Justinian.
The Twelve Tables are mentioned by the Roman writers under a great
variety of names: _Leges Decemvirales_, _Lex Decemviralis_, _Leges
XII._, _Lex XII. tabularum_ or _Duodecim_, and sometimes they are
referred to under the names of _Leges_ and _Lex_ simply, as being
pre-eminently The Law. The Laws were cut on bronze tablets and
put up in a public place. They contained matters relating both to
the Jus Publicum and the Jus Privatum (_fons publici privatique
juris_). The Jus Publicum underwent great changes in the course of
years, but the Jus Privatum of the Twelve Tables continued to be
the fundamental law of the Roman State. The Roman writers speak
in high terms of the precision of the enactments contained in the
Twelve Tables, and of the propriety of the language in which they
were expressed.

FĂBĬA DE PLĂGIO. [PLAGIUM.]

FĂBĬA DE NUMERO SECTATORUM. (Cic. _pro Murena_, 34.)

FALCIDIA. [LEX VOCONIA.]

FANNĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

FANNĬA. [JUNIA DE PEREGRINIS.]

FLĀMĬNĬA was an Agraria Lex for the distribution of lands in
Picenum, proposed by the tribune C. Flaminius, in B.C. 228
according to Cicero, or in B.C. 232 according to Polybius. The
latter date is the more probable.

FLĀVĬA AGRĀRĬA, B.C. 60, for the distribution of lands among
Pompey’s soldiers, proposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who
committed the consul Caecilius Metellus to prison for opposing it.

FRŪMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges were so called which had for their
object the distribution of grain among the people, either at a low
price or gratuitously. [FRUMENTARIAE LEGES, p. 182.]

FŪFĬA DE RĒLĬGĬŌNE, B.C. 61, was a privilegium which related to the
trial of Clodius.

FŪFĬA JŪDĬCĬĀRĬA. [JUDEX, p. 217.]

FŪRIA or FŪSĬA CĂNĪNĬA limited the number of slaves to be
manumitted by testament.

FŪRIA or FŪSĬA TESTĂMENTĀRĬA, enacted that a testator should not
give more than three-fourths of his property in legacies, thus
securing one-fourth to the heres.

GĂBĪNĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] There were various
Gabiniae Leges, some of which were privilegia, as that for
conferring extraordinary power on Cn. Pompeius for conducting the
war against the pirates. A Gabinia Lex, B.C. 58, forbade all loans
of money at Rome to legationes from foreign parts. The object of
the lex was to prevent money being borrowed for the purpose of
bribing the senators at Rome.

GALLĬAE CISALPĪNAE. [RUBRIA.]

GELLIA CORNĒLĬA, B.C. 72, which gave to Cn. Pompeius the
extraordinary power of conferring the Roman civitas on Spaniards in
Spain, with the advice of his consilium.

GENUCĬA, B.C. 341, forbade altogether the taking of interest for
the use of money.

HĬĔRŎNĬCA was not a lex properly so called. Before the Roman
conquest of Sicily, the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and
other produce had been fixed by Hiero; and the Roman quaestors,
in letting these tenths to farm, followed the practice which they
found established.

HŎRĀTĬAE ET VALĔRĬAE. [LEGES VALERIAE.]

HORTENSIA DE PLĒBISCĪTIS. [LEGES PUBLILIAE; PLEBISCITUM.] Another
Lex Hortensia enacted that the nundinae, which had hitherto been
feriae, should be dies fasti. This was done for the purpose of
accommodating the inhabitants of the country.

ICILĬA, B.C. 456, by which the Aventinus was assigned to the plebs.
This was the first instance of the ager publicus being assigned to
the plebs. Another Lex Icilia, proposed by the tribune Sp. Icilius,
B.C. 470, had for its object to prevent all interruption to the
tribunes while acting in the discharge of their duties. In some
cases the penalty was death.

JŪLĬAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were passed in the time of C.
Julius Caesar and Augustus.

DE ADULTERIIS. [ADULTERIUM.]

AGRARIA, B.C. 59, in the consulship of Caesar, for distributing the
ager publicus in Campania among 20,000 poor citizens, who had each
three children or more.

DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.]

DE BONIS CEDENDIS. This lex provided that a debtor might escape all
personal molestation from his creditors by giving up his property
to them for the purpose of sale and distribution. It is doubtful if
this lex was passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of Augustus,
though probably of the former.

DE CAEDE ET VENEFICIO (Suet. _Ver._ 33), perhaps the same as the
Lex De Vi Publica.

DE CIVITATE was passed in the consulship of L. Julius Caesar and P.
Rutilius Lupus, B.C. 90. [CIVITAS; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.]

DE FENORE, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis or Creditis (B.C. 47),
passed in the time of Julius Caesar. The object of it was to make
an arrangement between debtors and creditors, for the satisfaction
of the latter. The possessiones and res were to be estimated at the
value which they had before the civil war, and to be surrendered to
the creditors at that value; whatever had been paid for interest
was to be deducted from the principal. The result was, that the
creditor lost about one-fourth of his debt; but he escaped the loss
usually consequent on civil disturbance, which would have been
caused by novae tabulae.

JUDICIARIAE. [JUDEX.]

DE LIBERIS LEGATIONIBUS. [LEGATUS.]

DE MAJESTATE. [MAJESTAS.]

DE MARITANDIS ORDINIBUS. [See below: JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]

MUNICIPALIS, commonly called the Table of Heraclea. In the year
1732 there were found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the
neighbourhood of the city of ancient Heraclea, large fragments of a
bronze table, which contained on one side a Roman lex, and on the
other a Greek inscription. The whole is now in the Museo Borbonico
at Naples. The lex contains various provisions as to the police
of the city of Rome, and as to the constitution of communities of
Roman citizens (_municipia_, _coloniae_, _praefecturae_, _fora_,
_conciliabula civium Romanorum_). It was accordingly a lex of that
kind which is called Satura. It was probably passed in B.C. 45.

JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA. Augustus appears to have caused a lex to
be enacted about B.C. 18, which is cited as the _Lex Julia de
Maritandis Ordinibus_, and is referred to in the Carmen Seculare of
Horace, which was written in the year B.C. 17. The object of this
lex was to regulate marriages, as to which it contained numerous
provisions; but it appears not to have come into operation till
the year B.C. 13. In the year A.D. 9, and in the consulship of
M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Poppaeus Secundus (consules suffecti),
another lex was passed as a kind of amendment and supplement to
the former lex, and hence arose the title of Lex Julia et Papia
Poppaea, by which this lex is often quoted. The lex is often
variously quoted, according as reference is made to its various
provisions; sometimes it is called _Lex Julia_, sometimes _Papia
Poppaea_, sometimes _Lex Julia et Papia_, sometimes _Lex de
Maritandis Ordinibus_, from the chapter which treated of the
marriages of the senators, sometimes _Lex Caducaria, Decimaria_,
&c. from the various chapters. The Lex Julia forbade the marriage
of a senator or senator’s children with a libertina, with a woman
whose father or mother had followed an ars ludicra, and with a
prostitute; and also the marriage of a libertinus with a senator’s
daughter. In order to promote marriage, various penalties were
imposed on those who lived in a state of celibacy (_caelibatus_)
after a certain age, and various privileges were given to those who
had three or more children. A candidate for the public offices who
had several children was preferred to one who had fewer. After the
passing of this lex, it became usual for the senate, and afterwards
the emperor (_princeps_), to give occasionally, as a privilege to
certain persons who had not children, the same advantage that the
lex secured to those who had children. This was called the _Jus
Liberorum_, and sometimes the _Jus trium Liberorum_.

PECULATUS, cited in the Digest, related to sacrilege as well as
peculatus.

JULIA ET PLAUTIA, respecting stolen things.

JULIA PAPIRIA. [PAPIRIA.]

DE PROVINCIIS. [PROVINCIAE.]

REPETUNDARUM. [REPETUNDAE.]

SACRILEGIS. [See above: JULIA PECULATUS.]

SUMPTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

THEATRALIS, which permitted Roman equites, in case they or their
parents had ever had a census equestris, to sit in the fourteen
rows (_quatuordecim ordines_) fixed by the Lex Roscia Theatralis,
B.C. 69.

JULIA ET TITIA, respecting Tutors.

DE VI PUBLICA AND PRIVATA. [VIS.]

VICESIMARIA. [VICESIMA.]

JŪNĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS, proposed B.C. 126, by M. Junius Pennus, a
tribune, banished peregrini from the city. A lex of C. Fannius,
consul B.C. 122, contained the same provisions respecting the
Latini and Italici; and a lex of C. Papius, perhaps B.C. 65,
contained the same respecting all persons who were not domiciled in
Italy.

JŪNĬA LĬCĬNĬA. [LICINIA JUNIA.]

JŪNIA NORBĀNA, of uncertain date, but probably about A.D. 17,
enacted that when a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave without
the requisite formalities, the manumission should not in all cases
be ineffectual, but the manumitted person should have the status of
a Latinus.

JŪNIA RĒPĔTUNDĀRUM. [REPETUNDAE.]

LAETŌRIA, the false name of the Lex Plaetoria. [CURATOR.] Sometimes
the lex proposed by Volero for electing plebeian magistrates at the
comitia tributa is cited as a Lex Laetoria.

LĬCĬNĬA DE SŎDĀLĬTIIS. [AMBITUS.]

LĬCĬNIA. [AEBUTIA.]

LĬCĬNIA DE LŪDIS ĂPOLLĬNĀRĬBUS. (Liv. xxvii. 23.)

LĬCĬNIA JŪNIA, or, as it is sometimes called, Junia et Licinia,
passed in the consulship of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Silanus,
B.C. 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia, in connection with which it
is sometimes mentioned.

LĬCĬNIA MŪCĬA DE CĪVĬBUS RĔGUNDIS, passed in the consulship of L.
Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, B.C. 95, enacted a strict
examination as to the title to citizenship, and deprived of the
exercise of civic rights all those who could not make out a good
title to them. This measure partly led to the Marsic war.

LĬCĬNIA SUMPTUĀRIA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

LĬCĬNIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who was tribune of the people
from B.C. 376 to 367, and who brought the contest between the
patricians and plebeians to a happy termination. He was supported
in his exertions by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which he
proposed were: 1. That in future no more consular tribunes should
be appointed, but that consuls should be elected as in former
times, one of whom should always be a plebeian. 2. That no one
should possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, nor keep
upon it more than 100 head of large, or 500 of small cattle. It
is related that Licinius was accused and condemned for violating
his own law. Livy states that Licinius, together with his son,
held 1000 jugera of the public land, and by emancipating his son
had acted in fraud of the law. The son thus possessed 500 jugera
in his own name, while his father had the actual enjoyment. 3.
A law regulating the affairs between debtor and creditor, which
ordained that the interest already paid for borrowed money should
be deducted from the capital, and that the remainder of the
latter should be paid back in three yearly instalments. 4. That
the Sibylline books should be entrusted to a college of ten men
(_decemviri_), half of whom should be plebeians, in order that no
falsifications might be introduced in favour of the patricians.
These rogations were passed after a most vehement opposition on the
part of the patricians, and L. Sextius was the first plebeian who,
in accordance with the first of them, obtained the consulship for
the year B.C. 366.

LĬCĬNIA, also called MANLĬA, B.C. 196, created the triumviri
epulones.

LĪVĬAE, various enactments proposed by the tribune M. Livius
Drusus, B.C. 91, for establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily,
distributing corn among the poor citizens at a low rate, and
admitting the foederatae civitates to the Roman civitas. He is also
said to have been the mover of a law for adulterating silver by
mixing with it an eighth part of brass. Drusus was assassinated,
and the senate declared that all his laws were passed _contra
auspicia_, and were therefore not leges.

LUTĀTIA DE VI, proposed by the consul Q. Lutatius Catulus, with the
assistance of Plautius the tribune: usually called Lex Plautia or
Plotia. [VIS.]

MAENĬA LEX, is only mentioned by Cicero, who says that M. Curius
compelled the patres _ante auctores fieri_ in the case of the
election of a plebeian consul, “which,” adds Cicero, “was a great
thing to accomplish, as the Lex Maenia was not yet passed.” The lex
therefore required the patres to give their consent at least to the
election of a magistratus, or, in other words, to confer or agree
to confer the imperium on the person whom the comitia should elect.
It was probably proposed by the tribune Maenius B.C. 287.

MAJESTĀTIS. [MAJESTAS.]

MAMILĬA DE JŬGURTHAE FAUTŌRĬBUS. (Sall. _Jug._ 40.)

MAMILIA FINIUM RĔGUNDŌRUM, B.C. 239 or 165, respecting boundaries.

MĀNĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. Manilius, B.C. 66, was a
privilegium by which was conferred on Pompey the command in the war
against Mithridates. The lex was supported by Cicero when praetor.

MANLĬA. [LICINIA.]

MANLIA DE VĪCĒSĬMA, B.C. 357, imposed the tax of five per cent.
(_vicesima_) on the value of manumitted slaves.

MARCĬA, probably about the year B.C. 352, _adversus feneratores_.

MARCĬA, an agrarian law proposed by the tribune L. Marcius
Philippus, B.C. 104.

MĂRĬA, proposed by Marius when tribune, B.C. 119, for narrowing the
pontes at elections.

MEMMIA or REMMĬA. [CALUMNIA.]

MENSĬA, respecting the marriage of a Roman woman with a peregrinus,
declared the offspring of such marriages peregrini.

MĬNŬCĬA, B.C. 216, created the triumviri mensarii.

NERVAE AGRĀRIA, the latest known instance of a lex.

OCTĀVĬA, B.C. 91, one of the numerous leges frumentariae which
repealed a Sempronia Frumentaria. It is mentioned by Cicero as a
more reasonable measure than the Sempronia, which was too profuse.

OGULNĬA, proposed by the tribunes, B.C. 300, increased the number
of pontifices to eight, and that of the augurs to nine; it also
enacted that four of the pontifices and five of the augurs should
be taken from the plebes.

OPPĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

ORCHĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.]

ŎVĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum which gave the censors
certain powers in regulating the lists of the senators (_ordo
senatorius_): the main object seems to have been to exclude all
improper persons from the senate, and to prevent their admission,
if in other respects qualified.

PĀPĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS. [LEX JUNIA DE PEREGRINIS.]

PĀPIA POPPAEA. [LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.]

PĂPĪRĬA or JŪLIA PĂPĪRIA DE MULCTĀRUM AESTĬMĀTIŌNE (B.C. 430),
fixed a money value according to which fines were paid, which
formerly were paid in sheep and cattle. Some writers make this
valuation part of the Aternian law [ATERNIA TARPEIA], but in this
they appear to have been mistaken.

PĂPĪRIA, by which the as was made semuncialis, one of the various
enactments which tampered with the coinage.

PĂPĪRĬA, B.C. 332, proposed by the praetor Papirius, gave the
Acerrani the civitas without the suffragium. It was properly a
privilegium, but is useful as illustrating the history of the
extension of the civitas Romana.

PĂPĪRĬA, of uncertain date, enacted that no _aedes_ should be
declared _consecratae_ without a plebiscitum.

PĂPĪRIA PLAUTĬA, a plebiscitum of the year B.C. 89, proposed by
the tribunes C. Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in the
consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and L. Porcius Cato, is called
by Cicero a lex of Silvanus and Carbo. [See CIVITAS; FOEDERATAE
CIVITATES.]

PĂPĪRIA POETELĬA. [LEX POETELIA.]

PĂPĪRIA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.]

PĔDĬA, relating to the murderers of Caesar.

PĒDŪCAEA, B.C. 113, a plebiscitum, seems to have been merely a
privilegium, and not a general law against incestum.

PESULĀNĬA, provided that if an animal did any damage, the owner
should make it good, or give up the animal.

PĔTILLĬA, DE PECUNIA REGIS ANTIOCHI. (Liv. xxxviii. 54.)

PETRĒIA, _de decimatione militum_, in case of mutiny.

PETRŌNĬA, probably passed in the time of Augustus, and subsequently
amended by various senatusconsulta, forbade a master to deliver up
his slave to fight with wild beasts.

PĪNĀRĬ, related to the giving of a judex within a limited time.

PLAETŌRĬA. [CURATOR.]

PLAUTĬA or PLŎTIA DE VI. [VIS.]

PLAUTIA or PLŌTIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, enacted that fifteen persons should
be annually taken from each tribe to be placed in the Album Judicum.

PLAUTIA ET PLŌTIA DE RĔDĬTU LĔPĬDĀNORUM. (Suet. Caes. 5.)

POETELĬA, B.C. 358, a plebiscitum, was the first lex against
ambitus.

POETELIA PĂPĪRIA, B.C. 326, made an important change in the
liabilities of the Nexi.

POMPĒIAE. There were various leges so called.

DE CIVITATE, proposed by Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Cn.
Pompeius Magnus, probably in his consulship B.C. 89, gave the
jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the Transpadani, and
probably the civitas to the Cispadani.

DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.]

DE IMPERIO CAESARI PROROGANDO. (Vell. Pat. ii. 46; Appian, B.C. ii.
18.)

JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 217, _a_.]

DE JURE MAGISTRATUUM, forbade a person to be a candidate for public
offices (_petitio honorum_) who was not at Rome; but J. Caesar was
excepted. This was doubtless the old law, but it had apparently
become obsolete.

DE PARRICIDIIS. [PARRICIDIUM.]

TRIBUNITIA (B.C. 70), restored the old tribunitia potestas, which
Sulla had nearly destroyed. [TRIBUNI.]

DE VI, was a privilegium, and only referred to the case of Milo.

PORCĬAE DE CĂPĬTE CĪVĬUM, or DE PRŌVŎCĀTIŌNE, enacted that no Roman
citizen should be scourged or put to death.

PORCIA DE PRŌVINCIIS, about B.C. 198, the enactments of which are
doubtful.

PUBLĬCĬA, permitted betting at certain games which required
strength.

PUBLĪLĬA. In the consulship of L. Pinarius and P. Furius, B.C.
471, the tribune Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of the
tribes, that the tribunes should in future be appointed in the
comitia of the tribes (_ut plebeii magistratus tributis comitiis
fierent_), instead of by the centuries, as had formerly been the
case; since the clients of the patricians were so numerous in the
centuries, that the plebeians could not elect whom they wished.
This measure was violently opposed by the patricians, who prevented
the tribes from coming to any resolution respecting it throughout
this year; but in the following year, B.C. 471, Publilius was
re-elected tribune, and together with him C. Laetorius, a man
of still greater resolution than Publilius. Fresh measures were
added to the former proposition: the aediles were to be chosen by
the tribes, as well as the tribunes, and the tribes were to be
competent to deliberate and determine on all matters affecting the
whole nation, and not such only as might concern the plebes. This
proposition, though still more violently resisted by the patricians
than the one of the previous year, was carried. Some said that the
number of the tribunes was now for the first time raised to five,
having been only two previously.

PUBLĪLĬAE, proposed by the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, B.C. 339.
According to Livy, there were three Publiliae Leges. 1. The first
is said to have enacted, that plebiscita should bind all Quirites,
which is to the same purport as the Lex Hortensia of B.C. 286. It
is probable, however, that the object of this law was to render the
approval of the senate a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum,
and to make the confirmation of the curiae unnecessary. 2. The
second law enacted, _ut legum quae comitiis centuriatis ferrerentur
ante initum suffragium patres auctores fierent_. By patres
Livy here means the curiae; and accordingly this law made the
confirmation of the curiae a mere formality in reference to all
laws submitted to the comitia centuriata, since every law proposed
by the senate to the centuries was to be considered to have the
sanction of the curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that one of
the two censors should necessarily be a plebeian. It is probable
that there was also a fourth law, which applied the Licinian law to
the praetorship as well as to the censorship, and which provided
that in each alternate year the praetor should be a plebeian.

PŪPĬA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to have enacted that the senate
could not meet on comitiales dies.

QUINTĬA, was a lex proposed by T. Quintius Crispinus, consul B.C.
9, for the preservation of the aquaeductus.

RĒGĬA. A _Lex Regia_ during the kingly period of Roman history
might have a two-fold meaning. In the first place it was a law
which had been passed by the comitia under the presidency of the
king, and was thus distinguished from a _Lex Tribunicia_, which was
passed by the comitia under the presidency of the tribunus celerum.
In later times all laws, the origin of which was attributed to
the time of the kings, were called _Leges Regiae_, though it by no
means follows that they were all passed under the presidency of the
kings, and much less, that they were enacted by the kings without
the sanction of the curies. Some of these laws were preserved and
followed at a very late period of Roman history. A collection
of them was made, though at what time is uncertain, by Papisius
or Papirius, and this compilation was called the _Jus Civile
Papirianum_ or _Papisianum_. The second meaning of _Lex Regia_
during the kingly period was undoubtedly the same as that of the
_Lex Curiata de Imperio_. [IMPERIUM.] This indeed is not mentioned
by any ancient writer, but must be inferred from the _Lex Regia_
which we meet with under the empire, for the name could scarcely
have been invented then; it must have come down from early times,
when its meaning was similar, though not nearly so extensive.
During the empire the curies continued to hold their meetings,
though they were only a shadow of those of former times; and after
the election of a new emperor, they conferred upon him the imperium
in the ancient form by a _Lex Curiata de Imperio_, which was now
usually called _Lex Regia_. The imperium, however, which this
_Regia Lex_ conferred upon an emperor, was of a very different
nature from that which in former times it had conferred upon the
kings. It now embraced all the rights and powers which the populus
Romanus had formerly possessed, so that the emperor became what
formerly the populus had been, that is, the sovereign power in the
state. A fragment of such a lex regia, conferring the imperium upon
Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen table, is still extant in the
Lateran at Rome.

REMNĬA. [CALUMNIA.]

RĔPĔTUNDĀRUM. [REPETUNDAE.]

RHŎDĬA. The Rhodians had a maritime code which was highly esteemed.
Some of its provisions were adopted by the Romans, and have thus
been incorporated into the maritime law of European states. It was
not, however, a lex in the proper sense of the term.

ROSCĬA THEĀTRĀLIS, proposed by the tribune L. Roscius Otho, B.C.
67, which gave the equites a special place at the public spectacles
in fourteen rows or seats (_in quatuordecim gradibus sive
ordinibus_) next to the place of the senators, which was in the
orchestra. This lex also assigned a certain place to spendthrifts.
The phrase _sedere in quatuordecim ordinibus_ is equivalent to
having the proper census equestris which was required by the lex.
There are numerous allusions to this lex, which is sometimes
simply called the Lex of Otho, or referred to by his name. It is
erroneously supposed by some writers to have been enacted in the
consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63.

RUBRĬA. The province of Gallia Cisalpina ceased to be a
provincia, and became a part of Italia, about the year B.C. 43.
When this change took place, it was necessary to provide for
the administration of justice, as the usual modes of provincial
administration would cease with the determination of the provincial
form of government. This was effected by a lex, a large part of
which, on a bronze tablet, is preserved in the Museum at Parma. The
name of this lex is not known, but it is supposed by some to be the
Lex Rubria.

RŬPĬLĬAE LĒGES (B.C. 131), were the regulations established by P.
Rupilius, and ten legati, for the administration of the province of
Sicily, after the close of the first servile war. They were made
in pursuance of a consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks of these
regulations as a decretum of Rupilius, which he says they call
Lex Rupilia; but it was not a lex proper. The powers given to the
commissioners by the Lex Julia Municipalis were of a similar kind.

SĂCRĀTAE. Leges were properly so called which had for their object
to make a thing or person _sacer_. A lex sacrata militaris is also
mentioned by Livy.

SAENĬA DE PATRICIORUM NUMERO AUGENDO, enacted in the 5th consulship
of Augustus.

SĂTŬRA. [LEX, p. 226, _a_.]

SCANTĪNĬA, proposed by a tribune; the date and contents are not
known, but its object was to suppress unnatural crimes. It existed
in the time of Cicero.

SCRĪBŌNĬA. The date and whole import of this lex are not known; but
it enacted that a right to servitutes should not be acquired by
usucapion.

SCRĪBŌNIA VĬĀRIA or DE VIIS MUNIENDIS, B.C. 51.

SEMPRŌNĬAE, the name of various laws proposed by Tiberius and Caius
Sempronius Gracchus.

AGRARIA. In B.C. 133 the tribune Tib. Gracchus revived the Agrarian
law of Licinius [LEGES LICINIAE]: he proposed that no one should
possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, and that the
surplus land should be divided among the poor citizens, who were
not to have the power of alienating it: he also proposed, as a
compensation to the possessors deprived of the land on which they
had frequently made improvements, that the former possessors should
have the full ownership of 500 jugera, and each of their sons, if
they had any, half that quantity: finally, that three commissioners
(_triumviri_) should be appointed every year to carry the law into
effect. This law naturally met with the greatest opposition, but
it was eventually passed in the year in which it was proposed, and
Tib. Gracchus, C. Gracchus, and Appius Claudius were the three
commissioners appointed under it. It was, however, never carried
fully into effect, in consequence of the murder of Tib. Gracchus.
Owing to the difficulties which were experienced in carrying his
brother’s agrarian law into effect, it was again brought forward by
C. Gracchus, B.C. 123.

DE CAPITE CIVIUM ROMANORUM, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123,
enacted that the people only should decide respecting the caput or
civil condition of a citizen. This law continued in force till the
latest times of the republic.

FRUMENTARIA, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, enacted that corn
should be sold by the state to the people once a month at the price
of 6⅓ asses for each modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and nearly
8 pints English. This was only a trifle more than half the market
price.

JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 216.]

MILITARIS, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, enacted that the
soldiers should receive their clothing gratis, and that no one
should be enrolled as a soldier under the age of seventeen.
Previously a fixed sum was deducted from the pay for all clothes
and arms issued to the soldiers.

NE QUIS JUDICIO CIRCUMVENIRETUR, proposed by C. Gracchus, B.C. 123,
punished all who conspired to obtain the condemnation of a person
in a judicium publicum. One of the provisions of the Lex Cornelia
de Sicariis was to the same effect.

DE PROVINCIIS CONSULARIBUS, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123,
enacted that the senate should fix each year, before the comitia
for electing the consuls were held, the two provinces which were to
be allotted to the two new consuls. There was also a Sempronian law
concerning the province of Asia, which probably did not form part
of the Lex de Provinciis Consularibus: it enacted that the taxes
of this province should be let out to farm by the censors at Rome.
This law was afterwards repealed by J. Caesar.

SEMPRŌNIA DE FĒNŎRE, B.C. 193, was a plebiscitum proposed by a
tribune, M. Sempronius, which enacted that the law (_jus_) about
money lent (_pecunia credita_) should be the same for the Socii and
Latini (_Socii ac nomen Latinum_) as for Roman citizens. The object
of the lex was to prevent Romans from lending money in the name of
the Socii, who were not bound by the fenebres leges. The lex could
obviously only apply within the jurisdiction of Rome.

SERVĪLĬA AGRĀRIA, proposed by the tribune P. S. Rullus in the
consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63, was a very extensive agrarian
rogatio. It was successfully opposed by Cicero; but it was in
substance carried by J. Caesar, B.C. 59 [LEX JULIA AGRARIA], and is
the lex called by Cicero _Lex Campana_, from the public land called
ager campanus being assigned under this lex.

SERVĪLĬA GLAUCIA DE CĪVĬTĀTE. [REPETUNDAE.]

SERVĪLIA GLAUCIA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.]

SERVĪLIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, B.C. 106. [JUDEX, p. 216.] It is assumed by
some writers that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia repealed the
Servilia Judiciaria two years after its enactment.

SĪLĬA, relating to Publica Pondera.

SILVĀNI ET CARBŌNIS. [LEX PAPIRIA PLAUTIA.]

SULPĬCĬAE, proposed by the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, a
supporter of Marius, B.C. 88, enacted the recall of the exiles,
the distribution of the new citizens and the libertini among the
thirty-five tribes, that the command in the Mithridatic war should
be taken from Sulla and given to Marius, and that a senator should
not contract debt to the amount of more than 2000 denarii. The last
enactment may have been intended to expel persons from the senate
who should get in debt. All these leges were repealed by Sulla.

SULPĬCĬA SEMPRŌNĬA, B.C. 304. No name is given to this lex by Livy,
but it was probably proposed by the consuls. It prevented the
dedicatio of a templum or altar without the consent of the senate
or a majority of the tribunes.

SUMPTUĀRĬAE, the name of various laws passed to prevent inordinate
expense (_sumptus_) in banquets, dress, &c. In the states of
antiquity it was considered the duty of government to put a check
upon extravagance in the private expenses of persons, and among the
Romans in particular we find traces of this in the laws attributed
to the kings, and in the Twelve Tables. The censors, to whom
was entrusted the _disciplina_ or _cura morum_, punished by the
_nota censoria_ all persons guilty of what was then regarded as
a luxurious mode of living; a great many instances of this kind
are recorded. But as the love of luxury greatly increased with
the foreign conquests of the republic and the growing wealth of
the nation, various leges sumptuariae were passed at different
times with the object of restraining it. These, however, as may be
supposed, rarely accomplished their object, and in the latter times
of the republic they were virtually repealed. The following list of
them is arranged in chronological order:--

OPPIA, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius in B.C. 215, enacted
that no woman should have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear a
dress of different colours, nor ride in a carriage in the city or
in any town, or within a mile of it, unless on account of public
sacrifices. This law was repealed twenty years afterwards, whence
we frequently find the Lex Orchia mentioned as the first lex
sumptuaria.

ORCHIA, proposed by the tribune C. Orchius in B.C. 181, limited the
number of guests to be present at entertainments.

FANNIA, proposed by the consul C. Fannius, B.C. 61, limited the
sums which were to be spent on entertainments, and enacted that not
more than 100 asses should be spent on certain festivals named in
the lex, whence it is called _centussis_ by Lucilius; that on ten
other days in each month not more than 30 asses, and that on all
other days not more than 10 asses, should be expended; also that no
other fowl but one hen should be served up, and that not fattened
for the purpose.

DIDIA, passed B.C. 143, extended the Lex Fannia to the whole of
Italy, and enacted that not only those who gave entertainments
which exceeded in expense what the law had prescribed, but also
all who were present at such entertainments, should be liable to
the penalties of the law. We are not, however, told in what these
consisted.

LICINIA, agreed in its chief provisions with the Lex Fannia, and
was brought forward, we are told, that there might be the authority
of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch as the Lex Fannia was
beginning to be neglected. It allowed 200 asses to be spent on
entertainments upon marriage days, and on other days the same as
the Lex Fannia; also, that on ordinary days there should not be
served up more than three pounds of fresh, and one pound of salt
meat. It was probably passed in B.C. 103.

CORNELIA, a law of the dictator Sulla, B.C. 81, was enacted on
account of the neglect of the Fannian and Licinian Laws. Like
these, it regulated the expenses of entertainments. Extravagance in
funerals, which had been forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was
also restrained by a law of Sulla.

AEMILIA, proposed by the consul Aemilius Lepidus, B.C. 78, did not
limit the expenses of entertainments, but the kind and quantity of
food that was to be used.

ANTIA, of uncertain date, proposed by Antius Resto, besides
limiting the expenses of entertainments, enacted that no actual
magistrate, or magistrate elect, should dine abroad anywhere except
at the houses of certain persons. This law however was little
observed; and we are told that Antius never dined out afterwards,
that he might not see his own law violated.

JULIA, proposed by the dictator C. Julius Caesar, enforced the
former sumptuary laws respecting entertainments which had fallen
into disuse. He stationed officers in the provision market to seize
upon all eatables forbidden by the law, and sometimes sent lictors
and soldiers to banquets to take everything which was not allowed
by the law.

JULIA, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 sesterces to be expended
upon festivals on dies profesti, 300 on those of the calends,
ides, nones, and some other festive days, and 1000 upon marriage
feasts. There was also an edict of Augustus or Tiberius, by which
as much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were allowed to be expended
upon entertainments, the increase being made with the hope of
securing thereby the observance of the law. Tiberius attempted to
check extravagance in banquets; and a senatusconsultum was passed
in his reign for the purpose of restraining luxury, which forbade
gold vases to be employed, except for sacred purposes, and also
prohibited the use of silk garments to men. This sumptuary law,
however, was but little observed. Some regulations on the subject
were also made by Nero and by succeeding emperors, but they appear
to have been of little or no avail in checking the increasing love
of luxury in dress and food.

TĂBELLĀRĬAE, the laws by which the ballot was introduced in voting
in the comitia. As to the ancient mode of voting at Rome, see
COMITIA, p. 107.

GABINIA, proposed by the tribune Gabinius B.C. 139, introduced the
ballot in the election of magistrates; whence Cicero calls the
tabella _vindex tacitae libertatis_.

CASSIA, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius Longinus B.C. 137,
introduced the ballot in the _judicium populi_, or cases tried in
the comitia by the whole body of the people, with the exception of
cases of perduellio.

PAPIRIA, proposed by the tribune C. Papirius Carbo, B.C. 131,
introduced the ballot in the enactment and repeal of laws.

CAELIA, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus, B.C. 107, introduced the
ballot in cases of perduellio, which had been excepted in the
Cassian law. There was also a law brought forward by Marius, B.C.
119, which, was intended to secure freedom and order in voting.

TARPĒIA ATERNĬA. [ATERNIA TARPEIA.]

TĔRENTĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. Terentilius, B.C. 462, but
not carried, was a rogatio which had for its object an amendment of
the constitution, though in form it only attempted a limitation of
the imperium consulare. This rogatio probably led to the subsequent
legislation of the decemviri.

TESTĀMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges, such as the Cornelia, Falcidia,
Furia, and Voconia, regulated testamentary dispositions.

THŎRĬA, passed B.C. 121, concerned the public land in Italy as
far as the rivers Rubico and Macra, or all Italy except Cisalpine
Gaul, the public land in the province of Africa, the public land in
the territory of Corinth, and probably other public land besides.
It relieved a great part of the public land of the land-tax
(_vectigal_). Some considerable fragments of this lex have come
down to us, engraved on the back part of the same bronze tablet
which contained the Servilia Lex Judiciaria, and on Repetundae.

TĬTĬA, similar in its provisions to the Lex Publicia.

TĬTĬA, DE TUTORIBUS. [JULIA ET TITIA.]

TRĒBONĬA, a plebiscitum proposed by L. Trebonius, B.C. 448, which
enacted that if the ten tribunes were not chosen before the comitia
were dissolved, those who were elected should not fill up the
number (_co-optare_), but that the comitia should be continued till
the ten were elected.

TRĒBŌNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS CONSULĀRĬBUS. (Plut. _Cat. Min._ 43; Liv.
_Epit._ 105.)

TRĬBŪNĬTĬA. (1) A law passed in the times of the kings under
the presidency of the tribunus celerum, and was so called to
distinguish it from one passed under the presidency of the king.
[LEX REGIA.]--(2) Any law proposed by a tribune of the plebs.--(3)
The law proposed by Pompey in B.C. 70, restoring to the tribunes of
the plebs the power of which they had been deprived by Sulla.

TULLĬA DE AMBĬTU. [AMBITUS.]

TULLIA DE LĒGĀTIŌNE LĪBĔRA. [LEGATUS, p. 224.]

VĂLĔRĬAE, proposed by the consul P. Valerius Publicola, B.C. 508,
enacted, 1. That whoever attempted to obtain possession of royal
power should be devoted to the gods, together with his substance.
2. That whoever was condemned by the sentence of a magistrate to
be put to death, to be scourged, or to be fined, should possess
the right of appeal (_provocatio_) to the people. The patricians
possessed previously the right of appeal from the sentence of a
magistrate to their own council the curiae, and therefore this
law of Valerius probably related only to the plebeians, to whom
it gave the right of appeal to the plebeian tribes, and not to
the centuries. Hence the laws proposed by the Valerian family
respecting the right of appeal are always spoken of as one of
the chief safeguards of the liberty of the plebs. The right of
appeal did not extend beyond a mile from the city, where unlimited
imperium began, to which the patricians were just as much subject
as the plebeians.

VĂLĔRĬAE ET HŎRĀTĬAE, three laws proposed by the consuls L.
Valerius and M. Horatius, B.C. 449, in the year after the
decemvirate, enacted, 1. That a plebiscitum should be binding on
the whole people, respecting the meaning of which expression, see
PLEBISCITUM. 2. That whoever should procure the election of a
magistrate without appeal should be outlawed, and might be killed
by any one with impunity. 3. Renewed the penalty threatened against
any one who should harm the tribunes and the aediles, to whom were
now added the judices and decemviri. There is considerable doubt as
to who are meant by the _judices_ and _decemviri_.

VĂLĔRĬA, proposed by the consul M. Valerius, B.C. 300, re-enacted
for the third time the celebrated law of his family respecting
appeal (_provocatio_) from the decision of a magistrate. The law
specified no fixed penalty for its violation, leaving the judges to
determine what the punishment should be.

VĂRĬA. [MAJESTAS.]

VĂTĪNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS, was the enactment by which Julius Caesar
obtained the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyricum for
five years, to which the senate added Gallia Transalpina. This
plebiscitum was proposed by the tribune Vatinius. A Trebonia Lex
subsequently prolonged Caesar’s imperium for five years.

VĂTĪNĬA DE CŎLŌNIS, under which the Latina Colonia [LATINITAS] of
Novum-Comum in Gallia Cisalpina was planted, B.C. 59.

VĂTĪNIA DE REJECTIŌNE JŪDĬCUM. (Cic. _in Vatin._ 11.)

DE VI. [VIS.]

VĬĀRĬA. A viaria lex which Cicero says the tribune C. Curio
talked of; but nothing more seems to be known of it. Some modern
writers speak of leges viariae, but there do not appear to be any
leges properly so called. The provisions as to roads in many of
the Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and had no special
reference to roads.

VISELLĬA, made a Latinus who assumed the rights of an ingenuus
liable to prosecution.

VILLĬA ANNĀLIS. [LEX ANNALIS.]

VŎCŌNIA, enacted on the proposal of Q. Voconius Saxa, a tribunus
plebis, B.C. 169. One provision of the lex was, that no person
who should be rated in the census at 100,000 sesterces (_centum
millia aeris_) after the census of that year, should make any
female (_virginem neve mulierem_) his heres. The lex allowed no
exceptions, even in favour of an only daughter. It applied simply
to testaments, and therefore a daughter or other female could
inherit ab intestato to any amount. The vestal virgins could make
women their heredes in all cases, which was the only exception to
the provisions of the lex. Another provision of the lex forbade
a person who was included in the census to give more in amount,
in the form of a legacy to any person, than the heres or heredes
should take. This provision secured something to the heres or
heredes, but still the provision was ineffectual, and the object of
the lex was only accomplished by the Lex Falcidia, B.C. 44, which
enacted that a testator should not give more than three-fourths in
legacies, thus securing a fourth to the heres.

LĪBELLA, a small Roman silver coin, which existed in the early age
of the city. The name was retained later as a proverbial expression
for a very small value. The _libella_ was equal in value to the old
full-weight _as_; and it seems most probable that the coin ceased
being struck at the time of the reduction of the _as_, on account
of the inconveniently small size which it would have assumed.
The _libella_ was subdivided into the _sembella_, its half, and
the _teruncius_, its quarter. Cicero uses these words to express
fractions of an estate, with reference to the _denarius_ as the unit,
the _libella_ signifying 1-10th, and the _teruncius_ 1-40th of the
whole.

LĬBELLUS, the diminutive form of liber, signifies properly a little
book. It was distinguished from other kinds of writings, by being
written like our books by pages, whereas other writings were written
_transversa charta_. It was used by the Romans as a technical term
in the following cases:--1. _Libelli accusatorum_ or _accusatorii_,
the written accusations which in some cases a plaintiff, after having
received the permission to bring an action against a person, drew up,
signed, and sent to the judicial authorities. 2. _Libelli famosi_,
libels or pasquinades, intended to injure the character of persons.
A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted very severe punishments on
those who composed defamatory writings. 3. _Libellus memorialis_,
a pocket or memorandum book. 4. _Libellus_ is used by the Roman
jurists as equivalent to _Oratio Principis_. 5. The word libellus was
also applied to a variety of writings, which in most cases probably
consisted of one page only; such as short letters, advertisements, &c.

[Illustration: Ancient Writing Materials. (From a Painting at
Herculaneum.)]

LĬBER (βιβλίον), a book. The most common material on which books
were written by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin coats or rind
(_liber_, whence the Latin name for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus.
This plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos (βύβλος), whence the
Greeks derived their name for a book (βιβλίον). The papyrus-tree
grows in swamps to the height of ten feet and more, and paper
(_charta_) was prepared from the thin coats or pellicles which
surround the plant. Next to the papyrus, parchment (_membrana_)
was the most common material for writing upon. It is said to have
been invented by Eumenes II. king of Pergamus, in consequence of
the prohibition of the export of papyrus from Egypt by Ptolemy
Epiphanes. It is probable, however, that Eumenes introduced only
some improvement in the manufacture of parchment, as Herodotus
mentions writing on skins as common in his time, and says that the
Ionians had been accustomed to give the name of skins (διφθέραι) to
books. The ancients wrote usually on only one side of the paper or
parchment. The back of the paper, instead of being written upon, was
usually stained with saffron colour or the cedrus, which produced a
yellow colour. As paper and parchment were dear, it was frequently
the custom to erase or wash out writing of little importance, and
to write upon the paper or parchment again, which was then called
_Palimpsestus_ (παλιμψήστος). The paper or parchment was joined
together so as to form one sheet, and when the work was finished, it
was rolled on a staff, whence it was called a _volumen_; and hence we
have the expression _evolvere librum_. When an author divided a work
into several books, it was usual to include only one book in a volume
or roll, so that there was generally the same number of volumes as
of books. In the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the stick on
which the papyrus is rolled does not project from the papyrus, but
is concealed by it. Usually, however, there were balls or bosses,
ornamented or painted, called _umbilici_ or _cornua_, which were
fastened at each end of the stick and projected from the papyrus. The
ends of the roll were carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone and
coloured black; they were called the _geminae frontes_. The way in
which a book was held while reading is shown in the following cut,
taken from a painting at Herculaneum. To protect the roll from injury
it was frequently put into a parchment case, which was stained with
a purple colour or with the yellow of the Lutum. The title of the
book (_titulus_, _index_) was written on a small strip of papyrus or
parchment with a light red colour (_coccum_ or _minium_).

[Illustration: Book held by a crowned Poet. (From a Painting at
Herculaneum.)]

LĪBĔRĀLĬA. [DIONYSIA.]

LĪBĔRI. [INGENUI; LIBERTUS.]

LĪBERTUS, LĪBERTĪNUS. Freemen (_liberi_) were either _Ingenui_
[INGENUI] or _Libertini_. _Libertini_ were those persons who
had been released from legal servitude. A manumitted slave was
_Libertus_ (that is, _liberatus_) with reference to his master; with
reference to the class to which he belonged after manumission, he was
_Libertinus_. Respecting the mode in which a slave was manumitted,
and his status after manumission, see MANUMISSIO.--At Athens, a
liberated slave was called ἀπελεύθερος. When manumitted he did not
obtain the citizenship, but was regarded as a _metoicus_ [METOICUS],
and, as such, he had to pay not only the _metoicion_ μετοίκιον but
a triobolon in addition to it. His former master became his patron
προστάτης to whom he owed certain duties.

LĬBĬTĪNĀRĬI. [FUNUS.]

LĪBRA, _dim._ LĪBELLA σταθμός, a balance, a pair of scales. The
principal parts of this instrument were, 1. The beam (_jugum_). 2.
The two scales, called in Greek τάλαντα, and in Latin _lances_.
The beam was made without a tongue, being held by a ring or other
appendage (_ligula_, ῥῦμα) fixed in the centre.

LĪBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans and
Italians. The uncial division, which has been noticed in speaking
of the coin As, was also applied to the weight.--(See Tables at the
end.) The divisions of the ounce are given under UNCIA. Where the
word _pondo_, or its abbreviations P. or POND., occur with a simple
number, the weight understood is the _libra_. The name _libra_ was
also given to a measure of horn, divided into twelve equal parts
(_unciae_) by lines marked on it, and used for measuring oil.

LIBRĀRĬI, the name of slaves, who were employed by their masters
in writing or copying, sometimes called _antiquarii_. They must be
distinguished from the Scribae publici, who were freemen [SCRIBAE],
and also from the booksellers [BIBLIOPOLA], to both of whom this name
was also applied.

LĪBRĀTOR, in general a person who examines things by a LIBRA;
but specially applied to two kinds of persons.--(1) _Libratores
aquae_, persons whose knowledge of hydrostatics was indispensable
in the construction of aquaeducts, sewers, and other structures for
the purpose of conveying a fluid from one place to another.--(2)
_Libratores_ in the armies were probably soldiers who attacked the
enemy by hurling with their own hands (_librando_) lances or spears
against them.

LIBRĬPENS. [MANCIPIUM.]

LĬBURNA, LĬBURNĬCA, a light vessel, which derived its name from
the Liburni. The ships of this people were of great assistance to
Augustus at the battle of Actium; and experience having shown their
efficiency, vessels of a similar kind were built and called by the
name of the people.

LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on the chief Roman
magistrates. The number which waited on the different magistrates
is stated in the article FASCES. The office of lictor is said to
have been derived by Romulus from the Etruscans. The lictors went
before the magistrates one by one in a line; he who went last or
next to the magistrate was called _proximus lictor_, to whom the
magistrate gave his commands; and as this lictor was always the
principal one, we also find him called _primus lictor_. The lictors
had to inflict punishment on those who were condemned, especially
in the case of Roman citizens; for foreigners and slaves were
punished by the Carnifex; and they also probably had to assist in
some cases in the execution of a decree or judgment in a civil suit.
The lictors likewise commanded persons to pay proper respect to a
magistrate passing by, which consisted in dismounting from horseback,
uncovering the head, standing out of the way, &c. The lictors were
originally chosen from the plebs, but afterwards appear to have been
generally freedmen, probably of the magistrate on whom they attended.
Lictors were properly only granted to those magistrates who had the
Imperium. Consequently, the tribunes of the plebs never had lictors,
nor several of the other magistrates. Sometimes, however, lictors
were granted to persons as a mark of respect or for the sake of
protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs every vestal virgin was
accompanied by a lictor, whenever she went out, and the honour of
one or two lictors was usually granted to the wives and other female
members of the Imperial family. There were also thirty lictors called
_Lictores Curiati_, whose duty it was to summon the curiae to the
comitia curiata; and when these meetings became little more than a
form, their suffrages were represented by the thirty lictors.

LĬGŬLA, a Roman measure of fluid capacity, containing one-fourth
of the CYATHUS. It signifies _a spoonful_, like _cochlear_; only
the _ligula_ was larger than the _cochlear_. The spoon which was
called _ligula_, or _lingula_ (dim. of _lingua_) from its shape, was
used for various purposes, especially to clean out small and narrow
vessels, and to eat jellies and such things. The word is also used
for the leather tongue of a shoe.

LĪMEN. [JANUA.]

LINTER, a light boat, frequently formed of the trunk of a tree, and
drawing little water.

LĬTHOSTRŌTA. [DOMUS, p. 144.]

LITRA λίτρα, a Sicilian silver coin, equal in value to the Aeginetan
obol.

[Illustration: Lituus, Augur’s Staff. (Centre figure from an Etruscan
sculpture; the two others are Roman coins.)]

LĬTUUS, probably an Etruscan word signifying _crooked_.--(1)
The crooked staff borne by the augurs, with which they divided
the expanse of heaven, when viewed with reference to divination
(_templum_), into regions (_regiones_).--(2) A sort of trumpet
slightly curved at the extremity. It differed both from the _tuba_
and the _cornu_, the former being straight, while the latter was bent
round into a spiral shape. Its tones are usually characterised as
harsh and shrill. The Liticines, or blowers on the Lituus, formed a
Collegium along with the Cornicines. [CORNU.]

[Illustration: Lituus, Trumpet. (From Fabretti.)]

LIXAE. [CALONES.]

LŎCŬPLĒTES or ASSĬDŬI, the name of the Roman citizens included in
the five classes of the Servian constitution, and opposed to the
_Proletarii_.

LŌDIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was also used as a carpet.

LOGISTAE. [EUTHYNE.]

[Illustration: Lorica, as worn by a Greek Warrior. (From a Vase.)

Lorica, as worn by a Roman Emperor. (Statue of
Caligula in Louvre.)]

LŌRĪCA (θώραξ), a cuirass. The cuirass was worn by the heavy-armed
infantry both among the Greeks and Romans. The soldiers commonly
wore cuirasses made of flexible bands of steel, or cuirasses of
chain mail; but those of generals and officers usually consisted of
two γύαλα, the breast-piece and back-piece, made of bronze, iron,
&c., which were joined by means of buckles (περόναι). The epithets
λεπιδωτός and φολιδωτός are applied to a cuirass; the former on
account of its resemblance to the scales of fish (λεπίσιν), the
latter to the scales of serpents (φολίσιν). Among the Asiatic nations
the cuirass was frequently made of cotton, and among the Sarmatians
and other northern nations of horn.

[Illustration:

Lorica. λεπιδωτός.
Lorica. φολιδωτός.
(Bartoli, ‘Arcus Triumph.’)]

LŪCAR. [HISTRIO.]

LŪCĔRES. [TRIBUS.]

[Illustration: Lucerna, lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 10.)]

LŬCERNA (λύχνος), an oil lamp. The Greeks and Romans originally used
candles; but in later times candles were chiefly confined to the
houses of the lower classes. [CANDELA.] A great number of ancient
lamps has come down to us; the greater part of which are made of
terra cotta, but also a considerable number of bronze. Most of the
lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the top, on which there are
frequently figures in relief. In the lamps there are one or more
round holes, according to the number of wicks (_ellychnia_) burnt
in them; and as these holes were called from an obvious analogy,
μυκτῆρες or μύξαι, literally nostrils or nozzles, the lamp was also
called _Monomyxos_, _Dimyxos_, _Trimyxos_, or _Polymyxos_, according
as it contained one, two, three, or a greater number of nozzles
or holes for the wicks. The following is an example of a _dimyxos
lucerna_, upon which there is a winged boy with a goose. The next
woodcut represents one of the most beautiful bronze lamps which has
yet been found. Upon it is the figure of a standing Silenus. The
lamps sometimes hung in chains from the ceiling of the room, but
they generally stood upon a stand. [CANDELABRUM.]

[Illustration: Lucerna lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. i. pl 10.)]

LUCTA, LUCTĀTĬO (πάλη, πάλαισμα, παλαισμοσύνη, or καταβλητική),
wrestling. The Greeks ascribed the invention of wrestling to mythical
personages, and Hermes, the god of all gymnastic exercises, also
presided over wrestling. In the Homeric age wrestling was much
practised: during this period wrestlers contended naked, and only
the loins were covered with the perizoma (περίζωμα), and this custom
probably remained throughout Greece until Ol. 15, from which time the
perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers contended entirely naked.
In the Homeric age the custom of anointing the body for the purpose
of wrestling does not appear to have been known, but in the time of
Solon it was quite general, and was said to have been adopted by the
Cretans and Lacedaemonians at a very early period. After the body was
anointed, it was strewed over with sand or dust, in order to enable
the wrestlers to take a firm hold of each other. If one combatant
threw the other down three times, the victory was decided. Wrestling
was practised in all the great games of the Greeks. The most renowned
wrestler was Milon, of Croton. [PANCRATIUM.]

LŪDI, the common name for the whole variety of games and contests
which were held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly at the
festivals of the gods; and as the ludi at certain festivals formed
the principal part of the solemnities, these festivals themselves are
called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also held in honour of a magistrate
or a deceased person, in which case they may be considered as ludi
privati. All ludi were divided by the Romans into two classes, _ludi
circenses_ and _ludi scenici_, accordingly as they were held in
the circus or in the theatre; in the latter case they were mostly
theatrical representations with their various modifications; in the
former they consisted of all or of a part of the games enumerated
in the articles CIRCUS and GLADIATORES. Another division of the
ludi into _stati_, _imperativi_, and _votivi_, is analogous to the
division of the feriae. [FERIAE.] The superintendence of the games,
and the solemnities connected with them, was in most cases intrusted
to the aediles. [AEDILES.] If the lawful rites were not observed in
the celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the decision of the
pontiffs whether they were to be held again (_instaurari_) or not. An
alphabetical list of the principal ludi is subjoined.

LUDI APOLLINARES were instituted at Rome during the second Punic
war, after the battle of Cannae (212 B.C.), at the command of an
oracle contained in the books of the ancient seer Marcius, in order
to obtain the aid of Apollo. They were held every year under the
superintendence of the praetor urbanus, and ten men sacrificed to
Apollo, according to Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two
white goats also with gilt horns, and to Latona a heifer with gilt
horns. The games themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, the
spectators were adorned with chaplets, and each citizen gave a
contribution towards defraying the expenses. In B.C. 208, it was
ordained that they should always be celebrated on the 6th of July.

LUDI AUGUSTALES. [AUGUSTALES.]

LUDI CAPITOLINI were instituted B.C. 387, after the departure
of the Gauls from Rome, as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter
Capitolinus, who had saved the Capitol in the hour of danger. The
superintendence of the games was entrusted to a college of priests
called _Capitolini_.

LUDI CIRCENSES, ROMANI or MAGNI, were celebrated every year during
several days, from the fourth to the twelfth of September, in
honour of the three great divinities, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,
or, according to others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and Neptunus
Equestris. They were superintended by the curule aediles. For further
particulars see CIRCUS.

LUDI COMPITALICII. [COMPITALIA.]

LUDI FLORALES. [FLORALIA.]

LUDI FUNEBRES were games celebrated at the funeral pyre of
illustrious persons. Such games are mentioned in the very early
legends of the history of Greece and Rome, and they continued with
various modifications until the introduction of Christianity. It was
at such a ludus funebris, in B.C. 264, that gladiatorial fights were
exhibited at Rome for the first time, which henceforwards were the
most essential part in all funeral games. [GLADIATORES.]

LUDI LIBERALES. [DIONYSIA.]

LUDI MEGALENSES. [MEGALESIA.]

LUDI PLEBEII were instituted probably in commemoration of the
reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians after the
first secession to the Mons Sacer, or, according to others, to the
Aventine. They were held on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and
were conducted by the plebeian aediles.

LUDI SAECULARES. During the time of the republic these games were
called _ludi Tarentini_, _Terentini_, or _Taurii_, and it was
not till the time of Augustus that they bore the name of _ludi
saeculares_. The names _Tarenti_ or _Taurii_ are perhaps nothing but
different forms of the same word, and of the same root as Tarquinius.
There were various accounts respecting the origin of the games,
yet all agree in stating that they were celebrated for the purpose
of averting from the state some great calamity by which it had been
afflicted, and that they were held in honour of Dis and Proserpina.
From the time of the consul Valerius Publicola down to that of
Augustus, the Tarentine games were held only three times, and again
only on certain emergencies, and not at any fixed period, so that
we must conclude that their celebration was in no way connected
with certain cycles of time (_saecula_). Not long after Augustus
had assumed the supreme power in the republic, the quindecimviri
announced that according to their books _ludi saeculares_ ought to
be held, and at the same time tried to prove from history that in
former times they had not only been celebrated repeatedly, but almost
regularly once in every century. The festival, however, which was
now held, was in reality very different from the ancient Tarentine
games; for Dis and Proserpina, to whom formerly the festival belonged
exclusively, were now the last in the list of the divinities in
honour of whom the ludi saeculares were celebrated. The festival
took place in summer, and lasted for three days and three nights.
On the first day the games commenced in that part of the Campus
Martius, Which had belonged to the last Tarquin, from whom it derived
its name Tarentum, and sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno,
Neptune, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Ceres, Vulcan, Mars, Diana,
Vesta, Hercules, Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpina. The
solemnities began at the second hour of the night, and the emperor
opened them by the river side with the sacrifice of three lambs to
the Parcae upon three altars erected for the purpose, and which
were sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The lambs themselves
were burnt. A temporary scene like that of a theatre was erected in
the Tarentum, and illuminated with lights and fires. In this scene
festive hymns were sung by a chorus, and various other ceremonies,
together with theatrical performances, took place. During the morning
of the first day the people went to the Capitol to offer solemn
sacrifices to Jupiter; thence they returned to the Tarentum, to sing
choruses in honour of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the noblest
matrons, at an hour fixed by an oracle, assembled in the Capitol,
offered supplications, sang hymns to the gods, and also visited the
altar of Juno. The emperor and the quindecimviri offered sacrifices
which had been vowed before, to all the great divinities. On the
third day Greek and Latin choruses were sung in the sanctuary of
Apollo by three times nine boys and maidens of great beauty, whose
parents were still alive. The object of these hymns was to implore
the protection of the gods for all cities, towns, and officers
of the empire. One of these hymns was the _carmen saeculare_ by
Horace, which was especially composed for the occasion and adapted
to the circumstances of the time. During the whole of the three
days and nights, games of every description were carried on in all
the circuses and theatres, and sacrifices were offered in all the
temples. The first celebration of the ludi saeculares in the reign of
Augustus took place in the summer of B.C. 17.

LUDI TARENTINI or TAURII. [LUDI SAECULARES.]

LŪDUS. [GLADIATORES.]

LŪDUS TRŌJAE. [CIRCUS.]

LŬPERCĀLĬA, one of the most ancient Roman festivals, which was
celebrated every year in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertility.
It was originally a shepherd-festival, and hence its introduction at
Rome was connected with the names of Romulus and Remus, the kings of
shepherds. It was held every year, on the 15th of February, in the
Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were said to have been nurtured
by the she-wolf; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred
to the god Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled on the day of the
Lupercalia, and sacrificed to the god goats and young dogs. Two
youths of noble birth were then led to the Luperci, and one of the
latter touched their foreheads with a sword dipped in the blood of
the victims; other Luperci immediately after wiped off the bloody
spots with wool dipped in milk. Hereupon the two youths were obliged
to break out into a shout of laughter. This ceremony was probably a
symbolical purification of the shepherds. After the sacrifice was
over, the Luperci partook of a meal, at which they were plentifully
supplied with wine. They then cut the skins of the goats which they
had sacrificed, into pieces: with some of which they covered parts of
their body in imitation of the god Lupercus, who was represented half
naked and half covered with goatskin. The other pieces of the skins
they cut in the shape of thongs, and holding them in their hands they
ran with them through the streets of the city, touching or striking
with them all persons whom they met in their way, and especially
women, who even used to come forward voluntarily for the purpose,
since they believed that this ceremony rendered them fruitful,
and procured them an easy delivery in child-bearing. This act of
running about with thongs of goatskin was a symbolic purification
of the land, and that of touching persons a purification of men,
for the words by which this act is designated are _februare_ and
_lustrare_. The goatskin itself was called _februum_, the festive
day _dies februata_, the month in which it occurred _Februarius_,
and the god himself _Februus_. The festival of the Lupercalia,
though it necessarily lost its original import at the time when the
Romans were no longer a nation of shepherds, was yet always observed
in commemoration of the founders of the city. M. Antonius, in his
consulship, was one of the Luperci, and not only ran with them half
naked and covered with pieces of goatskin through the city, but even
addressed the people in the forum in this rude attire.

LŬPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. They formed a college,
the members of which were originally youths of patrician families,
and which was said to have been instituted by Romulus and Remus.
The college was divided into two classes, the one called _Fabii_
or _Fabiani_, and the other _Quinctilii_ or _Quinctiliani_. The
office was not for life, but how long it lasted is not known. Julius
Caesar added to the two classes of the college a third with the
name of _Julii_ or _Juliani_, and made Antonius their high-priest.
He also assigned to them certain revenues (_vectigalia_) which were
afterwards withdrawn from them.

LŬPUS FERREUS, the iron wolf used by the besieged in repelling the
attacks of the besiegers, and especially in seizing the battering-ram
and diverting its blows.

LUSTRĀTĬO (κάθαρσις) was originally a purification by ablution in
water. But the lustrations of which we possess direct knowledge are
always connected with sacrifices and other religious rites, and
consisted in the sprinkling of water by means of a branch of laurel
or olive, and at Rome sometimes by means of the aspergillum, and in
the burning of certain materials, the smoke of which was thought to
have a purifying effect. Whenever sacrifices were offered, it seems
to have been customary to carry them around the person or thing to be
purified. Lustrations were made in ancient Greece, and probably at
Rome also, by private individuals when they had polluted themselves
by any criminal action. Whole cities and states also sometimes
underwent purifications to expiate the crime or crimes committed by
a member of the community. The most celebrated purification of this
kind was that of Athens, performed by Epimenides of Crete, after the
Cylonian massacre. Purification also took place when a sacred spot
had been unhallowed by profane use, as by burying dead bodies in
it, as was the case with the island of Delos. The Romans performed
lustrations on many occasions, on which the Greeks did not think of
them; and the object of most Roman lustrations was not to atone for
the commission of crime, but to obtain the blessing of the gods upon
the persons or things which were lustrated. Thus fields were purified
after the business of sowing was over, and before the sickle was put
to the corn. [ARVALES FRATRES.] Sheep were purified every year at the
festival of the Palilia. All Roman armies before they took the field
were lustrated; and as the solemnity was probably always connected
with a review of the troops, the word lustratio is also used in the
sense of the modern review. The establishment of a new colony was
always preceded by a lustratio with solemn sacrifices. The city of
Rome itself, as well as other towns within its dominion, always
underwent a lustratio after they had been visited by some great
calamity, such as civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and the like. A
regular and general lustratio of the whole Roman people took place
after the completion of every lustrum, when the censor had finished
his census and before he laid down his office. This lustratio (also
called lustrum) was conducted by one of the censors, and held with
sacrifices called _Suovetaurilia_, because the sacrifices consisted
of a pig (or ram), a sheep, and an ox. It took place in the Campus
Martius, where the people assembled for the purpose. The sacrifices
were carried three times around the assembled multitude.

LUSTRUM (from _luo_, Gr. λούω) is properly speaking a lustration or
purification, and in particular the purification of the whole Roman
people performed by one of the censors in the Campus Martius, after
the business of the census was over. [CENSUS; LUSTRATIO.] As this
purification took place only once in five years, the word lustrum
was also used to designate the time between two lustra. The first
lustrum was performed in B.C. 566, by king Servius, after he had
completed his census, and it is said to have taken place subsequently
every five years, after the census was over. The census might be held
without the lustrum, and indeed two cases of this kind are recorded
which happened in B.C. 459 and 214. In these cases the lustrum was
not performed on account of some great calamities which had befallen
the republic. The time when the lustrum took place has been very
ingeniously defined by Niebuhr. Six ancient Romulian years of 304
days each were, with the difference of one day, equal to five solar
years of 365 days each, or the six ancient years made 1824 days,
while the five solar years contained 1825 days. The lustrum, or the
great year of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at the end of
which the beginning of the ancient year nearly coincided with that
of the solar year. As the coincidence, however, was not perfect, a
month of 24 days was intercalated in every eleventh lustrum. Now
it is highly probable that the recurrence of such a cycle or great
year was, from the earliest times, solemnised with sacrifices and
purifications, and that Servius Tullius did not introduce them, but
merely connected them with his census, and thus set the example for
subsequent ages. Many writers of the latter period of the republic
and during the empire, use the word lustrum for any space of five
years, and without any regard to the census, while others even apply
it in the sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olympiad, which
contained only four years.

LỸCAEA (λύκαια), a festival with contests, celebrated by the
Arcadians in honour of Zeus surnamed Λυκαῖος. It was said to have
been instituted by the ancient hero Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, who
is also said, instead of the cakes which had formerly been offered to
the god, to have sacrificed a child to Zeus, and to have sprinkled
the altar with its blood.

[Illustration: Lyre with four strings, from a Lycian coin. (Cabinet
of Sir Charles Fellows.)]

[Illustration: Lyre with seven strings, from a coin of Chalcis.
(British Museum.)]

LỸRA (λύρα, Lat. _fides_), a lyre, one of the most ancient musical
instruments of the stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the invention
of the lyre to Hermes, who is said to have formed the instrument of
a tortoise-shell, over which he placed gut-strings. The name λύρα,
however, does not occur in the Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre,
called in Homer _phorminx_ (φόρμιγξ) and _citharis_ (κίθαρις), seems
rather to have resembled the _cithara_ of later times, which was in
some respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara the strings were
drawn across the bottom, whereas in the lyra of ancient times they
were free on both sides. The lyre is also called χέλυς or χελώνη, and
in Latin _testudo_, because it was made of a tortoise-shell. The lyre
had originally three or four strings, but after the time of Terpander
of Antissa (about B.C. 650), who is said to have added three more, it
was generally made with seven. The ancients, however, made use of a
variety of lyres; and about the time of Sappho and Anacreon several
stringed instruments, such as _magadis_, _barbiton_, and others, were
used in Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They had been introduced
from Asia Minor, and their number of strings far exceeded that of the
lyre, for we know that some had even twenty strings, so that they
must have more resembled a modern harp than a lyre. But the lyra and
cithara had in most cases no more than seven strings. The lyre had
a great and full-sounding bottom, which continued as before to be
made generally of tortoise-shell, from which the horns rose as from
the head of a stag. A transverse piece of wood connecting the two
horns at or near their top-ends served to fasten the strings, and
was called ζύγον, and in Latin _transtillum_. The horns were called
πήχεις or _cornua_. These instruments were often adorned in the
most costly manner with gold and ivory. The lyre was considered as
a more manly instrument than the cithara, which, on account of its
smaller-sounding bottom, excluded full-sounding and deep tones, and
was more calculated for the middle tones. The lyre when played stood
in an upright position between the knees, while the cithara stood
upon the knees of the player. Both instruments were held with the
left hand, and played with the right. It has generally been supposed
that the strings of these instruments were always touched with a
little staff called _plectrum_ (πλῆκτρον), but among the paintings
discovered at Herculaneum we find several instances where the persons
play the lyre with their fingers. The lyre was at all times only
played as an accompaniment to songs. The Latin name _fides_, which
was used for a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the same as
the Greek σφίδες, which signifies gut-string. The lyre (_cithara_
or _phorminx_) was at first used in the recitations of epic poetry,
though it was probably not played during the recitation itself, but
only as a prelude before the minstrel commenced his story, and in the
intervals or pauses between the several parts. The lyre has given its
name to a species of poetry called lyric; this kind of poetry was
originally never recited or sung without the accompaniment of the
lyre, and sometimes also of an appropriate dance.

[Illustration: Anacreon playing the lyre. (Vase-painting in the
British Museum.)]

MAENIĀNUM, signified, originally, a projecting balcony, which was
erected round the Roman forum, by the censor, C. Maenius, B.C.
318, in order to give more accommodation to the spectators of the
gladiatorial combats. Hence balconies in general came to be called
_maeniana_.

MĂGĂDIS. [LYRA.]

MĂGISTER., which contains the same root as _mag-is_ and _mag-nus_,
was applied at Rome to persons possessing various kinds of offices,
and especially to the leading person in a collegium or corporation
[COLLEGIUM]; thus the _magister societatis_ was the president of the
corporation of equites, who farmed the taxes at Rome.

MĂGISTER ĔQUITUM. [DICTATOR.]

MĂGISTRĀTUS was a person _qui juri dicundo praeerat_. The King was
originally the sole Magistratus; he had all the Potestas. On the
expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls were annually appointed, and they
were Magistratus. In course of time other Magistratus were appointed;
namely, dictators, censors, praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs,
and the decemviri litibus judicandis. The governors of provinces with
the title of propraetor or proconsul were also Magistratus. The word
Magistratus contains the same element as _mag(ister)_ and _mag(nus)_;
and it signifies both the person and the office, as we see in the
phrase _se magistratu abdicare_. The auspicia maxima belonged to the
consuls, praetors, and censors, and the minora auspicia to the other
magistrates; accordingly the consuls, praetors, and censors were
called _Majores_, and they were elected at the comitia centuriata;
the other magistratus were called _Minores_. The former had the
imperium, the latter had not. The magistratus were also divided into
curules and those who were not curules: the magistratus curules were
the dictator, consuls, praetors, censors, and the curule aediles,
who were so called, because they had the jus sellae curulis. The
magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early
republic, but in course of time the plebeians shared these honours,
with the exception of that of the Interrex: the plebeian magistratus,
properly so called, were the plebeian aediles and the tribuni plebis.

MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to treason in English law; but
all the offences included under majestas comprehend more than the
English treason. One of the offences included in majestas was the
effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistratus populi
Romani, or of one who had imperium or potestas. Though the phrase
_crimen majestatis_ was used, the complete expression was _crimen
laesae_, _imminutae_, _diminutae_, or _minutae majestatis_. The word
majestas, consistently with its relation to _mag(nus)_, signifies
the magnitude or greatness of a thing. Accordingly, the phrases
_majestas populi Romani_, _imperii majestas_, signify the whole of
that which constituted the Roman state; in other words, the sovereign
power of the Roman state. The expression _minuere majestatem_
consequently signifies any act by which this majestas is impaired.
In the republican period the term _majestas laesa_ or _minuta_ was
most commonly applied to cases of a general betraying or surrendering
his army to the enemy, exciting sedition, and generally by his bad
conduct in administration impairing the majestas of the state. The
old punishment of majestas was perpetual interdiction from fire and
water. In the later imperial period, persons of low condition were
thrown to wild beasts, or burnt alive; persons of better condition
were simply put to death. In the early times of the republic, every
act of a citizen which was injurious to the state or its peace was
called _perduellio_, and the offender (_perduellis_) was tried before
the populus (_populi judicio_), and, if convicted, put to death.
_Perduellis_ originally signified _hostis_; and thus the old offence
of perduellio was equivalent to making war on the Roman state. The
trial for perduellio (_perduellionis judicium_) existed to the later
times of the republic; but the name seems to have almost fallen into
disuse, and various leges were passed for the purpose of determining
more accurately what should be majestas. These were a lex Apuleia,
probably passed in the fifth consulship of Marius, the exact contents
of which are unknown, a lex Varia B.C. 91, a lex Cornelia passed by
L. Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which continued under the
empire to be the fundamental enactment on this subject. This lex
Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Caesar, and assigned to
the year B.C. 48. Under the empire the term majestas was applied to
the person of the reigning Caesar, and we find the phrases majestas
Augusta, imperatoria, and regia. It was, however, nothing new to
apply the term to the emperor, considered in some of his various
capacities, for it was applied to the magistratus under the republic,
as to the consul and praetor. Horace even addresses Augustus in the
terms _majestas tua_, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise than as
a personal compliment, and not as said with reference to any of the
offices which he held.

MALLĔŎLUS, a hammer, the transverse head of which was formed for
holding pitch and tow, which, having been set on fire, was projected
slowly, so that it might not be extinguished during its flight, upon
houses and other buildings in order to set them on fire: it was
therefore commonly used in sieges together with torches and falaricae.

MĀLUS. [NAVIS.]

MANCEPS has the same relation to Mancipium that Auspex has to
Auspicium. It is properly _qui manu capit_. But the word has several
special significations. Mancipes were they who bid at the public
lettings of the censors for the purpose of farming any part of the
public property. Sometimes the chief of the publicani generally are
meant by this term, as they were no doubt the bidders and gave
the security, and then they shared the undertaking with others or
underlet it. The mancipes would accordingly have distinctive names
according to the kind of revenue which they took on lease, as
_Decumani_, _Portitores_, _Pecuarii_.

MANCĬPĀTĬO. [MANCIPIUM.]

MANCĬPĬUM, MANCĬPĀTIO. These words are used to indicate the
formal transfer of the ownership of a thing, and are derived from
the fact that the person who received the thing took hold of it
(_mancipatio dicitur quia manu res capitur_). It was not a simple
corporeal apprehension, but one which was accompanied with certain
forms described by Gaius the jurist:--“Mancipatio is effected in
the presence of not less than five witnesses, who must be Roman
citizens and of the age of puberty (_puberes_), and also in the
presence of another person of the same status, who holds a pair of
brazen scales, and hence is called _Libripens_. The purchaser (_qui
mancipio accipit_), taking hold of the thing, says: I affirm that
this slave (_homo_) is mine Ex Jure Quiritium, and he is purchased
by me with this piece of money (_aes_) and brazen scales. He then
strikes the scales with the piece of money, and gives it to the
seller as a symbol of the price (_quasi pretii loco_).” This mode of
transfer applied to all free persons or slaves, animals or lands,
all of which persons and things were called _Res Mancipi_; other
things were called _Nec Mancipi_. Lands (_praedia_) might be thus
transferred, though the parties to the mancipatio were not on the
lands; but all other things, which were objects of mancipatio, were
only transferable in the presence of the parties, because corporeal
apprehension was a necessary part of the ceremony. The party who
transferred the ownership of a thing pursuant to these forms was
said _mancipio dare_; he who thus acquired the ownership was said
_mancipio accipere_. The verb _mancipare_ is sometimes used as
equivalent to _mancipio dare_. Mancipium may be used as equivalent
to complete ownership, and may thus be opposed to _usus_ and to
_fructus_. Sometimes the word mancipium signifies a slave, as being
one of the res mancipi.

MANDĀTUM, often signifies a command from a superior to an inferior.
Under the empire the mandata principum were the commands and
instructions given to governors of provinces and others.

MĂNĬPŬLUS. [EXERCITUS.]

MANSĬO σταθμός, a post-station at the end of a day’s journey. The
word is derived from _manere_, signifying to pass the night at a
place in travelling. On the great Roman roads the mansiones were
at the same distance from one another as on those of the Persian
empire, where such resting-places (khans or caravanseras) were first
provided, viz. at intervals of about 20 English miles. They were
originally called _castra_, being probably mere places of encampment
formed by making earthen entrenchments. In process of time they
included, not only barracks and magazines of provisions (_horrea_)
for the troops, but commodious buildings adapted for the reception
of travellers of all ranks, and even of the emperor himself, if he
should have occasion to visit them. At those stations the cisiarii
kept gigs for hire and for conveying government despatches. [CISIUM;
ESSEDUM.] The _mansio_ was under the superintendence of an officer
called _mansionarius_.

MĂNŬBĬAE. [SPOLIA.]

MĂNŪMISSĬO was the form by which slaves were released from slavery.
There were three modes by which this was effected, namely, Vindicta,
Census, and Testamentum. Of these the manumissio by vindicta
is probably the oldest, and perhaps was once the only mode of
manumission. It is mentioned by Livy as in use at an early period;
and, indeed, he states that some persons refer the origin of the
vindicta to the event which he relates, and derive its name from
Vindicius; the latter part, at least, of the supposition is of
no value. The ceremony of the manumissio by the vindicta was as
follows:--The master brought his slave before the magistratus, and
stated the grounds (_causa_) of the intended manumission. The lictor
of the magistratus laid a rod (_festuca_) on the head of the slave,
accompanied with certain formal words, in which he declared that he
was a freeman ex jure quiritium, that is, _vindicavit in libertatem_.
The master in the meantime held the slave, and after he had
pronounced the words _hunc hominem liberum volo_, he turned him round
and let him go (_emisit e manu_), whence the general name of the
act of manumission. The word vindicta itself, which is properly the
res _vindicata_, is used for festuca by Horace. In the case of the
census the slave was registered by the censors as a citizen with his
master’s consent. The third mode of manumission was, when a master
gave liberty to a slave by his will (_testamentum_). The act of
manumission established the relation of patronus and libertus between
the manumissor and the manumitted. When manumitted by a citizen, the
libertus took the praenomen and the gentile name of the manumissor,
and became in a sense a member of the gens of his patron. To these
two names he added some other name as a cognomen, either some name by
which he was previously known, or some name assumed on the occasion:
thus we find the names M. Tullius Tiro, P. Terentius Afer, and other
like names. The relation between a patronus and libertus is stated
under PATRONUS. Before the year B.C. 311, the libertini had not the
suffragium, but in that year the censor Appius Claudius gave the
libertini a place in the tribes, and from this time the libertini
had the suffragium after they were duly admitted on the censors’
roll. In the year B.C. 304, they were placed in the tribus urbanae,
and not allowed to perform military service. In the censorship of
Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 169, they were placed in one of the tribus
urbanae, determined by lot. Subsequently, by a law of Aemilius
Scaurus, about B.C. 116, they were restored to the four city tribes,
and this remained their condition to the end of the republic, though
various attempts were made to give them a better suffrage. A tax was
levied on manumission by a lex Manlia, B.C. 357: it consisted of the
twentieth part of the value of the slave, hence called _Vicesima_.

MĂNUS FERREA. [HARPAGO.]

MARSŪPĬUM (μαρσύπιον, βαλάντιον), a purse. The purse used by the
ancients was commonly a small leathern bag, and was often closed by
being drawn together at the mouth (σύσπαστα βαλάντια). Mercury is
commonly represented holding one in his hand. (See cut, p. 63.)

MARTỸRĬA (μαρτύρια), signifies strictly the deposition of a witness
in a court of justice, though the word is applied metaphorically
to all kinds of testimony. At Athens none but freemen could be
witnesses. The incapacity of women may be inferred from the general
policy of the Athenian law, and the absence of any example in the
orators where a woman’s evidence is produced. The same observation
applies to minors. Slaves were not allowed to give evidence, unless
upon examination by torture (βάσανος). Citizens who had been
disfranchised (ἠτιμωμένοι) could not appear as witnesses (any more
than as jurors or plaintiffs) in a court of justice; for they had
lost all honourable rights and privileges. But there was no objection
to alien freemen. The party who desired the evidence of a witness,
summoned him to attend for that purpose. The summons was called
πρόσκλησις. If the witness promised to attend and failed to do so,
he was liable to an action called δίκη λειπομαρτυρίου. Whether he
promised or not, he was bound to attend, and if his absence caused
injury to the party, he was liable to an action (δίκη βλάβης). The
attendance of the witness was first required at the ἀνάκρισις, where
he was to make his deposition before the superintending magistrate
(ἡγεμὼν δικαστηρίου). The party in whose favour he appeared,
generally wrote the deposition at home upon a whitened board or
tablet (λελευκωμένον γραμματεῖον), which he brought with him to the
magistrate’s office, and, when the witness had deposed thereto, put
into the box (ἐχῖνος) in which all the documents in the cause were
deposited. An oath was usually taken by the witness at the ἀνάκρισις,
where he was sworn by the opposite party at an altar. The witness,
whether he had attended before the magistrate or not, was obliged to
be present at the trial, in order to confirm his testimony. The only
exception was, when he was ill or out of the country, in which case a
commission might be sent to examine him. [ECMARTYRIA.] All evidence
was produced by the party during his own speech, the κλεψύδρα being
stopped for that purpose. The witness was called by an officer of the
court, and mounted on the raised platform (βῆμα.) of the speaker,
while his deposition was read over to him by the clerk; he then
signified his assent, either by express words, or bowing his head in
silence.--We conclude by noticing a few expressions. Μαρτυρεῖν τινι
is to testify in favour of a man, καταμαρτυρεῖν τινος to testify
against. Μαρτύρεσθαι to call to witness (a word used poetically),
διαμαρτύρεσθαι and sometimes ἐπιμαρτύρεσθαι τοὺς παρόντας, to call
upon those who are present to take notice of what passes, with a
view to give evidence. Ψευδομαρτυρεῖν and ἐπιορκεῖν are never used
indifferently, which affords some proof that testimony was not
necessarily on oath. The μάρτυς (witness in the cause) is to be
distinguished from the κλητὴρ or κλήτωρ, who merely gave evidence of
the summons to appear.

MASTĪGŎPHŎRI or MASTĪGŎNOMI (μαστιγοφόροι or μαστιγονόμοι), the
name of the lower police officers in the Greek states, who carried
into execution the corporal punishments inflicted by the higher
magistrates. In the theatre the mastigophori preserved order, and
were stationed for this purpose in the orchestra, near the thymele.
In the Olympic games the ῥαβδοῦχοι performed the same duties. At
Athens they were discharged by the public slaves, called bowmen
(τοξόται), or Scythians (Σκύθαι). [DEMOSII.]

MĀTERFĂMĬLĬAS. [MATRIMONIUM.]

MATRĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 11th of
June, in honour of the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple stood in
the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated only by Roman matrons, and
the sacrifices offered to the goddess consisted of cakes baked in
pots of earthenware. Slaves were not allowed to take part in the
solemnities, or to enter the temple of the goddess. One slave,
however, was admitted by the matrons, but only to be exposed to a
humiliating treatment, for one of the matrons gave her a blow on the
cheek, and then sent her away from the temple. The matrons on this
occasion took with them the children of their sisters, but not their
own, held them in their arms, and prayed for their welfare.

MĀTRŌNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated on the Kalends of March in honour
of Juno Lucina. Hence Horace says, “Martiis _caelebs_ quid agam
Kalendis.”

MĀTRĬMŌNĬUM NUPTĬAE (γάμος), marriage. (1) GREEK. The ancient Greek
legislators considered the relation of marriage as a matter not
merely of private, but also of public or general interest. This
was particularly the case at Sparta, where proceedings might be
taken against those who married too late or unsuitably, as well as
against those who did not marry at all. But independent of public
considerations, there were also private or personal reasons, peculiar
to the ancients, which made marriage an obligation. One of these was
the duty incumbent upon every individual to provide for a continuance
of representatives to succeed himself as ministers of the Divinity;
and another was the desire felt by almost every one, not merely to
perpetuate his own name, but to leave some one who might make the
customary offerings at his grave. We are told that with this view
childless persons sometimes adopted children. The choice of a wife
among the ancients was but rarely grounded upon affection, and
scarcely ever could have been the result of previous acquaintance
or familiarity. In many cases a father chose for his son a bride
whom the latter had never seen, or compelled him to marry for the
sake of checking his extravagances. By the Athenian laws a citizen
was not allowed to marry with a foreign woman, nor conversely,
under very severe penalties, but proximity by blood (ἀγχιστεία), or
consanguinity (συγγένεια), was not, with some few exceptions, a bar
to marriage in any part of Greece; direct lineal descent was. At
Athens the most important preliminary to marriage was the betrothal
(ἐγγύησις), which was in fact indispensable to the complete validity
of a marriage contract. It was made by the natural or legal guardian
(ὁ κύριος) of the bride elect, and attended by the relatives of
both parties as witnesses. The wife’s dowry was settled at the
betrothal. On the day before the _gamos_, or marriage, or sometimes
on the day itself, certain sacrifices or offerings (προτέλεια γάμων
or προγάμεια) were made to the gods who presided over marriage.
Another ceremony of almost general observance on the wedding day,
was the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom in water fetched
from some particular fountain, whence, as some think, the custom
of placing the figure of a λουτροφόρος or “water carrier” over the
tombs of those who died unmarried. After these preliminaries, the
bride was generally conducted from her father’s to the house of the
bridegroom at nightfall, in a chariot (ἐφ’ ἁμάξης) drawn by a pair
of males or oxen, and furnished with a kind of couch (κλινίς) as a
seat. On either side of her sat the bridegroom and one of his most
intimate friends or relations, who from his office was called the
_paranymph_ (παράνυμφος or νυμφευτής); but as he rode in the carriage
(ὄχημα) with the bride and bridegroom, he was sometimes called the
πάροχος. The nuptial procession was probably accompanied, according
to circumstances, by a number of persons, some of whom carried the
nuptial torches. Both bride and bridegroom (the former veiled) were
decked out in their best attire, with chaplets on their heads,
and the doors of their houses were hung with festoons of ivy and
bay. As the bridal procession moved along, the hymenaean song was
sung to the accompaniment of Lydian flutes, even in olden times,
as beautifully described by Homer, and the married pair received
the greetings and congratulations of those who met them. After
entering the bridegroom’s house, into which the bride was probably
conducted by his mother, bearing a lighted torch, it was customary
to shower sweetmeats upon them (καταχύσματα), as emblems of plenty
and prosperity. After this came the nuptial feast, to which the
name _gamos_ was particularly applied; it was generally given in
the house of the bridegroom or his parents; and besides being a
festive meeting, served other and more important purposes. There
was no public rite, whether civil or religious, connected with the
celebration of marriage amongst the ancient Greeks, and therefore no
public record of its solemnisation. This deficiency then was supplied
by the marriage feast, for the guests were of course competent to
prove the fact of a marriage having taken place. To this feast,
contrary to the usual practice amongst the Greeks, women were invited
as well as men; but they seem to have sat at a separate table, with
the bride still veiled amongst them. At the conclusion of this feast
she was conducted by her husband into the bridal chamber; and a
law of Solon required that on entering it they should eat a quince
together, as if to indicate that their conversation ought to be
sweet and agreeable. The song called the _Epithalamium_ was then sung
before the doors of the bridal chamber. The day after the marriage,
the first of the bride’s residence in her new abode, was called
the _epaulia_ (ἐπαύλια); on which their friends sent the customary
presents to the newly married couple. On another day, the _apaulia_
(ἀπαύλια), perhaps the second after marriage, the bridegroom left
his house, to lodge apart from his wife at his father’s-in-law.
Some of the presents made to the bride by her husband and friends
were called _anacalypteria_ (ἀνακαλυπτήρια), as being given on the
occasion of the bride first appearing unveiled: they were probably
given on the _epaulia_, or day after the marriage. Another ceremony
observed after marriage was the sacrifice which the husband offered
up on the occasion of his bride being registered amongst his own
phratores. The above account refers to Athenian customs.--At Sparta
the betrothal of the bride by her father or guardian (κύριος) was
requisite as a preliminary of marriage, as well as at Athens. Another
custom peculiar to the Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was
the seizure of the bride by her intended husband, but of course with
the sanction of her parents or guardians. She was not, however,
immediately domiciled in her husband’s house, but cohabited with him
for some time clandestinely, till he brought her, and frequently
her mother also, to his home.--The Greeks, generally speaking,
entertained little regard for the female character. They considered
women, in fact, as decidedly inferior to men, qualified to discharge
only the subordinate functions in life, and rather necessary as
helpmates than agreeable as companions. To these notions female
education for the most part corresponded, and in fact confirmed
them; it did not supply the elegant accomplishments and refinement
of manners which permanently engage the affections, when other
attractions have passed away. Aristotle states, that the relation of
man to woman is that of the governor to the subject; and Plato, that
a woman’s virtue may be summed up in a few words, for she has only
to manage the house well, keeping what there is in it, and obeying
her husband. Among the Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta,
women enjoyed much more estimation than in the rest of Greece.--(2)
ROMAN. A legal Roman marriage was called _justae nuptiae_, _justum
matrimonium_, as being conformable to _jus_ (_civile_) or to law. A
legal marriage was either _Cum conventione uxoris in manum viri_ or
it was without this convention. But both forms of marriage agreed
in this: there must be connubium between the parties, and consent.
The legal consequences as to the power of the father over his
children were the same in both. _Connubium_ is merely a term which
comprehends all the conditions of a legal marriage. Generally it may
be stated, that there was only connubium between Roman citizens;
the cases in which it at any time existed between parties, not both
Roman citizens, were exceptions to the general rule. Originally,
or at least at one period of the republic, there was no connubium
between the patricians and the plebeians; but this was altered by the
Lex Canuleia (B.C. 445.), which allowed connubium between persons
of those two classes. There were various degrees of consanguinity
and affinity, within which there was no connubium. An illegal union
of a male and female, though affecting to be, was not a marriage:
the man had no legal wife, and the children had no legal father:
consequently they were not in the power of their reputed father. The
marriage _Cum conventione_ differed from that _Sine conventione_,
in the relationship which it effected between the husband and the
wife; the marriage _cum conventione_ was a necessary condition to
make a woman a _materfamilias_. By the marriage cum conventione,
the wife passed into the familia of her husband, and was to him
in the relation of a daughter, or, as it was expressed, _in manum
convenit_. In the marriage sine conventione, the wife’s relation
to her own familia remained as before, and she was merely _uxor_.
“_Uxor_,” says Cicero, “is a genus of which there are two species;
one is _materfamilias, quae in manum convenit_; the other is _uxor_
only.” Accordingly, a materfamilias is a wife who is in manu, and
in the familia of her husband. A wife not in manu was not a member
of her husband’s familia, and therefore the term could not apply
to her. _Matrona_ was properly a wife not in manu, and equivalent
to uxor; and she was called matrona before she had any children.
But these words are not always used in these their original and
proper meanings. It does not appear that any forms were requisite
in the marriage sine conventione; and apparently the evidence of
such marriage was cohabitation matrimonii causa. The matrimonii
causa might be proved by various kinds of evidence. In the case of
a marriage cum conventione, there were three forms, 1. _Usus_, 2.
_Farreum_, and 3. _Coemptio_.--1. Marriage was effected by _usus_,
if a woman lived with a man for a whole year as his wife; and this
was by analogy to usucaption of movables generally, in which usus
for one year gave ownership. The Law of the Twelve Tables provided,
that if a woman did not wish to come into the manus of her husband
in this manner, she should absent herself from him annually for
three nights (_trinoctium_) and so break the usus of the year.
2. _Farreum_ was a form of marriage, in which certain words were
used in the presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a
certain religious ceremony, in which panis farreus was employed;
and hence this form of marriage was also called _confarreatio_.
It appears that certain priestly offices, such as that of Flamen
Dialis, could only be held by those who were born of parents who
had been married by this ceremony (_confarreati parentes_). 3.
_Coemptio_ was effected by mancipatio, and consequently the wife was
in mancipio. [MANCIPIUM.] A woman who was cohabiting with a man as
uxor, might come into his manus by this ceremony, in which case the
coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa, and she who was formerly
uxor became _apud maritum filiae loco_. _Sponsalia_ were not an
unusual preliminary of marriage, but they were not necessary.--The
sponsalia were an agreement to marry, made in such form as to give
each party a right of action in case of non-performance, and the
offending party was condemned in such damages as to the judex seemed
just. The woman who was promised in marriage was accordingly called
_sponsa_, which is equivalent to promissa; the man who was engaged
to marry was called _sponsus_.--The sponsalia were of course not
binding, if the parties consented to waive the contract. Sometimes
a present was made by the future husband to the future wife by way
of earnest (_arrha_, _arrha sponsalitia_), or, as it was called,
_propter nuptias donatio_.--The consequences of marriage were--1.
The power of the father over the children of the marriage, which was
a completely new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, but one
which had no influence over the relation of the husband and wife.
[PATRIA POTESTAS.] 2. The liabilities of either of the parties to
the punishments affixed to the violation of the marriage union.
[ADULTERIUM; DIVORTIUM.] 3. The relation of husband and wife with
respect to property. [DOS.] When marriage was dissolved, the parties
to it might marry again; but opinion considered it more decent for a
woman not to marry again. A woman was required by usage (_mos_) to
wait a year before she contracted a second marriage, on the pain of
infamia.--It remains to describe the customs and rites which were
observed by the Romans at marriages. After the parties had agreed to
marry and the persons in whose potestas they were had consented, a
meeting of friends was sometimes held at the house of the maiden for
the purpose of settling the marriage-contract, which was written on
tablets, and signed by both parties. The woman after she had promised
to become the wife of a man was called _sponsa_, _pacta_, _dicta_,
or _sperata_. It appears that, at least during the imperial period,
the man put a ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a pledge of
his fidelity. This ring was probably, like all rings at this time,
worn on the left hand, and on the finger nearest to the smallest.
The last point to be fixed was the day on which the marriage was to
take place. The Romans believed that certain days were unfortunate
for the performance of the marriage rites, either on account of
the religious character of those days themselves, or on account of
the days by which they were followed, as the woman had to perform
certain religious rites on the day after her wedding, which could
not take place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for entering upon
matrimony were the calends, nones, and ides of every month, all dies
atri, the whole months of May and February, and a great number of
festivals. On the wedding-day, which in the early times was never
fixed upon without consulting the auspices, the bride was dressed
in a long white robe with a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands.
This dress was called _tunica recta_, and was bound round the waist
with a girdle (_corona_, _cingulum_, or _zona_), which the husband
had to untie in the evening. The bridal veil, called _flammeum_,
was of a bright yellow colour, and her shoes likewise. Her hair was
divided on this occasion with the point of a spear. The bride was
conducted to the house of her husband in the evening. She was taken
with apparent violence from the arms of her mother, or of the person
who had to give her away. On her way she was accompanied by three
boys dressed in the praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers were
still alive (_patrimi et matrimi_). One of them carried before her
a torch of white thorn (_spina_), or, according to others, of pine
wood; the two others walked by her side, supporting her by the arm.
The bride herself carried a distaff and a spindle, with wool. A boy
called _camillus_ carried in a covered vase (_cumera_, _cumerum_, or
_camillum_), the so-called utensils of the bride and playthings for
children (_crepundia_). Besides these persons who officiated on the
occasion, the procession was attended by a numerous train of friends,
both of the bride and the bridegroom. When the procession arrived
at the house of the bridegroom, the door of which was adorned with
garlands and flowers, the bride was carried across the threshold by
_pronubi_, _i.e._ men who had been married to only one woman, that
she might not knock against it with her foot, which would have been
an evil omen. Before she entered the house, she wound wool around the
door-posts of her new residence, and anointed them with lard (_adeps
suillus_) or wolf’s fat (_adeps lupinus_). The husband received her
with fire and water, which the woman had to touch. This was either a
symbolic purification, or a symbolic expression of welcome, as the
interdicere aqua et igni was the formula for banishment. The bride
saluted her husband with the words: _ubi tu Caius, ego Caia_. After
she had entered the house with distaff and spindle, she was placed
upon a sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house were delivered
into her hands. A repast (_coena nuptialis_) given by the husband
to the whole train of relatives and friends who accompanied the
bride, generally concluded the solemnity of the day. Many ancient
writers mention a very popular song, _Talasius_ or _Talassio_, which
was sung at weddings; but whether it was sung during the repast or
during the procession is not quite clear, though we may infer from
the story respecting the origin of the song, that it was sung while
the procession was advancing towards the house of the husband. It may
easily be imagined that a solemnity like that of marriage did not
take place among the merry and humorous Italians without a variety
of jests and railleries, and the ancient writers mention songs which
were sung before the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after
the company had left. These songs were probably the old Fescennina
[FESCENNINA], and are frequently called _Epithalamia_. At the end of
the repast the bride was conducted by matrons who had not had more
than one husband (_pronubae_), to the lectus genialis in the atrium,
which was on this occasion magnificently adorned and strewed with
flowers. On the following day the husband sometimes gave another
entertainment to his friends, which was called _repotia_, and the
woman, who on this day undertook the management of the house of her
husband, had to perform certain religious rites; on which account,
as was observed above, it was necessary to select a day for the
marriage which was not followed by a dies ater. These rites probably
consisted of sacrifices to the Dii Penates. The position of a Roman
woman after marriage was very different from that of a Greek woman.
The Roman presided over the whole household; she educated her
children, watched over and preserved the honour of the house, and as
the materfamilias she shared the honours and respect shown to her
husband. Far from being confined like the Greek women to a distinct
apartment, the Roman matron, at least during the better centuries
of the republic, occupied the most important part of the house, the
atrium.

MAUSŌLĒUM Μαυσωλεῖον, signified originally _the sepulchre of
Mausolus_, which was a magnificent monument erected at Halicarnassus
B.C. 353, by Artemisia, the widow of Mausolus. (See _Classical
Dict., art. Artemisia_.) It was adorned with beautiful works of
art, and was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world.
The word _Mausoleum_ was used by the Romans as a generic name for
any magnificent sepulchral edifice. Mausolus, the dynast of Caria,
having died in B.C. 353, his queen Artemisia evinced her sorrow
by observing his funeral rites with the most expensive splendour,
and by commencing the erection of a sepulchral monument to him at
Halicarnassus, which should surpass any thing the world had yet seen.
The building extended 63 feet from north to south, being shorter on
the fronts, and its whole circuit was 411 feet (or, according to the
Bamberg MS., 440); it rose to the height of 25 cubits (37½ feet);
and was surrounded by 36 columns. This part of the building was
called _Pteron_. It was adorned with sculptures in relief, on its
eastern face by Scopas, on the northern by Bryaxis, on the southern
by Timotheus, on the western by Leochares. Above this _pteron_ was
a pyramid equal to it in height, diminishing by 24 steps to its
summit, which was surmounted by the marble quadriga made by Pythis.
The total height, including this ornament, was 140 feet. In the Roman
_Mausolea_ the form chiefly employed was that of a succession of
terraces in imitation of the _rogus_. Of these the most celebrated
were those of Augustus and of Hadrian; the latter of which, stripped
of its ornaments, still forms the fortress of modern Rome (the castle
of S. Angelo); but of the other, which was on a still larger scale,
and which was considered as one of the most magnificent buildings of
Augustus, there are only some insignificant ruins.

MĔDĬASTĪNI, the name given to slaves, used for any common purpose.
The name is chiefly given to certain slaves belonging to the familia
rustica, but it is also applied sometimes to slaves in the city.

MĔDIMNUS μέδιμνος, the principal dry measure of the Greeks. It was
used especially for measuring corn. The Attic medimnus was equal
to six Roman modii. For its subdivisions see Tables at the end.
[METRETES; CHOENIX; XESTES; COTYLA.]

MĒDIX TUTICUS, the name of the supreme magistrate among the Oscan
people. _Medix_ appears to have signified a magistrate of any kind,
and _tuticus_ to have been equivalent to _magnus_ or _summus_. Livy,
therefore, in calling the medix tuticus the _summus magistratus_,
gives a literal translation of the word.

MĔGĂLĒSĬA, MĔGĂLENSĬA, or MĔGĂLENSES LŪDI, a festival with games,
celebrated at Rome in the month of April and in honour of the great
mother of the gods (Cybelé, μεγάλη θεός, whence the festival derived
its name). The statue of the goddess was brought to Rome from
Pessinus in B.C. 203, and the day of its arrival was solemnised with
a magnificent procession, lectisternia, and games, and great numbers
of people carried presents to the goddess on the Capitol. The regular
celebration of the Megalesia, however, did not begin till twelve
years later (B.C. 191), when the temple, which had been vowed and
ordered to be built in B.C. 203, was completed and dedicated by M.
Junius Brutus. The festival lasted for six days, beginning on the 4th
of April. The season of this festival, like that of the whole month
in which it took place, was full of general rejoicings and feasting.
It was customary for the wealthy Romans on this occasion to invite
one another mutually to their repasts. The games which were held at
the Megalesia were purely scenic, and not circenses. They were at
first held on the Palatine, in front of the temple of the goddess,
but afterwards also in the theatres. The day which was especially
set apart for the performance of scenic plays was the third of the
festival. Slaves were not permitted to be present at the games, and
the magistrates appeared dressed in a purple toga and praetexta,
whence the proverb, _purpura Megalensis_. The games were under the
superintendence of the curule aediles, and we know that four of the
extant plays of Terence were performed at the Megalesia.

MEMBRĀNA. [LIBER.]

MENSA (τράπεζα), a table. The simplest kind of table was a round
one with three legs, called in Greek τρίπους. Tables, however, must
usually have had four legs, as the etymology of τράπεζα, the common
word for table, indicates. For the houses of the opulent, tables were
made of the most valuable and beautiful kinds of wood, especially of
maple, or of the citrus of Africa, which was a species of cypress
or juniper. As the table was not large, it was usual to place the
dishes and the various kinds of meat upon it, and then to bring it
thus furnished to the place where the guests were reclining. On many
occasions, indeed, each guest either had a small table to himself,
or the company was divided into parties of two or three, with a
separate table for each party, as is distinctly represented in the
cut under SYMPOSIUM. Hence we have such phrases as _mensam apponere_
or _opponere_, and _mensam auferre_ or _removere_. The two principal
courses of a _deipnon_ and _coena_, or a Greek and Roman dinner,
were called respectively πρώτη τράπεζα, δεύτερα τράπεζα, and _mensa
prima_, _mensa secunda_. [COENA; DEIPNON.]

MENSĀRĬI, MENSŬLĀRĬI, or NŪMŬLĀRĬI, a kind of public bankers at
Rome who were appointed by the state; they were distinct from the
argentarii, who were common bankers, and did business on their
own account. [ARGENTARII.] The mensarii had their tables or banks
(_mensae_) like ordinary bankers, in the forum, and in the name of
the aerarium they offered ready money to debtors who could give
security to the state for it. Such an expediency was devised by the
state only in times of great distress. The first time that mensarii
(_quinqueviri mensarii_) were appointed was in B.C. 352, at the time
when the plebeians were so deeply involved in debt, that they were
obliged to borrow money from new creditors in order to pay the old
ones, and thus ruined themselves completely. On this occasion they
were also authorised to ordain that cattle or land should be received
as payment at a fair valuation. With the exception of this first
time, they appear during the time of the republic to have always
been _triumviri mensarii_. One class of mensarii, however (perhaps
an inferior order), the _mensularii_ or _numularii_, seem to have
been permanently employed by the state, and these must be meant when
we read, that not only the aerarium, but also private individuals,
deposited in their hands sums of money which they had to dispose of.

MENSIS. [CALENDARIUM.]

MĔRENDA. [COENA.]

MĔTAE. [CIRCUS.]

MĔTALLUM (μέταλλον), a _mine_ and _metal_. The metals which have been
known from the earliest period of which we have any information are
those which were long distinguished as the seven principal metals,
namely, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury. If to
this list we add the compound of gold and silver called _electrum_,
the compound of copper and tin called χαλκός and _aes_ (bronze), and
steel, we have, in all probability, a complete list of the metals
known to the Greeks and Romans, with the exception of zinc, which
they do not seem to have known as a metal, but only in its ores, and
of brass, which, they regarded as a sort of bronze. The early Greeks
were no doubt chiefly indebted for a supply of the various metals to
the commerce of the Phoenicians, who procured them principally from
Arabia and Spain, and tin from our own island and the East. They were
perfectly acquainted with the processes of smelting the metal from
the ore, and of forging heated masses into the required shapes, by
the aid of the hammer and tongs. The smith’s instruments were the
anvil (ἄκμων) with the block on which it rested (ἀκμόθετον), the
tongs (πυράγρη) and the hammer (ῥαιστήρ, σφῦρα). The advances made in
the art of metallurgy in subsequent times are chiefly connected with
the improvements in the art of statuary. The method of working, as
described in Homer, seems to have long prevailed, namely by beating
out lumps of the material into the form proposed, and afterwards
fitting the pieces together by means of pins or keys. It was called
σφυρήλατον, from σφῦρα, a hammer. The next mode, among the Greeks, of
executing metal works seems to have been by plating upon a nucleus,
or general form, of wood--a practice which was employed also by the
Egyptians. It is extremely difficult to determine at what date the
casting of metal was introduced. According to the statements of
Pausanias and Pliny, the art of casting in bronze and in iron was
invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus of Samos, who probably lived in the
sixth and fifth centuries before our era.

MĔTOICI (μέτοικοι), the name by which, at Athens and in other
Greek states, the _resident aliens_ were designated. They must be
distinguished from such strangers as made only a transitory stay
in a place, for it was a characteristic of a _metoicus_, that he
resided permanently in the city. No city of Greece perhaps had
such a number of resident aliens as Athens, since none afforded to
strangers so many facilities for carrying on mercantile business,
or a more agreeable mode of living. In the census instituted by
Demetrius Phalereus (B.C. 309), the number of resident aliens at
Athens was 10,000, in which number women and children were probably
not included. The jealousy with which the citizens of the ancient
Greek republics kept their body clear of intruders, is also manifest
in their regulations concerning aliens. However long they might
have resided in Athens, they were always regarded as strangers,
whence they are sometimes called ξένοι, and to remind them of their
position, they had on some occasions to perform certain degrading
services for the Athenian citizens [HYDRIAPHORIA]. These services
were, however, in all probability not intended to hurt the feelings
of the aliens, but were simply acts symbolical of their relation to
the citizens. Aliens were not allowed to acquire landed property in
the state they had chosen for their residence, and were consequently
obliged to live in hired houses or apartments. As they did not
constitute a part of the state, and were yet in constant intercourse
and commerce with its members, every alien was obliged to select a
citizen for his patron (προστάτης), who was not only the mediator
between them and the state, through whom alone they could transact
any legal business, whether private or public, but was at the same
time answerable (ἐγγυητής) to the state for the conduct of his
client. On the other hand, however, the state allowed the aliens to
carry on all kinds of industry and commerce under the protection of
the law; in fact, at Athens nearly all business was in the hands
of aliens, who on this account lived for the most part in the
Peiraeeus. Each family of aliens, whether they availed themselves of
the privilege of carrying on any mercantile business or not, had to
pay an annual tax (μετοίκιον or ξενικά) of twelve drachmae, or if
the head of the family was a widow, of only six drachmae. If aliens
did not pay this tax, or if they assumed the right of citizens,
and probably also in case they refused to select a patron, they
not only forfeited the protection of the state, but were sold as
slaves. Extraordinary taxes and liturgies (εἰσφοραί and λειτουργίαι)
devolved upon aliens no less than upon citizens. The aliens were also
obliged, like citizens, to serve in the regular armies and in the
fleet, both abroad and at home, for the defence of the city. Those
aliens who were exempt from the burthens peculiar to their class were
called _isoteles_ (ἰσοτελεῖς). They had not to pay the μετοίκιον
(ἀτέλια μετοικίου), were not obliged to choose a προστάτης, and in
fact enjoyed all the rights of citizens, except those of a political
nature. Their condition was termed ἰσοτέλεια and ἰσοπολιτεία.

MĔTOPA or MĔTŎPE (μετόπη), the name applied to each of the spaces
between the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, and by
metonymy to the sculptured ornament with which those spaces were
filled up. In the original significance of the parts the triglyphs
represent the ends of the cross-beams or joists which rested on the
architrave; the beds of these beams were called ὀπαί, and hence the
spaces between them μετόπαι. Originally they were left open; next
they were filled up with plain slabs, as in the propylaea at Eleusis,
and many other buildings, and lastly, but still at an early period,
they were adorned with sculptures either in low or high relief. The
metopes from the Parthenon in the British Museum are adorned with
sculptures in high relief.

MĔTRĒTES (μετρητής), the principal Greek liquid measure. The Attic
metretes was equal in capacity to the amphora, containing 8 galls.
7·365 pints, English. See the Tables. [CHOUS; CHOENIX; XESTES;
COTYLA.]

MĒTRŎPŎLIS. [COLONIA.]

MĬLIĀRE, MILLĬĀRĬUM, or MILLE PASSUUM (μίλιον), the Roman mile,
consisted of 1000 paces (_passus_) of 5 feet each, and was therefore
= 5000 feet. Taking the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches [PES],
the Roman mile would be 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than
the English statute mile. The most common term for the mile is
_mille passuum_, or only the initials M. P.; sometimes the word
_passuum_ is omitted. The Roman mile contained 8 Greek stadia. The
mile-stones along the Roman roads were called _milliaria_. They were
also called _lapides_; thus we have _ad tertium lapidem_ (or without
the word _lapidem_) for 3 miles from Rome. Augustus erected a gilt
pillar in the Forum, where the principal roads terminated, which was
called _milliarium aureum_; but the miles were not reckoned from
it, but from the gates of the city. Such central marks appear to
have been common in the principal cities of the Roman empire. The
“London-stone” in Cannon-street is supposed to have marked the centre
of the Roman roads in Britain.

MĪMUS (μῖμος), the name by which, in Greece and at Rome, a species
of the drama was designated, though the Roman mimus differed
essentially from the Greek. The Greek mimus seems to have originated
among the Greeks of Sicily and southern Italy, and to have consisted
originally of extemporary representations or imitations of ridiculous
occurrences of common life at certain festivals. At a later period
these rude representations acquired a more artistic form, which was
brought to a high degree of perfection by Sophron of Syracuse (about
B.C. 420). He wrote his pieces in the popular dialect of the Dorians
and a kind of rhythmical prose. Among the Romans the word mimus was
applied to a species of dramatic plays as well as to the persons who
acted in them. It is certain that the Romans did not derive their
mimus from the Greeks in southern Italy, but that it was of native
growth. The Greek mimes were written in prose, and the name μῖμος
was never applied to an actor, but if used of a person it signified
one who made grimaces. The Roman mimes were imitations of foolish
and mostly indecent occurrences, and scarcely differed from comedy
except in consisting more of gestures and mimicry than of spoken
dialogue. At Rome such mimes seem originally to have been exhibited
at funerals, where one or more persons (_mimi_) represented in a
burlesque manner the life of the deceased. If there were several
mimi, one of them, or their leader, was called _archimimus_. These
coarse and indecent performances had greater charms for the Romans
than the regular drama. They were performed on the stage as farces
after tragedies, and during the empire they gradually supplanted the
place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to the actors in these mimes,
to wear neither masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus, whence they are
sometimes called planipedes.

MĬNA. [TALENTUM.]

MIRMILLŌNES. [GLADIATORES.]

MISSĬO. [EXERCITUS.]

MISSĬO. [GLADIATORES.]

MITRA (μίτρα), in general a band of any kind, and specifically, (1) A
belt or girdle worn by warriors round the waist. [ZONA.]--(2) A broad
band of cloth worn round the head, to which the name of _anadema_ was
sometimes given. [COMA.]

MODĬUS, the principal dry measure of the Romans, was equal to
one-third of the amphora, and therefore contained nearly two gallons
English. (See the Tables.) The modius was one-sixth of the medimnus.

MŎLA (μύλος), a mill. All mills were anciently made of stone, the
kind used being a volcanic trachyte or porous lava (_pyrites_,
_silices_, _pumiceas_). Every mill consisted of two essential parts,
the upper mill-stone, which was moveable (_catillus_, ὄνος, τὸ
ἐπιμύλιον), and the lower, which was fixed and by much the larger of
the two. Hence a mill is sometimes called _molae_ in the plural. The
principal mills mentioned by ancient authors are the following:--I.
The hand-mill, or quern, called _mola manuaria, versatilis_, or
_trusatilis_. The hand-mills were worked among the Greeks and Romans
by slaves. Their pistrinum was consequently proverbial as a place of
painful and degrading labour; and this toil was imposed principally
on women. II. The cattle-mill, _mola asinaria_, in which human labour
was supplied by the use of an ass or some other animal. III. The
water-mill (_mola aquaria_, ὑδραλέτης). A cogged wheel, attached to
the axis of the water wheel, turned another which was attached to the
axis of the upper mill-stone: the corn to be ground fell between the
stones out of a hopper (_infundibulum_), which was fixed above them.
IV. The floating-mill. V. The saw-mill. VI. The pepper-mill.

MŎNARCHĬA (μοναρχία), a general name for any form of government
in which the supreme functions of political administration are in
the hands of a single person. The term μοναρχία is applied to such
governments, whether they are hereditary or elective, legal or
usurped. In its commonest application, it is equivalent to βασιλεία,
whether absolute or limited. But the rule of an _aesymnetes_ or a
_tyrant_ would equally be called a μοναρχία. Hence Plutarch uses it
to express the Latin _dictatura_. It is by a somewhat rhetorical use
of the word that it is applied now and then to the δῆμος.

MŎNĒTA, the mint, or the place where money was coined. The mint of
Rome was a building on the Capitoline, and attached to the temple
of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium was to the temple of Saturn. The
officers who had the superintendence of the mint were the _Triumviri
Monetales_, who were perhaps first appointed about B.C. 269. Under
the republic, the coining of money was not a privilege which belonged
exclusively to the state. The coins struck in the time of the
republic mostly bear the names of private individuals; and it would
seem that every Roman citizen had the right of having his own gold
and silver coined in the public mint, and under the superintendence
of its officers. Still no one till the time of the empire had the
right of putting his own image upon a coin; Julius Caesar was the
first to whom this privilege was granted.

MŎNĪLE (ὅρμος), a necklace. Necklaces were worn by both sexes
among the most polished of those nations which the Greeks called
barbarous, especially the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Persians.
Greek and Roman females adopted them more particularly as a bridal
ornament. They were of various forms, as may be seen by the following
specimens:--

[Illustration: Monilia, necklaces. (British Museum.)]

MŎNŬMENTUM. [FUNUS.]

MŎRA. [EXERCITUS.]

MORTĀRIUM, also called PĪLA and PILUM (ὄλμος, ἴγδη, ἴγδις), a mortar.
Before the invention of mills [MOLA] corn was pounded and rubbed in
mortars (_pistum_), and hence the place for making bread, or the
bake-house, was called _pistrinum_. Also long after the introduction
of mills this was an indispensable article of domestic furniture.
Those used in pharmacy were sometimes made of Egyptian alabaster.
The mortar was also employed in pounding charcoal, rubbing it with
glue, in order to make black paint (_atramentum_), in making plaster
for the walls of apartments, in mixing spices and fragrant herbs
and flowers for the use of the kitchen, and in metallurgy, as in
triturating cinnabar to obtain mercury from it by sublimation.

MULSUM. [VINUM.]

MŪNĔRĀTOR. [GLADIATORES.]

MŪNĬCEPS, MŪNĬCĬPĬUM. [COLONIA; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.]

MŪNUS. [HONORES.]

MŪNUS. [GLADIATORES.]

MŪRĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [CORONA.]

MURRHĬNA VĀSA, or MURRĔA VĀSA, were first introduced into Rome by
Pompey, who dedicated cups of this kind to Jupiter Capitolinus. Their
value was very great. Nero gave 300 talents for a capis or drinking
cup. These murrhine vessels came from the East, principally from
places within the Parthian empire, and chiefly from Caramania. They
were made of a substance formed by a moisture thickened in the earth
by heat, and were chiefly valued on account of the variety of their
colours. Modern writers differ much respecting the material of which
they were composed, and some think they may have been true Chinese
porcelain.

MŪRUS, MOENĬA (τεῖχος), the wall of a city, in contradistinction to
PARIES (τοῖχος), the wall of a house, and _Maceria_, a boundary wall.
We find cities surrounded by massive walls at the earliest periods
of Greek and Roman history. Homer speaks of the chief cities of the
Argive kingdom as “the walled Tiryns,” and “Mycenae the well-built
city,” attesting the great antiquity of those identical gigantic
walls which still stand at Tiryns and Mycenae, and which have been
frequently attributed to the Cyclopes and Pelasgians. Three principal
species can be clearly distinguished:--1. That in which the masses of
stone are of irregular shape and are put together without any attempt
to fit them into one another, the interstices being loosely filled in
with smaller stones. An example is given in the annexed engraving.

[Illustration: Ancient Wall at Tiryns.]

2. In other cases we find the blocks still of irregular polygonal
shapes, but their sides are sufficiently smoothed to make each fit
accurately into the angles between the others, and their faces are
cut so as to give the whole wall a tolerably smooth surface. An
example is given in the annexed engraving.

[Illustration: Ancient Wall of Larissa, the Acropolis of Argos.]

3. In the third species, the blocks are laid in horizontal courses,
more or less regular (sometimes indeed so irregular, that none of
the horizontal joints are continuous), and with vertical joints
either perpendicular or oblique, and with all the joints more or less
accurately fitted. The walls of Mycenae present one of the ruder
examples of this sort of structure; and the following engraving
of the “Lion Gate” of that fortress (so called from the rudely
sculptured figures of lions) shows also the manner in which the gates
of these three species of walls were built, by supporting an immense
block of stone, for the lintel, upon two others, for jambs, the
latter inclining inwards, so as to give more space than if they were
upright.--

[Illustration: Ancient Wall at Mycenae.]

The materials employed in walls about the time of Pericles were
various sorts of stone, and, in some of the most magnificent temples,
marble. The practice of putting a facing of marble over a wall of a
commoner material was introduced in the next period of architectural
history. For buildings of a common sort, the materials employed were
smaller stones, rough or squared, or flints, as well as bricks. These
were bound together with various kinds of mortar or cement, composed
of lime mixed with different sands and volcanic earths. The history
of Roman masonry is not very different from that of the Greek.--The
most ancient works at Rome, such as the _Carcer Mamertinus_, the
_Cloaca Maxima_, and the Servian Walls, were constructed of massive
quadrangular hewn stones, placed together without cement. [CLOACA.]
Five species of Roman masonry may be distinguished; namely, 1. when
the blocks of stone are laid in alternate courses, lengthwise in one
course, and crosswise in the next; this is the most common; 2. when
the stones in each course are laid alternately along and across; this
construction was usual when the walls were to be faced with slabs
of marble; 3. when they are laid entirely lengthwise; 4. entirely
crosswise; and 5. when the courses are alternately higher and lower
than each other. As by the Greeks, so by the Romans, walls of a
commoner sort were built of smaller quarried stones (_caementa_) or
of bricks. The excellence of the cement which the Romans used enabled
them to construct walls of very small rough stones, not laid in
courses, but held together by the mortar; this structure was called
_opus incertum_. Another structure of which the Romans made great
use, and which was one of the most durable of all, was that composed
of courses of flat tiles. Such courses were also introduced in the
other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they both served as
bond-courses, and, in the lower part of the wall, kept the damp
from rising from the ground. Brick walls covered with stucco were
exceedingly common with the Romans: even columns were made of brick
covered with stucco.

MUSCŬLUS was a kind of vinea, one of the smaller military machines,
by which the besiegers of a town were protected.

MŪSĒUM (μουσεῖον), the name of an institution founded by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, about B.C. 280, for the promotion of learning and the
support of learned men. The museum formed part of the palace, and
contained cloisters or porticoes (περίπατος), a public theatre or
lecture-room (ἐξέδρα), and a large hall (οἶκος μέγας), where the
learned men dined together. The museum was supported by a common
fund, supplied apparently from the public treasury; and the whole
institution was under the superintendence of a priest, who was
appointed by the king, and after Egypt became a province of the Roman
empire, by the Caesar. Botanical and zoological gardens appear to
have been attached to the museum.

MȲRĬI (μυρίοι), the name given to the popular assembly of the
Arcadians, which was established after the overthrow of the Spartan
supremacy by the battle of Leuctra, and which used to meet at
Megalopolis in order to determine upon matters affecting the whole
people.

MYSĬA (μύσια), a festival celebrated by the inhabitants of Pellene in
Achaia in honour of Demeter Mysia, which lasted for 7 days.

MYSTĒRĬA. The names by which mysteries or mystic festivals were
designated in Greece, are μυστήρια, τελεταί, and ὄργια. The name
ὄργια (from ἔοργα) originally signified only sacrifices accompanied
by certain ceremonies, but it was afterwards applied especially
to the ceremonies observed in the worship of Dionysus, and at a
still later period to mysteries in general. Τελετή signifies, in
general, a religious festival, but more particularly a lustration or
ceremony performed in order to avert some calamity, either public
or private. Μυστήριον signifies, properly speaking, the secret part
of the worship, but was also used in the same sense as τελετή, and
for mystic worship in general. Mysteries in general may be defined
as sacrifices and ceremonies which took place at night or in secret
within some sanctuary, which the uninitiated were not allowed
to enter. What was essential to them, were objects of worship,
sacred utensils, and traditions with their interpretation, which
were withheld from all persons not initiated. The most celebrated
mysteries in Greece were those of Samothrace and Eleusis, which are
described in separate articles. [CABEIRIA; ELEUSINIA.]

NAENĬA. [FUNUS.]

NĂTĀTĬO, NĂTĀTŌRĬUM. [BALNEUM.]

NĀVĀLIA, docks at Rome where ships were built, laid up, and refitted.
They were attached to the emporium outside of the Porta Trigemina,
and were connected with the Tiber. The emporium and navalia were
first included within the walls of the city by Aurelian.--The docks
(νεώσοικοι or νεώρια) in the Peiraeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents,
and having been destroyed in the anarchy were again restored and
finally completed by Lycurgus, the contemporary of Demosthenes. They
were under the superintendence of regular officers, called ἐπιμεληταὶ
τῶν νεωρίων.

NĀVĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [CORONA.]

NĀVARCHUS (ναύαρχος), the name by which the Greeks designated both
the captain of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. The office
itself was called ναυαρχία. The admiral of the Athenian fleet was
always one of the ten generals (στρατηγοί) elected every year, and
he had either the whole or the chief command of the fleet. The
chief officers who served under him were the trierarchs and the
pentecontarchs, each of whom commanded one vessel; the inferior
officers in the vessels were the κυβερνῆται or helmsmen, the
κελευσταί or commanders of the rowers, and the πρωρᾶται, who must
have been employed at the prow of the vessels. Other Greek states
who kept a navy had likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral of
the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, and the second in command
_epistoleus_ (ἐπιστολεύς). The same person was not allowed to hold
the office of navarchus two successive years at Sparta. [EPISTOLEUS.]

NAUCRĀRĬA (ναυκραρία), the name of a division of the inhabitants
of Attica. The four ancient phylae were each divided into three
phratries, and each of these twelve phratries into four naucraries,
of which there were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries were
previous to the legislation of Solon is not stated anywhere, but it
is not improbable that they were political divisions similar to the
demes in the constitution of Cleisthenes, and were made perhaps at
the time of the institution of the nine archons, for the purpose of
regulating the liturgies, taxes, or financial and military affairs
in general. At any rate, however, the naucraries before the time of
Solon can have had no connection with the navy, for the Athenians
then had no navy; the word ναύκραρος therefore cannot be derived
from ναῦς, ship, but must come from ναιω, and ναύκραρος is thus only
another form for ναύκληρος in the sense of a householder, as ναῦλον
was used for the rent of a house. Solon in his legislation retained
the old institution of the naucraries, and charged each of them with
the equipment of one trireme and with the mounting of two horsemen.
All military affairs, as far as regards the defraying of expenses,
probably continued as before to be regulated according to naucraries.
Cleisthenes, in his change of the Solonian constitution, retained
the division into naucraries for military and financial purposes;
but he increased their number to fifty, making five for each of his
ten tribes; so that now the number of their ships was increased from
forty-eight to fifty, and that of horsemen from ninety-six to one
hundred. The statement of Herodotus, that the Athenians in their war
against Aegina had only fifty ships of their own, is thus perfectly
in accordance with the fifty naucraries of Cleisthenes. The functions
of the former ναύκραροι, or the heads of their respective naucraries,
were now transferred to the demarchs. [DEMARCHI.] The obligation of
each naucrary to equip a ship of war for the service of the republic
may be regarded as the first form of trierarchy. As the system of
trierarchy became developed and established, this obligation of the
naucraries appears to have gradually ceased, and to have fallen into
disuse. [TRIERARCHIA.]

NAUCRĀRUS. [NAUCRARIA.]

NĀVIS, NĀVĬGIUM (ναῦς, πλοῖον), a ship. The numerous fleet, with
which the Greeks are said to have sailed to the coast of Asia Minor,
must on the whole be regarded as sufficient evidence of the extent
to which navigation was carried on in those times, however much
of the detail in the Homeric description may have arisen from the
poet’s own imagination. In the Homeric catalogue it is stated that
each of the fifty Boeotian ships carried 120 warriors, and a ship
which carried so many cannot have been of very small dimensions. What
Homer states of the Boeotian vessels applies more or less to the
ships of other Greeks. These boats were provided with a mast (ἱστός)
which was fastened by two ropes (πρότονοι) to the two ends of the
ship, so that when the rope connecting it with the prow broke, the
mast would fall towards the stern, where it might kill the helmsman.
The mast could be erected or taken down as necessity required. They
also had sails (ἱστία), but no deck; each vessel however appears to
have had only one sail, which was used in favourable winds; and the
principal means of propelling the vessel lay in the rowers, who sat
upon benches (κληΐδες). The oars were fastened to the side of the
ship with leathern thongs (τροποὶ δερμάτινοι), in which they were
turned as a key in its hole. The ships in Homer are mostly called
black (μέλαιναι), probably because they were painted or covered with
a black substance, such as pitch, to protect the wood against the
influence of the water and the air; sometimes other colours, such
as μίλτος, _minium_ (a red colour), were used to adorn the sides
of the ships near the prow, whence Homer occasionally calls ships
μιλτοπάρῃοι, i.e. red-cheeked; they were also painted occasionally
with a purple colour (φοινικοπάρῃοι). When the Greeks had landed on
the coast of Troy, the ships were drawn on land, and fastened at
the poop to large stones with a rope which served as anchors. The
Greeks then surrounded the fleet with a fortification to secure it
against the attacks of the enemy. This custom of drawing the ships
upon the shore, when they were not used, was followed in later times
also, as every one will remember from the accounts in Caesar’s
Commentaries. In the Odyssey (v. 243, &c.) the building of a boat
(σχεδία) is described, though not with the minuteness which an
actual ship-builder might wish for. Ulysses first cuts down with his
axe twenty trees, and prepares the wood for his purpose by cutting
it smooth and giving it the proper shape. He then bores the holes
for nails and hooks, and fits the planks together and fastens them
with nails. He rounds the bottom of the ship like that of a broad
transport vessel, and raises the bulwark (ἴκρια), fitting it upon
the numerous ribs of the ship. He afterwards covers the whole of the
outside with planks, which are laid across the ribs from the keel
upwards to the bulwark: next the mast is made, and the sail-yard
attached to it, and lastly the rudder. When the ship is thus far
completed, he raises the bulwark still higher by a wicker-work which
goes all around the vessel, as a protection against the waves. This
raised bulwark of wicker-work and the like was used in later times
also. For ballast Ulysses throws into the ship ὕλη, which according
to the Scholiast consisted of wood, stones, and sand. Calypso then
brings him materials to make a sail of, and he fastens the ὑπέραι or
ropes which run from the top of the mast to the two ends of the yard,
and also the κάλοι with which the sail is drawn up or let down. The
πόδες mentioned in this passage were undoubtedly, as in the later
times, the ropes attached to the two lower corners of the square
sail. The ship of which the building is thus described was a small
boat, a σχεδία, as Homer calls it; but it had like all the Homeric
ships a round or flat bottom. Greater ships must have been of a more
complicated structure, as ship-builders are praised as artists. Below
(p. 266), a representation of two boats is given which appear to
bear great resemblance to the one of which the building is described
in the Odyssey.--The Corinthians were the first who brought the art
of ship-building nearest to the point at which we find it in the
time of Thucydides, and they were the first who introduced ships
with three ranks of rowers (τριήρεις, _Triremes_). About B.C. 700,
Ameinocles the Corinthian, to whom this invention is ascribed, made
the Samians acquainted with it; but it must have been preceded by
that of the _Biremes_, that is, ships with two ranks of rowers, which
Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans.[3] These innovations however
do not seem to have been generally adopted for a long time; for we
read that about the time of Cyrus the Phocaeans introduced long
sharp-keeled ships called πεντηκόντοροι. These belonged to the class
of long war-ships (νῆες μακραί), and had fifty rowers, twenty-five on
each side of the ship, who sat in one row. It is further stated that
before this time vessels called στρογγύλαι, with large round or
rather flat bottoms, had been used exclusively by all the Ionians in
Asia. At this period most Greeks seem to have adopted the long ships
with only one rank of rowers on each side (Moneris).

[Illustration: Moneris. (Montfaucon, vol. IV. pt. II. pl. 142.)]

Their name varied accordingly as they had fifty (πεντηκόντοροι), or
thirty (τριακόντοροι), or even a smaller number of rowers. A ship
of war of this class is represented in the preceding woodcut. The
following cut contains a beautiful fragment of a Biremis with a
complete deck. Another specimen of a small Biremis is given further
on.--

[Illustration: Biremis. (Winckelmann, pl. 207.)]

[Illustration: Navis Aperta. (Coin of Corcyra.)]

The first Greek people whom we know to have acquired a navy of
importance were the Corinthians, Samians, and Phocaeans. About the
time of Cyrus and Cambyses the Corinthian Triremes were generally
adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and by the Corcyraeans, who soon
acquired the most powerful navies among the Greeks. In other parts of
Greece and even at Athens and in Aegina the most common vessels about
this time were long ships with only one rank of rowers on each side.
Athens, although the foundation of its maritime power had been laid
by Solon [NAUCRARIA], did not obtain a fleet of any importance until
the time of Themistocles, who persuaded the Athenians to build 200
Triremes for the purpose of carrying on the war against Aegina. But
even then ships were not provided with complete decks (καταστρώματα)
covering the whole of the vessel. Ships with only a partial deck or
with no deck at all, were called ἄφρακτοι νῆες, and in Latin _naves
apertae_. Even at the time of the Persian war, the Athenian ships
were without a complete deck. Ships which had a complete deck were
called κατάφρακτοι, and the deck itself κατάστρωμα. At the time when
Themistocles induced the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 sail he
also carried a decree, that every year twenty new Triremes should
be built from the produce of the mines of Laurium. After the time
of Themistocles as many as twenty Triremes must have been built
every year both in times of war and of peace, as the average number
of Triremes which was always ready amounted to between three and
four hundred. Such an annual addition was the more necessary, as
the vessels were of a light structure and did not last long. The
whole superintendence of the building of new Triremes was in the
hands of the senate of the Five Hundred, but the actual business was
entrusted to a committee called the τριηροποιοί, one of whom acted
as their treasurer, and had in his keeping the money set apart for
the purpose. Under the Macedonian supremacy the Rhodians became the
greatest maritime power in Greece. The navy of Sparta was never of
great importance. Navigation remained for the most part what it had
been before; the Greeks seldom ventured out into the open sea, and
it was generally considered necessary to remain in sight of the
coast or of some island, which also served as guides in daytime: in
the night the position, rising and setting of the different stars
answered the same purpose. In winter navigation generally ceased
altogether. In cases where it would have been necessary to coast
around a considerable extent of country, which was connected with the
main land by a narrow neck, the ships were sometimes drawn across the
neck of land from one sea to the other, by machines called ὁλκοί.
This was done most frequently across the isthmus of Corinth.--The
various kinds of ships used by the Greeks might be divided, according
to the number of ranks of rowers employed in them, into Moneres,
Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes, Quinqueremes, &c., up to the enormous
ship with forty ranks of rowers, built by Ptolemaeus Philopator. But
all these appear to have been constructed on the same principle,
and it is more convenient to divide them into _ships of war_ and
_ships of burden_ (φορτικὰ, φορτηγοὶ, ὁλκάδες, πλοῖα, στρογγύλαι,
_naves onerariae_, _naves actuariae_). Ships of the latter kind were
not calculated for quick movement or rapid sailing, but to carry the
greatest possible quantity of goods. Hence their structure was bulky,
their bottom round, and although they were not without rowers, yet
the chief means by which they were propelled were their sails. The
most common ships of war in the earlier times were the pentecontori
(πεντηκόντοροι), but afterwards they were chiefly Triremes, and
the latter are frequently designated only by the name νῆες, while
all the others are called by the name indicating their peculiar
character. Triremes however were again divided into two classes:
the one consisting of real men-of-war, which were quick-sailing
vessels (ταχεῖαι), and the other of transports either for soldiers
(στρατιώτιδες or ὁπλιταγωγοί) or for horses (ἱππηγοί, ἱππαγωγοί).
Ships of this class were more heavy and awkward, and were therefore
not used in battle except in cases of necessity. The ordinary size of
a war galley may be inferred from the fact that the average number of
men engaged in it, including the crew and marines, was two hundred,
to whom on some occasions as many as thirty epibatae were added.
[EPIBATAE.]--Vessels with more than three ranks of rowers on each
side were not constructed in Greece till about the year 400 B.C.,
when Dionysius I., tyrant of Syracuse, who bestowed great care upon
his navy, built the first Quadriremes (τετρήρεις), and Quinqueremes
(πεντήρεις). In the reign of Dionysius II., Hexeres (ἑξήρεις) are
also mentioned. After the time of Alexander the Great the use of
vessels with four, five, and more ranks of rowers became very
general, and it is well known that the first Punic war was chiefly
carried on with Quinqueremes. Ships with twelve, thirty, or even
forty ranks of rowers, such as they were built by Alexander and the
Ptolemies, appear to have been mere curiosities, and did not come
into common use. The Athenians at first did not adopt vessels larger
than Triremes, probably because they thought that with rapidity and
skill they could do more than with large and unwieldy ships. In the
year B.C. 356 they continued to use nothing but Triremes; but in
B.C. 330 the republic had already a number of Quadriremes, which was
afterwards increased. The first Quinqueremes at Athens are mentioned
in a document belonging to the year B.C. 325.--Among the smaller
vessels we may mention the ἄκατος or ἀκάτιον, which seems to have
been sometimes used as a ship of burden. The name Scapha (σκάφη)
denotes a small skiff or life-boat, which was commonly attached to
merchantmen for the purpose of saving the crew in danger.--_Liburna_,
or _Liburnica_, in Greek λιβυρνίς or λιβυρνόν, is a name given
apparently to every war-ship, from a bireme up to those with six
lines of rowers on each side, but in the time of Augustus, liburnae
even with six lines of rowers were considered small and swift in
comparison with the unwieldy ships of Antony at Actium. They were
usually provided with a beak, whence a _navis rostrata_ is generally
the same as a Liburna. They were first constructed by the Liburnians
(whence they derived their name), and formed the main part of the
fleet of Augustus in the battle of Actium.--Every vessel at Athens,
as in modern times, had a name given to it, which was generally
of the feminine gender. The Romans sometimes gave to their ships
masculine names. The Greek names were either taken from ancient
heroines such as Nausicaa, or they were abstract words such as
_Forethought_, _Safety_, _Guidance_, &c. In many cases the name of
the builder also was added.--The Romans appear to have first become
aware of the importance of a fleet during the second Samnite war,
in the year B.C. 311: when _duumviri navales_ were for the first
time appointed by the people. The ships which the Romans now built
were undoubtedly Triremes. This fleet, however insignificant it may
have been, continued to be kept up until the time when Rome became a
real maritime power. In the year B.C. 260, when the Romans saw that
without a navy they could not carry on the war against Carthage with
any advantage, the senate ordained that a fleet should be built.
Triremes would now have been of no avail against the high-bulwarked
vessels (Quinqueremes) of the Carthaginians. But the Romans would
have been unable to build others had not fortunately a Carthaginian
Quinquereme been wrecked on the coast of Bruttium, and fallen into
their hands. This wreck the Romans took as their model, and after it
built 120, or according to others 130 ships. From this time forward
the Romans continued to keep up a powerful navy. Towards the end of
the Republic they also increased the size of their ships, and built
war vessels of from six to ten ranks of rowers. The construction of
their ships, however, scarcely differed from that of Greek vessels;
the only great difference was that the Roman galleys were provided
with a greater variety of destructive engines of war than those of
the Greeks. They even erected turres and tabulata upon the decks of
their great men-of-war (_naves turritae_), and fought upon them as if
they were standing upon the walls of a fortress (see cut, p. 260).

[Illustration: BIREMIS.

A. _Prora_, πρώρα.
B. _Oculus_, ὀφθαλμός.
C. _Rostrum_, ἔμβολος.
D. _Cheniscus_, χηνίσκος.
E. _Puppis_, πρύμνη.
F. _Aplustre_, ἄφλαστον, with the pole containing the _fascia_ or _taenia_.
G. τράφηξ.
H. _Remi_, κώπαι.
I. _Gubernaculum_, πηδάλιον.
K. _Malus_, ἱστός.
L. _Velum_, ἱστός.
M. _Antenna_, κεραία, κέρας.
N. _Cornua_, ἀκροκέραιαι.
O. _Ceruchi_, κεροῦχοι.
P. _Carchesium_, καρχήσιον.
Q. κάλοι, καλῴδια.
R. πρότονος.
S. _Pedes_, πόδες.
T. _Opifera_, ὑπέραι.]

We now proceed to describe the parts of ancient vessels.--1. The prow
(πρώρα or μέτωπον, prora) was generally ornamented on both sides
with figures, which were either painted upon the sides or laid in.
It seems to have been very common to represent an eye on each side
of the prow. Upon the prow or fore-deck there was always some emblem
(παράσημον, insigne, figura) by which the ship was distinguished from
others. At the head of the prow there projected the στόλος, and its
extremity was termed ἀκροστόλιον, which was frequently made in the
shape of an animal or a helmet. It appears to have been sometimes
covered with brass and to have served as an embole (ἐμβολή) against
the enemy’s vessels. The ἀκροστόλιον is sometimes designated by
the name of χηνίσκος(from χήν, a goose), because it was formed
in the shape of the head or neck of a goose or swan, as in the
accompanying woodcut.

[Illustration: Cheniscus. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]

The cheniscus was often gilt and made of bronze. Just below the prow
and projecting a little above the keel was the _Rostrum_ (ἔμβολος,
ἔμβολον) or beak, which consisted of a beam, to which were attached
sharp and pointed irons, or the head of a ram and the like. This
ἔμβολος was used for the purpose of attacking another vessel and of
breaking its sides. These beaks were at first always above the water
and visible; afterwards they were attached lower, so that they were
invisible, and thus became still more dangerous to other ships. The
annexed woodcuts represent three different beaks of ships.

[Illustration: Rostra, Beaks of Ships. (Montfaucon, pl. 133.)]

The command in the prow of a vessel was exercised by an officer
called πρωρεύς, who seems to have been next in rank to the steersman,
and to have had the care of the gear, and the command over the
rowers.--2. _The stern_ (πρύμνη, _puppis_) was generally above the
other parts of the deck, and in it the helmsman had his elevated
seat. It is seen in the representations of ancient vessels to be
rounder than the prow, though its extremity is likewise sharp. The
stern was, like the prow, adorned in various ways, but especially
with the image of the tutelary deity of the vessel (_tutela_). In
some representations a kind of roof is formed over the head of the
steersman, and the upper part of the stern frequently has an elegant
ornament called _aplustre_, and in Greek ἄφλαστον, which constituted
the highest part of the poop. It formed a corresponding ornament to
the ἀκροστόλιον at the prow. At the junction of the aplustre with
the stern on which it was based, we commonly observe an ornament
resembling a circular shield: this was called ἀσπιδεῖον or ἀσπιδίσκη.
It is seen on the two aplustria here represented. The aplustre rose
immediately behind the gubernator, and served in some degree to
protect him from wind and rain. Sometimes there appears, beside the
aplustre, a pole, to which a fillet or pennon (ταινία) was attached,
which served both to distinguish and adorn the vessel, and also to
show the direction of the wind.--3. The τράφηξ is the bulwark of the
vessel, or rather the uppermost edge of it. In small boats the pegs
(σκαλμοί, _scalmi_) between which the oars move, and to which they
are fastened by a thong (τροπωτήρ), were upon the τράφηξ. In all
other vessels the oars passed through holes in the side of the vessel
(ὀφθαλμοί, τρήματα, or τρυπήματα).--

[Illustration: Aphlaston, Aplustre.]

4. The middle part of the deck in most ships of war appears to have
been raised above the bulwark, or at least to a level with its upper
edge, and thus enabled the soldiers to occupy a position from which
they could see far around and hurl their darts against the enemy.
Such an elevated deck appears in the annexed woodcut representing a
_Moneris_.

[Illustration: Moneris. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)]

In this instance the flag is standing upon the hind-deck.--5. One of
the most interesting, as well as important parts in the arrangements
of the Biremes, Triremes, &c., is the position of the ranks of
rowers, from which the ships themselves derive their names. Various
opinions have been entertained by those who have written upon this
subject. Thus much is certain, that the different ranks of rowers,
who sat along the sides of a vessel, were placed one above the
other. In ordinary vessels, from the Moneris up to the Quinqueremis,
each oar was managed by one man. The rowers sat upon little benches
attached to the ribs of the vessel, and called ἑδώλια, and in Latin
_fori_ and _transtra_. The lowest row of rowers was called θαλάμος,
the rowers themselves, θαλαμῖται or θαλάμιοι. The uppermost ordo of
rowers was called θράνος, and the rowers themselves θρανῖται. The
middle ordo or ordines of rowers were called ζυγὰ, ζύγιοι or ζυγῖται.
Each of this last class of rowers had likewise his own seat, and
did not, as some have supposed, sit upon benches running across the
vessel. The gear of a vessel was divided into _wooden_ and _hanging
gear_ (σκεύη ξύλινα, and σκεύη κρεμαστά).

I. WOODEN GEAR.--1. _Oars_ (κώπαι, remi). The collective term for
oars is ταῤῥός, which properly signified only the blade or flat
part of the oar, but was afterwards used as a collective expression
for all the oars, with the exception of the rudder. The oars varied
in size accordingly as they were used by a lower or higher ordo of
rowers, and from the name of the ordo by which they were used, they
also received their special names, viz., κώπαι θαλάμιαι, ζύγιαι, and
θρανίτιδες. Each Trireme had on an average 170 rowers. In a Roman
Quinquereme during the first Punic war, the average number of rowers
was 300; in later times we even find as many as 400. The lower part
of the holes through which the oars passed appears to have been
covered with leather (ἄσκωμα), which also extended a little way
outside the hole.--2. _The rudder_ (πηδάλιον, _gubernaculum_).

[Illustration: Gubernacula, rudders. (From an ancient Lamp and Gems.)]

Before the invention of the rudder, vessels must have been propelled
and guided by the oars alone. This circumstance may account for the
form of the ancient rudder, as well as for the mode of using it. It
was like an oar with a very broad blade, and was commonly placed on
each side of the stern, not at its extremity. The annexed woodcut
presents examples of its appearance as it is frequently exhibited on
gems, coins, and other works of art. The figure in the centre shows a
Triton blowing the buccina, and holding a rudder over his shoulder.
The left-hand figure represents a rudder with its helm or tiller
crossed by the cornucopia. In the third figure Venus leans with her
left arm upon a rudder to indicate her origin from the sea. The
rudder was managed by the gubernator (κυβερνήτης), who is also called
the _rector navis_ as distinguished from the _magister_. A ship had
sometimes one, but more commonly two rudders; but they were managed
by the steersman to prevent confusion. In larger ships the two
rudders were joined by a pole, which was moved by the gubernator,
and kept the rudders parallel. The contrivances for attaching the
two rudders to one another and to the sides of the ship, are called
ζεῦγλαι or ζευκτηρίαι.--3. _Ladders_ (κλιμακίδες, _scalae_). Each
Trireme had two wooden ladders, and the same seems to have been the
case in τριακόντοροι.--4. _Poles_ or punt poles (κοντοί, _conti_).
Three of these, of different lengths, belonged to every Trireme.--5.
Παραστάται or supports for the masts. They seem to have been a kind
of props placed at the foot of the masts.--6. The _mast_ (ἱστός,
_malus_). The ancients had vessels with one, two, or three masts.
The fore-mast was called ἀκάτειος, the mainmast, ἱστὸς μέγας. A
triaconter, or a vessel with 30 rowers, had likewise two masts, and
the smaller mast here, as well as in a trireme, was near the prow.
In three-masted vessels the largest mast was nearest the stern. The
masts as well as the yards were usually of fir. The part of the mast
immediately above the yard (_antenna_), formed a structure similar to
a drinking-cup, and bore the name of _carchesium_ (καρχήσιον). Into
it the mariners ascended in order to manage the sail, to obtain a
distant view, or to discharge missiles. Breastworks (θωράκια) were
fixed to these structures, so as to supply the place of defensive
armour; and pulleys (τροχηλίαι, _trochleae_) for hoisting up stones
and weapons from below. The continuation of the mast above the
carchesium was called the “distaff” (ἠλακάτη), corresponding to
our top-mast or top-gallant mast.--7. The _yards_ (κέρα, κεραίαι,
_antennae_).

[Illustration: Ceruchi. (From an ancient Lamp.)]

The mainyard was fastened to the top of the mast by ropes termed
_ceruchi_, as seen in the preceding woodcut. To the mainyard was
attached the mainsail, which was hoisted or let down as the occasion
might require. In the two extremities of the yard (_cornua_,
ἀκροκέραιαι), ropes (_ceruchi_, κηροῦχοι) were attached, which passed
to the top of the mast; and by means of these ropes and the pulleys
connected with them, the yard and sail, guided by the hoop, were
hoisted to the height required. There are numerous representations of
ancient ships in which the antenna is seen, as in the two woodcuts
here appended. In the second of them there are ropes hanging down
from the antenna, the object of which was to enable the sailors to
turn the antenna and the sail according to the wind.

[Illustration: Antennae. (From ancient Gems.)]

II. HANGING GEAR.--1. _Hypozomata_ (Ὑποζώματα), thick and broad ropes
running in a horizontal direction around the ship from the stern to
the prow, and intended to keep the whole fabric together. They ran
round the vessel in several circles, and at certain distances from
one another. The Latin name for ὑπόζωμα is _tormentum_. Sometimes
they were taken on board when a vessel sailed, and not put on till
it was thought necessary. The act of putting them on was called
ὑποζωννύναι, or διαζωννύναι, or ζῶσαι. A Trireme required four
ὑποζώματα.--2. _The sail_ (Ἱστίον, _velum_). Most ancient ships had
only one sail, which was attached with the yard to the great mast. In
a Trireme also one sail might be sufficient, but the trierarch might
nevertheless add a second. As each of the two masts of a Trireme
had two sail-yards, it further follows that each mast might have
two sails, one of which was placed lower than the other. The two
belonging to the mainmast were called ἱστία μεγάλα, and those of the
fore-mast ἱστία ἀκάτεια. The former were used on ordinary occasions,
but the latter probably only in cases when it was necessary to sail
with extraordinary speed. The sails of the Attic war-galleys, and
of most ancient ships in general, were of a square form. Whether
triangular sails were ever used by the Greeks, as has been frequently
supposed, is very doubtful. The Romans, however, used triangular
sails, which they called _Suppara_, and which had the shape of an
inverted Greek Δ (⛛), the upper side of which was attached to the
yard.--3. _Cordage_ (τοπεῖα) differed from the σχοινία or κάλοι.
The σχοινία (_funes_) are the strong ropes to which the anchors
were attached, and by which a ship was fastened to the land; while
the τοπεῖα were a lighter kind of ropes and made with greater care,
which were attached to the masts, yards, and sails. Each rope of this
kind was made for a distinct purpose and place (τόπος, whence the
name τοπεῖα). The following kinds are most worthy of notice:--_a_.
καλῴδια or κάλοι, were probably the ropes by which the mast was
fastened to both sides of the ship, so that the πρότονοι in the
Homeric ships were only an especial kind of καλῴδια, or the καλῴδια
themselves differently placed. In later times the πρότονος was the
rope which went from the top of the mainmast (καρχήσιον) to the prow
of the ship, and thus was what is now called the main-stay. _b_.
_Ceruchi_ (κεροῦχοι, ἱμάντες), ropes which ran from the two ends
of the sail-yard to the top of the mast. In more ancient vessels
the ἱμὰς consisted of only one rope; in later times it consisted of
two, and sometimes four, which uniting at the top of the mast, and
there passing through a ring, descended on the other side, where it
formed the ἐπίτονος, by means of which the sail was drawn up or let
down. _c_. ἄγκοινα, Latin _anquina_, was the rope which went from
the middle of a yard to the top of the mast, and was intended to
facilitate the drawing up and letting down of the sail. _d_. Πόδες
(_pedes_) were in later times, as in the poems of Homer, the ropes
attached to the two lower corners of a square sail. These πόδες ran
from the ends of the sail to the sides of the vessel towards the
stern, where they were fastened with rings attached to the outer
side of the bulwark. _e_. Ὑπέραι were the two ropes attached to the
two ends of the sail-yard, and thence came down to a part of the
ship near the stern. Their object was to move the yard according to
the wind. In Latin they are called _opifera_, which is, perhaps,
only a corruption of _hypera_.--4. Παραῤῥύματα. The ancients as
early as the time of Homer had various preparations raised above
the edge of a vessel, which were made of skins and wicker-work, and
which were intended as a protection against high waves, and also to
serve as a kind of breast-work behind which the men might be safe
against the darts of the enemy. These elevations of the bulwark are
called παραῤῥύματα. They were probably fixed upon the edge on both
sides of the vessel, and were taken off when not wanted. Each galley
appears to have had several παραῤῥύματα, two made of hair and two
white ones, these four being regularly mentioned as belonging to one
ship.--5. Σχοινία are the stronger and heavier kinds of ropes. There
were two kinds of these, viz. the σχοινία ἀγκύρεια, to which the
anchor was attached, and σχοινία ἐπίγυα or ἐπίγεια (_retinacula_),
by which the ship was fastened to the shore or drawn upon the
shore.--6. The _anchor_ (ἀγκύρα, _ancora_). We have already remarked
that in the Homeric age anchors were not known, and large stones
(εὐναὶ, _sleepers_) used in their stead. When anchors came to be
used, they were generally made of iron, and their form resembled
that of a modern anchor. Such an anchor was often termed _bidens_,
διπλῆ, ἀμφίβολος or ἀμφίστομος, because it had two teeth or flukes;
but sometimes it had only one, and was then called ἑτεροστόμος.
The technical expressions in the use of the anchor are: _ancoram
solvere_, ἀγκύραν χαλᾷν, to loose the anchor; _ancoram jacere_,
ἀγκύραν βάλλειν or ῥίπτειν, to cast anchor; and _ancoram tollere_,
ἀγκύραν αἴρειν or ἀναίρεσθαι, to weigh anchor, whence αἴρειν by
itself means “to set sail,” ἀγκύραν being understood. The following
figure shows the cable (_funis_), passing through a hole in the
prow (_oculus_). Each ship of course had several anchors. The last
or most powerful anchor, “the last hope,” was called ἱερά, _sacra_,
and persons trying their last hope were said _sacram solvere_.--The
preceding account of the different parts of the ship will be rendered
still clearer by the drawing on p. 263.

[Illustration: Biremis. (From a Marble at Rome.)]

FOOTNOTE:

[3] Biremes are sometimes called by the Greeks δίκροτα. The name
biremis is also applied to a little boat managed by only two oars.

NAUMĂCHIA, the name given to the representation of a sea-fight
among the Romans, and also to the place where such engagements
were exhibited. These fights sometimes took place in the circus or
amphitheatre, sufficient water being introduced to float ships, but
more generally in buildings especially devoted to this purpose.
The combatants in these sea-fights, called _Naumachiarii_, were
usually captives, or criminals condemned to death, who fought as in
gladiatorial combats, until one party was killed, unless preserved
by the clemency of the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea fights
were divided into two parties, called respectively by the names of
different maritime nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rhodians and
Sicilians, Persians and Athenians, Corcyraeans and Corinthians,
Athenians and Syracusans, &c. These sea-fights were exhibited with
the same magnificence and lavish expenditure of human life as
characterised the gladiatorial combats and other public games of the
Romans. In Nero’s naumachia there were sea-monsters swimming about in
the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited by Titus there were
3000 men engaged, and in that exhibited by Domitian the ships were
almost equal in number to two real fleets.

NAUTŎDĬCAE (ναυτόδικαι), magistrates at Athens, who had jurisdiction
in matters belonging to navigation and commerce, and in matters
concerning such persons as had entered their names as members of
a phratria without both their parents being citizens of Athens,
or in other words, in the δίκαι ἐμπόρων and δίκαι ξενίας. The time
when nautodicae were first instituted is not mentioned, but it must
have been previous to Pericles, and perhaps as early as the time of
Cleisthenes. The nautodicae were appointed every year by lot in the
month of Gamelion, and probably attended to the δίκαι ἐμπόρων only
during the winter, when navigation ceased, whereas the δίκαι ξενίας
might be brought before them all the year round.

NĔFASTI DIES. [DIES.]

NĔGŌTĬĀTŌRES, signified specially during the later times of the
republic Roman citizens settled in the provinces, who lent money
upon interest or bought up corn on speculation, which they sent to
Rome as well as to other places. Their chief business however was
lending money upon interest, and hence we find the words _negotia_,
_negotiatio_, and _negotiari_ used in this sense. The _negotiatores_
are distinguished from the _publicani_, and from the _mercatores_.
The _negotiatores_ in the provinces corresponded to the _argentarii_
and _feneratores_ at Rome.

NĔMEA (νέμεα, νεμεῖα, or νεμαῖα), the Nemean games, one of the four
great national festivals of the Greeks. It was held at Nemea, a
place near Cleonae in Argolis, and is said to have been originally
instituted by the Seven against Thebes in commemoration of the death
of Opheltes, afterwards called Archemorus. The games were revived
by Hercules, after he had slain the Nemean lion; and were from this
time celebrated in honour of Zeus. They were at first of a warlike
character, and only warriors and their sons were allowed to take part
in them; subsequently, however, they were thrown open to all the
Greeks. The various games were horse-racing, running in armour in the
stadium, wrestling, chariot-racing and the discus, boxing, throwing
the spear and shooting with the bow, to which we may add musical
contests. The prize given to the victors was at first a chaplet
of olive-branches, but afterwards a chaplet of green parsley. The
presidency of these games, and the management of them, belonged at
different times to Cleonae, Corinth, and Argos. They were celebrated
twice in every Olympiad, viz. at the commencement of every second
Olympic year, in the winter, and soon after the commencement of every
fourth Olympic year, in the summer.

NĒNIA. [FUNUS, p. 188, _a._]

NĔŌCŎRI (νεωκόροι), signified originally temple-sweepers, but was
applied even in early times to priestly officers of high rank, who
had the supreme superintendence of temples and their treasures.
Under the Roman emperors the word was especially applied to those
cities in Asia, which erected temples to the Roman emperors, since
the whole city in every such case was regarded as the guardian of the
worship of the emperor. Accordingly we frequently find on the coins
of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other cities, the epithet Νεωκόρος, which
also occurs on the inscriptions of these cities.

NEPTŪNĀLĬA, a festival of Neptune, celebrated at Rome, of which very
little is known. The day on which it was held was probably the 23rd
of July. In the ancient calendaria this day is marked as _Nept. ludi
et feriae_, or _Nept. ludi_, from which we see that the festival was
celebrated with games.

NEXUM, was either the transfer of the ownership of a thing, or the
transfer of a thing to a creditor as a security; accordingly in
one sense Nexum included Mancipium [MANCIPIUM]; in another sense,
Mancipium and Nexum are opposed in the same way in which Sale and
Mortgage or Pledge are opposed. The formal part of both transactions
consisted in a transfer _per aes et libram_. The person who became
_nexus_ by the effect of a _nexum_ or _nexus_ (for this form of
the word also is used) was said _nexum inire_. The phrases _nexi
datio_, _nexi liberatio_, respectively express the contracting and
the release from the obligation. The Roman law as to the payment of
borrowed money was very strict. By a law of the Twelve Tables, if the
debtor admitted the debt, or had been condemned in the amount of the
debt by a judex, he had thirty days allowed him for payment. At the
expiration of this time, he was liable to be assigned over to the
creditor (_addictus_) by the sentence of the praetor. The creditor
was required to keep him for sixty days in chains, during which time
he publicly exposed the debtor on three nundinae, and proclaimed the
amount of his debt. If no person released the prisoner by paying the
debt, the creditor might sell him as a slave or put him to death.
If there were several creditors, the letter of the law allowed them
to cut the debtor in pieces, and to take their share of his body in
proportion to their debt. There is no instance of a creditor ever
having adopted this extreme mode of satisfying his debt. But the
creditor might treat the debtor, who was addictus, as a slave, and
compel him to work out his debt; and the treatment was often very
severe. The Lex Poetilia (B.C. 326) alleviated the condition of the
nexi. So far as we can understand its provisions, it set all the nexi
free, or made them _soluti_, and it enacted that for the future there
should be no nexum, and that no debtor should for the future be put
in chains.

NŌBILES, NŌBĬLĬTAS. In the early periods of the Roman state the
Patricians were the Nobles as opposed to the Plebs. In B.C. 366, the
plebeians obtained the right of being eligible to the consulship,
and finally they obtained access to all the curule magistracies.
Thus the two classes were put on the same footing as to political
capacity; but now a new order of nobility arose. The descendants of
plebeians who had filled curule magistracies, formed a class called
Nobiles or men “known,” who were so called by way of distinction
from “Ignobiles” or people who were not known. The Nobiles had no
legal privileges as such; but they were bound together by a common
distinction derived from a legal title and by a common interest;
and their common interest was to endeavour to confine the election
to all the high magistracies to the members of their body, to the
Nobilitas. Thus the descendants of those Plebeians who had won their
way to distinction combined to exclude other Plebeians from the
distinction which their own ancestors had transmitted to them. The
external distinction of the Nobiles was the Jus Imaginum, a right or
privilege which was apparently established on usage only, and not on
any positive enactments. These Imagines were figures with painted
masks of wax, made to resemble the person whom they represented; and
they were placed in the Atrium of the house, apparently in small
wooden receptacles or cases somewhat in the form of temples. The
Imagines were accompanied with the tituli or names of distinction
which the deceased had acquired; and the tituli were connected in
some way by lines or branches so as to exhibit the pedigree (stemma)
of the family. These Imagines were generally enclosed in their cases,
but they were opened on festival days and other great ceremonials,
and crowned with bay (laureatae): they also formed part of a solemn
funeral procession. It seems probable that the Roman Nobilitas, in
the strict sense of that term, and the Jus Imaginum, originated
with the admission of the Plebeians to the consulship B.C. 366. A
plebeian who first attained a Curule office was the founder of his
family’s Nobilitas (princeps nobilitatis; auctor generis). Such a
person could have no imagines of his ancestors; and he could have
none of his own, for such imagines of a man were not made till after
he was dead. Such a person then was not nobilis in the full sense of
the term, nor yet was he ignobilis. He was called by the Romans a
“novus homo” or a new man; and his status or condition was called
Novitas. The term novus homo was never applied to a Patrician. The
two most distinguished “novi homines” were C. Marius and M. Tullius
Cicero, both natives of an Italian municipium. The Patricians would
of course be jealous of the new nobility; but this new nobility once
formed would easily unite with the old aristocracy of Rome to keep
the political power in their hands, and to prevent more novi homines
from polluting this exclusive class. As early as the second Punic war
this new class, compounded of Patricians or original aristocrats,
and Nobiles or newly-engrafted aristocrats, was able to exclude novi
homines from the consulship. They maintained this power to the end
of the republican period, and the consulship continued almost in
the exclusive possession of the Nobilitas. The _Optimates_ were the
Nobilitas and the chief part of the Equites, a rich middle class,
and also all others whose support the Nobilitas and Equites could
command, in fact all who were opposed to change that might affect the
power of the Nobilitas and the interests of those whom the Nobilitas
allied with themselves. Optimates in this sense are opposed to
Plebs, to the mass of the people; and Optimates is a wider term than
Nobilitas, inasmuch as it would comprehend the Nobilitas and all who
adhered to them.

NŌMEN (ὄνομα), a name. The Greeks bore only one name, and it was
one of the especial rights of a father to choose the names for his
children, and to alter them if he pleased. It was customary to give
to the eldest son the name of the grandfather on his father’s side;
and children usually received their names on the tenth day after
their birth.--Originally every Roman citizen belonged to a gens, and
derived his name (_nomen_ or _nomen gentilicium_) from his gens,
which _nomen gentilicium_ generally terminated in _ius_. Besides
this, every Roman had a name, called _praenomen_, which preceded the
nomen gentilicium, and which was peculiar to him as an individual,
_e.g._ Caius, Lucius, Marcus, Cneius, Sextus, &c. This praenomen
was at a later time given to boys on the ninth day after their
birth, and to girls on the eighth day. This day was called _dies
lustricus_, _dies nominum_, or _nominalia_. The praenomen given to
a boy was in most cases that of the father, but sometimes that of
the grandfather or great-grandfather. These two names, a _praenomen_
and a _nomen gentilicium_, or simply _nomen_, were indispensable
to a Roman, and they were at the same time sufficient to designate
him; hence the numerous instances of Romans being designated only
by these two names, even in cases where a third or fourth name was
possessed by the person. Every Roman citizen, besides belonging to
a gens, was also frequently a member of a familia, contained in a
gens, and accordingly might have a third name or _cognomen_. Such
cognomina were derived by the Romans from a variety of mental or
bodily peculiarities, or from some remarkable event in the life of
the person who was the founder of the familia. Such cognomina are,
Asper, Imperiosus, Magnus, Maximus, Publicola, Brutus, Capito, Cato,
Naso, Labeo, Caecus, Cicero, Scipio, Sulla, Torquatus, &c. These
names were in most cases hereditary, and descended to the latest
members of a familia; in some cases they ceased with the death of the
person to whom they were given for special reasons. Many Romans had a
second cognomen (_cognomen secundum_ or _agnomen_), which was given
to them as an honorary distinction, and in commemoration of some
memorable deed or event of their life, _e.g._ Africanus, Asiaticus,
Hispallus, Cretensis, Macedonicus, Allobrogicus, &c. Such agnomina
were sometimes given by one general to another, sometimes by the army
and confirmed by the chief-general, sometimes by the people in the
comitia, and sometimes they were assumed by the person himself, as
in the case of L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. The regular order in
which these names followed one another was:--1. praenomen; 2. nomen
gentilicium; 3. cognomen primum; 4. cognomen secundum or agnomen.
Sometimes the name of the tribe to which a person belonged, was added
to his name, in the ablative case, as Q. Verres Romilia, C. Claudius
Palatina. If a person by adoption passed from one gens into another,
he assumed the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen of his adoptive father,
and added to these the name of his former gens, with the termination
_anus_. Thus C. Octavius, after being adopted by his uncle C. Julius
Caesar, was called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and the son of L.
Aemilius Paullus, when adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, was called P.
Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. [ADOPTIO.] Slaves had only one name,
and usually retained that which they had borne before they came
into slavery. If a slave was restored to freedom, he received the
praenomen and nomen gentilicium of his former master, and to these
was added the name which he had had as a slave. Instances of such
freedmen are, T. Ampius Menander, a freedman of T. Ampius Balbus,
L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a freedman of L. Cornelius Sulla, and M.
Tullius Tiro, freedman of M. Tullius Cicero.

NŎMŎPHỸLĂCES (νομοφύλακες), certain magistrates or official persons
of high authority, who exercised a control over other magistrates,
and indeed over the whole body of the people, it being their duty to
see that the laws were duly administered and obeyed. Mention is made
of such officers at Sparta and elsewhere, but no such body existed at
Athens, for they must have had a power too great for the existence of
a democracy. The Senate of 500, or the Areopagitic council, performed
in some measure the office of law-guardians; but the only persons
designated by this name appear to have been inferior functionaries (a
sort of police), whose business it was to prevent irregularities and
disturbances in the public assemblies.

NŎMOS (νόμος). This word comprehends the notion not only of
established or statute law, but likewise of all customs and opinions
to which long prescription or natural feeling gives the force of
law. Before any written codes appeared, law was promulgated by the
poets or wise men, who sang the great deeds of their ancestors, and
delivered their moral and political lessons in verse. As civilisation
advanced, laws were reduced to writing, in the shape either of
regular codes or distinct ordinances, and afterwards publicly
exhibited, engraved on tablets, or hewn on columns. The first
written laws we hear of are those of Zaleucus. The first at Athens
were those of Draco, called θεσμοὶ, and by that name distinguished
from the νόμοι of Solon. The laws of Lycurgus were not written. He
enjoined that they should never be inscribed on any other tablet
than the hearts of his countrymen. Those of Solon were inscribed on
wooden tablets, arranged in pyramidal blocks, turning on an axis,
called ἄξονες and κύρβεις. They were first hung in the Acropolis, but
afterwards brought down to the Prytaneum.

NŎMŎTHĔTAE (νομόθεται), movers or proposers of laws, the name of a
legislative committee at Athens, which, by an institution of Solon,
was appointed to amend and revise the laws. At the first κυρία
ἐκκλησία in every year, any person was at liberty to point out
defects in the existing code or propose alterations. If his motion
was deemed worthy of attention, the third assembly might refer
the matter to the Nomothetae. They were selected by lot from the
Heliastic body; it being the intention of Solon to limit the power
of the popular assembly by means of a superior board emanating from
itself, composed of citizens of mature age, bound by a stricter oath,
and accustomed to weigh legal principles by the exercise of their
judicial functions. The number of the committee so appointed varied
according to the exigency of the occasion. The people appointed
five advocates (σύνδικοι) to attend before the board and maintain
the policy of the existing institution. If the proposed measure
met the approval of the committee, it passed into law forthwith.
Besides this, the Thesmothetae were officially authorised to review
the whole code, and to refer to the _Nomothetae_ all statutes which
they considered unworthy of being retained. Hence appears the
difference between _Psephisma_ (ψήφισμα) and _Nomos_ (νόμος). The
mere resolution of the people in assembly was a _psephisma_, and only
remained in force a year, like a decree of the senate. Nothing was a
_law_ that did not pass the ordeal of the Nomothetae.

NŌNAE. [CALENDARIUM.]

NŎTA, which signified a mark or sign of any kind, was also employed
for an abbreviation. Hence _notae_ signified the marks or signs
used in taking down the words of a speaker, and was equivalent to
our short-hand writing, or stenography; and _notarii_ signified
short-hand writers. It must be borne in mind, however, that _notae_
also signified writing in cipher; and many passages in the ancient
reciters which are supposed to refer to short-hand, refer in reality
to writing in cipher. Among the Greeks it is said to have been
invented by Xenophon, and their short-hand writers were called
ταχυγράφοι, ὀξυγράφοι and σημειογράφοι. The first introduction of
the art among the Romans is ascribed to Cicero. He is said to have
caused the debate in the senate on the punishment of the Catilinarian
conspirators to be taken down in short-hand. Eusebius ascribes it to
Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, and hence the system of abbreviated
writing, in which some manuscripts are written, has received the name
of _Notae Tironianae_; but there is no evidence to show whether this
species of short-hand was really the invention of Tiro. The system of
short-hand employed in the time of the Roman empire must have been of
a much simpler and more expeditious kind than the _Notae Tironianae_,
which were merely abbreviations of the words. Many of the wealthy
Romans kept slaves, who were trained in the art. It was also
learnt even by the Roman nobles, and the emperor Titus was a great
proficient in it. At a later time, it seems to have been generally
taught in the schools. There were, moreover, short-hand writers
(_notarii_) by profession, who were chiefly employed in taking down
(_notare_, _excipere_) the proceedings in the courts of justice. At a
later period, they were called _exceptores_. These short-hand writers
were also employed on some occasions to take down a person’s will.

NOTĀRĬI, short-hand writers, spoken of under NOTA. They were likewise
called _Actuarii_. They were also employed by the emperors, and in
course of time the title of _Notarii_ was exclusively applied to the
private secretaries of the emperors, who, of course, were no longer
slaves, but persons of high rank. The short-hand writers were now
called _exceptores_, as is remarked under NOTA.

NŎTA CENSŌRĬA. [CENSOR.]

NŎVENDĬĀLE (sc. _sacrum_).--(1) A festival lasting nine days,
which was celebrated as often as stones rained from heaven. It was
originally instituted by Tullus Hostilius, when there was a shower of
stones upon the Mons Albanus, and was frequently celebrated in later
times.--(2) This name was also given to the sacrifice performed nine
days after a funeral. [FUNUS.]

NŎVI HŎMĬNES. [NOBILES.]

NŪDUS (γυμνός). These words, besides denoting absolute nakedness,
were applied to any one who, being without an AMICTUS, wore only his
tunic or indutus. In this state of nudity the ancients performed the
operations of ploughing, sowing, and reaping. This term applied to
the warrior expressed the absence of some part of his armour. Hence
the light-armed were called γυμνῆτες. [ARMA.]

NUMMŬLĀRĬI or NŪMŬLĀRII. [MENSARII.]

NUMMUS or NŪMUS. [SESTERTIUS.]

NUNDĬNAE is derived by all the ancient writers from _novem_ and
_dies_, so that it literally signifies the ninth day. Every eighth
day, according to our mode of speaking, was a nundinae, and there
were thus always seven ordinary days between two nundinae. The Romans
in their peculiar mode of reckoning added these two nundinae to the
seven ordinary days, and consequently said that the nundinae recurred
every ninth day, and called them _nundinae_, as it were _novemdinae_.
The number of nundinae in the ancient year of ten months was 38.
They were originally market-days for the country folk, on which they
came to Rome to sell the produce of their labour, and on which the
king settled the legal disputes among them. When, therefore, we read
that the nundinae were feriae, or dies nefasti, and that no comitia
were allowed to be held, we have to understand this of the populus
or patricians, and not of the plebes; and while for the populus
the nundinae were feriae, they were real days of business (_dies
fasti_ or _comitiales_) for the plebeians, who on these occasions
pleaded their causes with members of their own order, and held their
public meetings (the ancient comitia of the plebeians). Afterwards
the nundinae became fasti for both orders, and this innovation
facilitated the attendance of the plebeians at the comitia
centuriata. The subjects to be laid before the comitia, whether they
were proposals for new laws, or the appointment of officers, were
announced to the people three nundinae beforehand (_trinundino die
proponere_). Instead of _nundinae_ the form _nundinum_ is sometimes
used, but only when it is preceded by a numeral, as in _trinundinum_,
or _trinum nundinum_.

NUPTĬAE. [MATRIMONIUM.]

ŎBOLUS. [DRACHMA.]

OCRĔA (κνημίς), a greave, a leggin. A pair of greaves (κνημῖδες)
was one of the six articles of armour which formed the complete
equipment of a Greek warrior [ARMA], and likewise of a Roman soldier
as fixed by Servius Tullius. They were made of various metals, with
a lining probably of leather, felt, or cloth. Their form is shown in
the accompanying cut. The figure is that of a fallen warrior, and
in consequence of the bending of the knees, the greaves are seen to
project a little above them. This statue also shows the ankle-rings
(ἐπισφύρια), which were used to fasten the greaves immediately above
the feet.

[Illustration: Ocreae, Greaves. (From the Aeginetan Marbles.)]

ŌDĒUM (ᾠδεῖον), a species of public building for contests in vocal
and instrumental music. In its general form and arrangements it was
very similar to the theatre; and it is sometimes called θέατρον.
There were, however, some characteristic differences: the Odeum was
much smaller than the theatre; and it was roofed over, in order to
retain the sound. The earliest building of this kind was that erected
by Pericles at Athens, for the purpose of celebrating the musical
contests at the Panathenaea. Its proximity to the theatre suggested
some of the uses made of it, namely, as a refuge for the audience
when driven out of the theatre by rain, and also as a place in which
the chorus could be prepared. Another Odeum was built at Athens by
Herodes Atticus, and was the most magnificent edifice of the sort in
the whole empire. The length of its largest diameter was 248 feet,
and it is calculated to have furnished accommodation for about 8000
persons. There were also Odea in other Greek towns. The first Odeum,
properly so called, at Rome, was built by Domitian, and the second by
Trajan. There are ruins of such buildings in the villa of Hadrian at
Tivoli, at Pompeii, and at Catana.

ŎLĔA, ŎLĪVA (ἐλαία); ŎLĔUM, OLĪVUM (ἔλαιον). The importance of
the olive was recognised from the most remote period of antiquity
in all civilised countries where the temperature admitted of its
cultivation: and it was widely adopted as an emblem of industry and
peace. Hence the honour paid to it at Athens, and hence the title
of “prima omnium arborum,” bestowed upon it by Columella. The fruit
(_bacca_) of the olive was for the most part employed for one of
two purposes. 1. It was eaten as a fruit, either fresh, pickled, or
preserved in various ways. 2. It was pressed so as to yield the oil
and other juices which it contained. And again, the oil was employed
for a variety of purposes, but chiefly 1. As an article of food.
2. For anointing the body, and in this case was frequently made a
vehicle for perfumes (_unguenta_). 3. For burning in lamps.

OLĬGARCHĬA (ὀλιγαρχια), the government of a few: a term applied to
that perversion (παρέκβασις) of an _Aristocratia_ into which the
latter passed, when, owing to the rise of the _demus_ [DEMOCRATIA],
and the vanishing of those substantial grounds of pre-eminence
which rendered an Aristocratia not unjust, the rule of the dominant
portion of the community became the ascendancy of a faction, whose
efforts were directed chiefly towards their own aggrandisement. The
preservation of power under such circumstances of course depended
chiefly upon the possession of superior wealth and the other
appliances of wealth which were its concomitants. Thus it came to be
regarded as essentially characteristic of an oligarchy, that the main
distinction between the dominant faction and the subject portion of
the community was the possession of greater wealth on the part of the
former. Hence the term _Oligarchia_ would not have been applied, if a
small section of the community, consisting of _poor_ persons, by any
means got the reins of government into their hands.

OLLA (λέβης, χύτρος), a vessel of any material, round and plain, and
having a wide mouth; a pot; a jar.

ŎLYMPĬA (ὀλύμπια), the Olympic games, the greatest of the national
festivals of the Greeks. It was celebrated at Olympia in Elis, the
name given to a small plain to the west of Pisa, which was bounded
on the north and north-east by the mountains Cronius and Olympus,
on the south by the river Alpheus, and on the west by the Cladeus,
which flows into the Alpheus. Olympia does not appear to have been a
town, but rather a collection of temples and public buildings. The
origin of the Olympic games is buried in obscurity, but the festival
was of very great antiquity. The first historical fact connected with
this festival is its revival by Iphitus, king of Elis, who is said
to have accomplished it with the assistance of Lycurgus, the Spartan
lawgiver, and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The date of this event is given
by some writers as B.C. 884, and by others as B.C. 828. The interval
of four years between each celebration of the festival was called
an Olympiad; but the Olympiads were not employed as a chronological
aera till the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, B.C. 776.
[OLYMPIAS.] The most important point in the renewal of the festival
by Iphitus was the establishment of the _Ececheiria_ (ἐκεχειρία),
or sacred armistice. The proclamation was made by peace-heralds
(σπονδοφόροι), first in Elis and afterwards in the other parts of
Greece; it put a stop to all warfare for the month in which the games
were celebrated, and which was called the _sacred month_ (ἱερομηνία).
The territory of Elis itself was considered especially sacred during
the games, and no armed force could enter it without incurring the
guilt of sacrilege. The Olympic festival was probably confined at
first to the Peloponnesians; but as its celebrity extended, the
other Greeks took part in it, till at length it became a festival
for the whole nation. No one was allowed to contend in the games
but persons of pure Hellenic blood: barbarians might be spectators,
but slaves were entirely excluded. After the conquest of Greece by
the Romans, the latter were permitted to take part in the games. No
women were allowed to be present or even to cross the Alpheus during
the celebration of the games, under penalty of being hurled down
from the Typaean rock, but women could send chariots to the races.
The number of spectators at the festival was very great; and these
were drawn together not merely by the desire of seeing the games,
but partly through the opportunity it afforded them of carrying on
commercial transactions with persons from distant places, as is the
case with the Mohammedan festivals at Mecca and Medina. Many of the
persons present were also deputies (θεωροί) sent to represent the
various states of Greece; and we find that these embassies vied with
one another in the number of their offerings, and the splendour of
their general appearance, in order to support the honour of their
native cities. The Olympic festival was a Pentaëteris (πενταετηρίς),
that is, according to the ancient mode of reckoning, a space of four
years elapsed between each festival, in the same way as there was
only a space of two years between a Trieteris. It was celebrated on
the first full moon after the summer solstice. It lasted, after all
the contests had been introduced, five days, from the 11th to the
15th days of the month inclusive. The fourth day of the festival
was the 14th of the month, which was the day of the full moon, and
which divided the month into two equal parts. The festival was under
the immediate superintendence of the Olympian Zeus, whose temple at
Olympia, adorned with the statue of the god made by Phidias, was one
of the most splendid works of art in Greece. There were also temples
and altars to most of the other gods. The festival itself may be
divided into two parts, the games or contests (ἀγὼν Ολυμπιακός),
and the festive rites (ἑορτή) connected with the sacrifices, with
the processions, and with the public banquets in honour of the
conquerors.--The contests consisted of various trials of strength
and skill, which were increased in number from time to time. There
were in all twenty-four contests, eighteen in which men took part,
and six in which boys engaged, though they were never all exhibited
at one festival, since some were abolished almost immediately after
their institution, and others after they had been in use only a
short time. We subjoin a list of these from Pausanias, with the
date of the introduction of each, commencing from the Olympiad of
Coroebus:--1. The foot-race (δρόμος), which was the only contest
during the first 13 Olympiads. 2. The δίαυλος, or foot-race, in which
the stadium was traversed twice, first introduced in Ol. 14. 3. The
δόλιχος, a still longer foot-race than the δίαυλος, introduced in Ol.
15. For a more particular account of the δίαυλος and δόλιχος, see
STADIUM. 4. Wrestling (πάλη), and, 5. The Pentathlum (πένταθλον),
which consisted of five exercises [PENTATHLUM], both introduced
in Ol. 18. 6. Boxing (πυγμή) introduced in Ol. 23. [PUGILATUS.]
7. The chariot-race, with four full-grown horses (ἵππων τελείων
δρόμος, ἅρμα), introduced in Ol. 25. 8. The Pancratium (παγκράτιον)
[PANCRATIUM], and 9. The horse-race (ἵππος κέλης), both introduced
in Ol. 33. 10 and 11. The foot-race and wrestling for boys, both
introduced in Ol. 37. 12. The Pentathlum for boys, introduced in
Ol. 38., but immediately afterwards abolished. 13. Boxing for boys,
introduced in Ol. 41. 14. The foot-race, in which men ran with the
equipments of heavy-armed soldiers (τῶν ὁπλιτῶν δρόμος), introduced
in Ol. 65., on account of its training men for actual service in war.
15. The chariot-race with mules (ἀπήνη), introduced in Ol. 70.; and
16. The horse-race with mares (κάλπη), introduced in Ol. 71., both
of which were abolished in Ol. 84. 17. The chariot-race with two
full-grown horses (ἵππων τελείων συνωρίς), introduced in Ol. 93. 18,
19. The contest of heralds (κήρυκες) and trumpeters (σαλπιγκταί),
introduced in Ol. 96. 20. The chariot-race with four foals (πώλων
ἅρμασιν), introduced in Ol. 99. 21. The chariot-race with two foals
(πώλων συνωρίς), introduced in Ol. 128. 22. The horse-race with
foals (πῶλος κέλης), introduced in Ol. 131. 23. The Pancratium
for boys, introduced in Ol. 145. 24. There was also a horse-race
(ἵππος κέλης) in which boys rode, but we do not know the time of its
introduction.--The judges in the Olympic Games, called _Hellanodicae_
(Ἑλλανοδίκαι), were appointed by the Eleans, who had the regulation
of the whole festival. It appears to have been originally under the
superintendence of Pisa, in the neighbourhood of which Olympia was
situated, but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians
on the return of the Heraclidae, the Aetolians, who had been of
great assistance to the Heraclidae, settled in Elis, and from this
time the Aetolian Eleans obtained the regulation of the festival,
and appointed the presiding officers. The Hellanodicae were chosen
by lot from the whole body of the Eleans. Their number varied at
different periods, but at a later time there were eight Hellanodicae.
Their office probably lasted for only one festival. They had to
see that all the laws relating to the games were observed by the
competitors and others, to determine the prizes, and to give them
to the conquerors. An appeal lay from their decision to the Elean
senate. Under the direction of the Hellanodicae was a certain number
of _Alytae_ (ἀλύται) with an _Alytarches_ (ἀλυτάρχης) at their head,
who formed a kind of police, and carried into execution the commands
of the Hellanodicae. There were also various other minor officers
under the control of the Hellanodicae.--All free Greeks were allowed
to contend in the games, who had complied with the rules prescribed
to candidates. The equestrian contests were necessarily confined to
the wealthy; but the poorest citizens could contend in the athletic
games. This, however, was far from degrading the games in public
opinion; and some of the noblest as well as meanest citizens of the
state took part in these contests. The owners of the chariots and
horses were not obliged to contend in person; and the wealthy vied
with one another in the number and magnificence of the chariots and
horses which they sent to the games. All persons, who were about to
contend, had to prove to the Hellanodicae that they were freemen, and
of pure Hellenic blood, that they had not been branded with atimia,
nor guilty of any sacrilegious act. They further had to prove that
they had undergone the preparatory training (προγυμνάσματα) for ten
months previous. All competitors were obliged, thirty days before
the festival, to undergo certain exercises in the Gymnasium at Elis,
under the superintendence of the Hellanodicae. The competitors took
their places by lot. The herald then proclaimed the name and country
of each competitor. When they were all ready to begin the contest,
the judges exhorted them to acquit themselves nobly, and then gave
the signal to commence.--The only prize given to the conqueror was
a garland of wild olive (κότινος), cut from a sacred olive tree,
which grew in the sacred grove of Altis in Olympia. The victor was
originally crowned upon a tripod covered over with bronze, but
afterwards upon a table made of ivory and gold. Palm branches, the
common tokens of victory on other occasions, were placed in his
hands. The name of the victor, and that of his father and of his
country, were then proclaimed by a herald before the representatives
of assembled Greece. The festival ended with processions and
sacrifices, and with a public banquet given by the Eleans to the
conquerors in the Prytaneium. The most powerful states considered an
Olympic victory, gained by one of their citizens, to confer honour
upon the state to which he belonged; and a conqueror usually had
immunities and privileges conferred upon him by the gratitude of
his fellow-citizens. On his return home the victor entered the city
in a triumphal procession, in which his praises were celebrated,
frequently in the loftiest strains of poetry. [ATHLETAE.] As persons
from all parts of the Hellenic world were assembled together at the
Olympic Games, it was the best opportunity which the artist and the
writer possessed of making their works known. It answered, to some
extent, the same purpose as the press does in modern times. Before
the invention of printing, the reading of an author’s works to as
large an assembly as could be obtained, was one of the easiest and
surest modes of publishing them; and this was a favourite practice of
the Greeks and Romans. Accordingly we find many instances of literary
works thus published at the Olympic festival. Herodotus is said to
have read his history at this festival; but though there are some
reasons for doubting the correctness of this statement, there are
numerous other writers who thus published their works, as the sophist
Hippias, Prodicus of Ceos, Anaximenes, the orator Lysias, Dion
Chrysostom, &c. It must be borne in mind that these recitations were
not contests, and that they formed properly no part of the festival.
In the same way painters and other artists exhibited their works at
Olympia.

OLYMPĬAS (ὀλυμπιάς), an Olympiad, the most celebrated chronological
aera among the Greeks, was the period of four years which elapsed
between each celebration of the Olympic Games. The Olympiads began
to be reckoned from the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, which
happened in the year B.C. 776. Timaeus of Sicily, however, who
flourished B.C. 264, was the first writer who regularly arranged
events according to the conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice
of recording events by Olympiads was followed by Polybius, Diodorus
Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, &c. The writers who make use of
the aera of the Olympiads, usually give the number of the Olympiad
(the first corresponding to B.C. 776), and then the name of the
conqueror in the foot-race. Some writers also speak of events as
happening in the first, second, third, or fourth year, as the case
may be, of a certain Olympiad; but others do not give the separate
years of each Olympiad. The rules for converting Olympiads into the
year B.C., and _vice versa_, are given under CHRONOLOGIA; but as this
is troublesome, the student will find at the end of the book a list
of the Olympiads, with the years of the Christian aera corresponding
to them from the beginning of the Olympiads to A.D. 301. To save
space, the separate years of each Olympiad, with the corresponding
years B.C., are only given from the 47th to the 126th Olympiad, as
this is the most important period of Grecian history; in the other
Olympiads the first year only is given. In consulting the table it
must be borne in mind that the Olympic Games were celebrated about
midsummer, and that the Attic year commenced at about the same time.
If, therefore, an event happened in the second half of the Attic
year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1. Thus Socrates was put to
death in the 1st year of the 95th Olympiad, which corresponds in the
table to B.C. 400; but as his death happened in Thargelion, the 11th
month of the Attic year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1, which
gives us B.C. 399, the true date of his death.

ŎPĀLĬA, a Roman festival in honour of Opis, celebrated on the 19th of
December, being the third day of the Saturnalia. It was believed that
Opis was the wife of Saturnus, and for this reason the festivals were
celebrated at the same time.

OPSŌNĬUM, or OBSŌNĬUM (ὄψον, _dim._ ὀψάριον; ὀψήμα), denoted
everything which was eaten with bread, the principal substance of
every meal. Those numerous articles of diet called _opsonia_ or
_pulmentaria_ were designed to give nutriment, but still more to
add a relish to food. Some of these articles were taken from the
vegetable kingdom, but were much more pungent and savoury than bread,
such as olives, either fresh or pickled, radishes, and sesamum. Of
animal food by much the most common kind was fish, whence the terms
under explanation were in the course of time used in a confined and
special sense to denote fish only, but fish variously prepared, and
more especially salt fish, which was most extensively employed to
give a relish to the vegetable diet. The Athenians were in the habit
of going to markets (εἰς τοῦψον) themselves in order to purchase
their opsonia (ὀψωνεῖν, _opsonare_). But the opulent, Romans had a
slave, called _opsonator_ (ὀψώνης), whose office it was to purchase
for his master.

OPTĬO. [CENTURIO.]

OPTĬMĀTES. [NOBILES.]

ŌRĀCŬLUM (μαντεῖον, χρηστήριον) was used by the ancients to designate
both the revelations made by the deity to man, as well as the place
in which such revelations were made. The deity was in none of these
places believed to appear in person to man, and to communicate to him
his will or knowledge of the future, but all oracular revelations
were made through some kind of medium, which was different in the
different places where oracles existed. It may, at first sight, seem
strange that there were, comparatively speaking, so few oracles of
Zeus, the father and ruler of gods and men. But although, according
to the belief of the ancients, Zeus himself was the first source
of all oracular revelations, yet he was too far above men to enter
with them into any close relation; other gods therefore, especially
Apollo, and even heroes, acted as mediators between Zeus and men,
and were, as it were, the organs through which he communicated his
will. The ancients consulted the will of the gods on all important
occasions of public and private life, since they were unwilling to
undertake anything of importance without their sanction.--The most
celebrated oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. Its ancient name was
Pytho. In the centre of the temple there was a small opening (χάσμα)
in the ground, from which, from time to time, an intoxicating smoke
arose, which was believed to come from the well of Cassotis, which
vanished into the ground close by the sanctuary. Over this chasm
there stood a high tripod, on which the Pythia, led into the temple
by the prophetes (προφήτης), took her seat whenever the oracle was
to be consulted. The smoke rising from under the tripod affected
her brain in such a manner that she fell into a state of delirious
intoxication, and the sounds which she uttered in this state were
believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. These sounds were
carefully written down by the prophetes, and afterwards communicated
to the persons who had come to consult the oracle. The Pythia (the
προφῆτις) was always a native of Delphi, and when she had once
entered the service of the god she never left it, and was never
allowed to marry. In early times she was always a young girl, but
subsequently no one was elected as prophetess who had not attained
the age of fifty years. The Delphians, or, more properly speaking,
the noble families of Delphi, had the superintendence of the oracle.
Among the Delphian aristocracy, however, there were five families
which traced their origin to Deucalion, and from each of these one of
the five priests, called _Hosioi_ (ὅσιοι), was taken. The _Hosioi_,
together with the high-priest or prophetes, held their offices for
life, and had the control of all the affairs of the sanctuary and of
the sacrifices. That these noble families had an immense influence
upon the oracle is manifest from numerous instances, and it is not
improbable that they were its very soul, and that it was they who
dictated the pretended revelations of the god. Most of the oracular
answers which are extant are in hexameters, and in the Ionic dialect.
Sometimes, however, Doric forms also were used.--No religious
institution in all antiquity obtained such a paramount influence in
Greece as the oracle of Delphi. When consulted on a subject of a
religious nature, the answer was invariably of a kind calculated not
only to protect and preserve religious institutions, but to command
new ones to be established, so that it was the preserver and promoter
of religion throughout the ancient world. Colonies were seldom or
never founded without having obtained the advice and the directions
of the Delphic god. The Delphic oracle had at all times a leaning in
favour of the Greeks of the Doric race, but the time when it began
to lose its influence must be dated from the period when Athens and
Sparta entered upon their struggle for the supremacy in Greece; for
at this time the partiality for Sparta became so manifest that the
Athenians and their party began to lose all reverence and esteem
for it, and the oracle became a mere instrument in the hands of a
political party. Of the other oracles, the most celebrated were that
of Apollo at Didyma, usually called the oracle of the Branchidae, in
the territory of Miletus; that of Zeus, at Dodona, where the oracle
was given from sounds produced by the wind; that of Zeus Ammon, in
an oasis in Libya, not far from the boundaries of Egypt; that of
Amphiaraus, between Potniae and Thebes, where the hero was said to
have been swallowed up by the earth; and that of Trophonius, at
Lebadeia in Boeotia.

ŌRĀRĬUM was a small handkerchief used for wiping the face, and
appears to have been employed for much the same purposes as our
pocket-handkerchief. It was made of silk or linen. Aurelian
introduced the practice of giving _Oraria_ to the Roman people to use
_ad favorem_, which appears to mean for the purpose of waving in the
public games in token of applause.

ŌRĀTOR. The profession of the Roman orator, who with reference to
his undertaking a client’s case is also called patronus, was quite
distinct from that of the Jurisconsultus [JURISCONSULTI], and also
from that of the Advocatus, at least in the time of Cicero, and even
later. An orator who possessed a competent knowledge of the Jus
Civile would, however, have an advantage. Some requisites of oratory,
such as voice and gesture, could only be acquired by discipline,
whereas a competent knowledge of the law of a case (_juris utilitas_)
could be got at any time from the jurisconsulti (_periti_) or from
books. Oratory was a serious study among the Romans. Cicero tells
us by what painful labour he attained to excellence. Roman oratory
reached its perfection in the century which preceded the Christian
aera. Its decline dates from the establishment of the Imperial power.
The old orators learned their art by constant attendance on some
eminent orator and by actual experience of business: the orators of
Messala’s time were formed in the schools of Rhetoric, and their
powers were developed in exercises on fictitious matters. But the
immediate causes of the former nourishing condition of eloquence
were the political power which oratory conferred on the orator under
the Republic, and the party struggles and even the violence that are
incident to such a state of society.

ORCHESTRA. [THEATRUM.]

ORCĪNUS SĔNĀTOR. [SENATUS.]

ORDO is applied to any body of men who form a distinct class in
the community, either by possessing distinct privileges, pursuing
certain trades or professions, or in any other way. Thus the whole
body of sacerdotes at Rome is spoken of as an ordo, and separate
ecclesiastical corporations are called by the same title. The
libertini and scribae also formed separate ordines. The senate and
the equites are also spoken of respectively as the ordo senatorius
and ordo equestris, but this name is never applied to the plebes.
Accordingly we find the expression, _uterque ordo_, used without
any further explanation to designate the senatorial and equestrian
ordines. The senatorial ordo, as the highest, is sometimes
distinguished as _amplissimus ordo_.--The senate in colonies and
municipia was called _ordo decurionum_ [COLONIA], and sometimes
simply _ordo_.--The term ordo is also applied to a company or troop
of soldiers, and is used as equivalent to centuria: thus centurions
are sometimes called _qui ordines duxerunt_, and the first centuries
in a legion _primi ordines_. Even the centurions of the first
centuries are occasionally called _primi ordines_.

ORGIA. [MYSTERIA.]

ORGYIA (ὀργυιά), a Greek measure of length, derived from the
human body, was the distance from extremity to extremity of the
outstretched arms, whence the name, from ὀρέγω. It was equal to 6
feet or to 4 cubits, and was 1-100th of the stadium.

ŎRĬCHALCUM, a metallic compound, akin to copper and bronze, which
was highly prized by the ancients. It probably denotes _brass_, with
which the ancients became acquainted by fusing zinc ore (_cadmium_,
calamine) with copper, although they appear to have had scarcely
any knowledge of zinc as a metal. The word is derived from ὄρος and
χαλκός, that is, _mountain-bronze_.

OSCHOPHŎRIA (ὠσχοφόρια, ὀσχοφόρια), an Attic festival, which,
according to some writers, was celebrated in honour of Athena and
Dionysus, and according to others in honour of Dionysus and Ariadne.
It is said to have been instituted by Theseus. It was a vintage
festival, and its name is derived from ὦσχος, ὄσχος, or ὄσχη, a
branch of vines with grapes.

[Illustration: Oscillum. (From a Marble in the British Museum.)]

OSCILLUM, a diminutive through _osculum_ from _os_, meaning “a little
face,” was the term applied to faces or heads of Bacchus, which
were suspended in the vineyards to be turned in every direction
by the wind. Whichsoever way they looked, they were supposed to
make the vines in that quarter fruitful. The first cut represents
the countenance of Bacchus with a beautiful, mild, and propitious
expression. The other cut represents a tree with four oscilla hung
upon its branches. A syrinx and a pedum are placed at the root of the
tree.

[Illustration: Oscillum. (From an ancient Gem.)]

OSTĬĀRĬUM, a tax upon the doors of houses, which appears to have been
sometimes levied in the provinces. There was a similar tax, called
_columnarium_, imposed upon every pillar that supported a house.

OSTĬUM. [JANUA.]

ŎVĀTĬO, a lesser triumph. The circumstances by which it was
distinguished from the more imposing solemnity [TRIUMPHUS] were the
following:--The general did not enter the city in a chariot drawn
by four horses, but on foot: he was not arrayed in the gorgeous
gold-embroidered robe, but in the simple toga praetexta of a
magistrate; his brows were encircled with a wreath, not of laurel
but of myrtle; he bore no sceptre in his hand; the procession was
not heralded by trumpets, headed by the senate, and thronged with
victorious troops, but was enlivened by a crowd of flute players,
attended chiefly by knights and plebeians, frequently without
soldiers: the ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice, not of a
bull but of a sheep. The word _ovatio_ seems clearly to be derived
from the kind of victim offered. An ovation was granted when the
advantage gained, although considerable, was not sufficient to
constitute a legitimate claim to the higher distinction of a triumph,
or when the victory had been achieved with little bloodshed; or when
hostilities had not been regularly proclaimed; or when the war had
not been completely terminated; or when the contest had been carried
on against base and unworthy foes; and hence when the servile bands
of Athenion and Spartacus were destroyed by Perperna and Crassus,
these leaders celebrated ovations only.

ŎVĪLE. [COMITIA.]

PAEAN (παιήων, παιάν, παιών), a hymn or song, which was originally
sung in honour of Apollo. It was always of a joyous nature, and
its tune and sounds expressed hope and confidence. It was a song
of thanksgiving, when danger was passed, and also a hymn to
propitiate the god. It was sung at the solemn festivals of Apollo,
and especially at the Hyacinthia. The paean was also sung as a
battle-song, both before an attack on the enemy and after the battle
was finished. It is certain that the paean was in later times sung to
the honour of other gods besides Apollo. Thus Xenophon relates that
the Greek army in Asia sung a paean to Zeus.

PAEDĂGŌGUS (παιδαγωγός), a tutor. The office of tutor in a Grecian
family of rank and opulence was assigned to one of the most
trustworthy of the slaves. The sons of his master were committed to
his care on attaining their sixth or seventh year, their previous
education having been conducted by females. They remained with the
tutor until they attained the age of puberty. His duty was rather to
guard them from evil, both physical and moral, than to communicate
instruction. He went with them to and from the school or the
GYMNASIUM; he accompanied them out of doors on all occasions; he was
responsible for their personal safety, and for their avoidance of bad
company. In the Roman empire the name _paedagogi_ or _paedagogia_
was given to beautiful young slaves, who discharged in the imperial
palace the duties of the modern _page_, which is in fact a corruption
of the ancient name.

PAEDŎNŎMUS (παιδονόμος), a magistrate at Sparta, who had the general
superintendence of the education of the boys.

PAENŬLA, a thick cloak, chiefly used by the Romans in travelling,
instead of the toga, as a protection against the cold and rain. It
appears to have had no sleeves, and only an opening for the head, as
shown in the following figure.

[Illustration: Paenula, travelling cloak. (From Bartholini.)]

PĀGĀNĀLĬA. [PAGI.]

PĀGĀNI. [PAGI.]

PĀGI were fortified places in the neighbourhood of Rome, to which
the country-people might retreat in case of a hostile inroad. Each
of the country tribes is said to have been divided by Numa into a
certain number of pagi; which name was given to the country adjoining
the fortified village, as well as to the village itself. There was
a magistrate at the head of each pagus, who kept a register of the
names and of the property of all persons in the pagus, raised the
taxes, and summoned the people, when necessary, to war. Each pagus
had its own sacred rites, and an annual festival called _Paganalia_.
The _pagani_, or inhabitants of the pagi, had their regular meetings,
at which they passed resolutions. The division of the country-people
into pagi continued to the latest times of the Roman empire. The term
Pagani is often used in opposition to milites, and is applied to all
who were not soldiers, even though they did not live in the country.
The Christian writers gave the name of pagani to those persons who
adhered to the old Roman religion, because the latter continued to be
generally believed by the country-people, after Christianity became
the prevailing religion of the inhabitants of the towns.

PĂLAESTRA (παλαίστρα), properly means a place for wrestling
(παλαίειν, πάλη), and appears to have originally formed a part of
the gymnasium. At Athens, however, there was a considerable number
of palaestrae, quite distinct from the gymnasia. It appears most
probable that the palaestrae were chiefly appropriated to the
exercises of wrestling and of the pancratium, and were principally
intended for the athletae, who, it must be recollected, were persons
that contended in the public games, and therefore needed special
training. The Romans had originally no places corresponding to the
Greek gymnasia and palaestrae; and when towards the close of the
republic wealthy Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, began to build
places for exercise in their villas, they called them indifferently
gymnasia and palaestrae.

PĂLĪLIA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 21st of
April, in honour of Pales, the tutelary divinity of shepherds. The
21st of April was the day on which, according to the early traditions
of Rome, Romulus had commenced the building of the city, so that
the festival was at the same time solemnised as the dies natalitius
of Rome. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and continued to
be so among country people till the latest times, but in the city
it lost its original character, and was only regarded as the dies
natalitius of Rome. The first part of the solemnities was a public
purification by fire and smoke. The things burnt in order to produce
this purifying smoke were the blood of the _October-horse_, the ashes
of the calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and the shells of
beans. The people were also sprinkled with water, they washed their
hands in spring-water, and drank milk mixed with must. As regards the
_October-horse_ (_equus October_) it must be observed that in early
times no bloody sacrifice was allowed to be offered at the palilia,
and the blood of the October-horse mentioned above, was the blood
which had dropped from the tail of the horse sacrificed in the month
of October to Mars in the Campus Martius. This blood was preserved by
the vestal virgins in the temple of Vesta for the purpose of being
used at the palilia. The sacrifices consisted of cakes, millet, milk,
and other kinds of eatables. The shepherds then offered a prayer to
Pales. After these solemn rites were over, the cheerful part of the
festival began: bonfires were made of heaps of hay and straw, and
the festival was concluded by a feast in the open air, at which the
people sat or lay upon benches of turf, and drank plentifully.

PALLĬUM, _dim._ PALLIŎLUM, _poet._ PALLA (ἱμάτιον, _dim._ ἱματίδιον;
_Ion._ and _poet._ φᾶρος), an outer garment. The English _cloak_,
though commonly adopted as the translation of these terms, conveys
no accurate conception of the form, material, or use of that which
they denoted. The article designated by them was always a rectangular
piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly square. It was indeed
used in the very form in which it was taken from the loom, being made
entirely by the weaver, without any aid from the tailor, except to
repair the injuries which it sustained by time. Whatever additional
richness and beauty it received from the art of the dyer, was
bestowed upon it before its materials were woven into cloth or even
spun into thread. Most commonly it was used without having undergone
any process of this kind. The raw material, such as wool, flax, or
cotton, was manufactured in its natural state, and hence pallia were
commonly white, although from the same cause brown, drab, and grey
were also prevailing colours. As the pallium was the most common
outer garment, we find it continually mentioned in conjunction with
the tunica, which constituted the indutus. Such phrases as “coat and
waistcoat,” or “shoes and stockings,” are not more common with us
than the following expressions, which constantly occur in ancient
authors: _tunica palliumque_, ἱμάτιον καὶ χιτών, τὸ ἱμάτιον καὶ ὁ
χιτωνίσκος, φᾶρος ἠδὲ χιτών, &c. To wear the pallium without the
underclothing indicated poverty or severity of manners, as in the
case of Socrates. One of the most common modes of wearing the pallium
was to fasten it with a brooch over the right shoulder, leaving the
right arm at liberty, and to pass the middle of it either under the
left arm so as to leave that arm at liberty also, or over the left
shoulder so as to cover the left arm. The figure in the preceding cut
is attired in the last-mentioned fashion.

[Illustration: Pallium. (Museo Pio-Clement., vol. i. tav. 48.)]

PALMA. [PES.]

PALMĬPES, a Roman measure of length, equal to a foot and a palm.

PALMUS, properly the width of the open hand, or, more exactly, of the
four fingers, was used by the Romans for two different measures of
length, namely, as the translation of the Greek παλαιστή, or δῶρον in
old Greek, and σπιθαμή respectively. In the former sense it is equal
to 4 digits, or 3 inches, or 1-4th of a foot, or 1-6th of the cubit.
The larger palm of 9 inches only occurs in later Roman writers. From
this large _palmus_ the modern Roman _palmo_ is derived.

[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (Statue of a Roman
Emperor.)]

PĂLŪDĀMENTUM, the cloak worn by a Roman general commanding an army,
his principal officers and personal attendants, in contradistinction
to the _sagum_ of the common soldiers, and the _toga_ or garb of
peace. It was the practice for a Roman magistrate, after he had
received the _imperium_ from the comitia curiata and offered up
his vows in the Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in the
paludamentum (_exire paludatus_), attended by his lictors in similar
attire (_paludatis lictoribus_), nor could he again enter the gates
until he had formally divested himself of this emblem of military
power. The paludamentum was open in front, reached down to the
knees or a little lower, and hung loosely over the shoulders, being
fastened across the chest by a clasp. The colour of the paludamentum
was commonly white or purple, and hence it was marked and remembered
that Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of Carrhae went forth
in a dark-coloured mantle. In the cut below, representing the head of
a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying back in the charge, and the
clasp nearly in front.

[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (From a Mosaic at
Pompeii.)]

PAMBOEŌTĬA (παμβοιώτια), a festive panegyris of all the Boeotians,
like the Panathenaea of the Atticans, and the Panionia of the
Ionians. The principal object of the meeting was the common worship
of Athena Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbourhood of Coronea,
near which the panegyris was held.

PĂNĂTHĒNAEA (παναθήναια), the greatest and most splendid of the
festivals celebrated in Attica in honour of Athena, in the character
of Athena Polias, or the protectress of the city. It was said to
have been instituted by Erichthonius, and its original name, down
to the time of Theseus, was believed to have been Athenaea; but
when Theseus united all the Atticans into one body, this festival,
which then became the common festival of all the Attic tribes,
was called Panathenaea. There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the
greater and the lesser; the former were held every fourth year
(πενταετηρίς), the latter every year. The lesser Panathenaea were
probably celebrated on the 17th of the month Hecatombaeon; the
great Panathenaea in the third year of every Olympiad, and probably
commenced on the same day as the lesser Panathenaea. The principal
difference between the two festivals was, that the greater one was
more solemn, and that on this occasion the peplus of Athena was
carried to her temple in a most magnificent procession, which was
not held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solemnities, games, and
amusements of the Panathenaea were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot,
horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the
lampadephoria; rhapsodists recited the poems of Homer and other epic
poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights were exhibited, and the
people indulged in a variety of other amusements and entertainments.
The prize in these contests was a vase filled with oil from the
ancient and sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis. A great
many of such vases, called Panathenaic vases, have in late years
been found in Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece. They
represent on one side the figure of Athena, and on the other the
various contests and games in which these vases were given as prizes
to the victors. Of the discussions of philosophers and orators at the
Panathenaea we still possess two specimens, the λόγος Παναθηναικός of
Isocrates, and that of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have recited
his history to the Athenians at the Panathenaea. The management of
the games and contests was entrusted to persons called _Athlothetae_
(ἀθλοθέται), whose number was ten, one being taken from every tribe.
Their office lasted from one great Panathenaic festival to the other.
The chief solemnity of the great Panathenaea was the magnificent
procession to the temple of Athena Polias, which probably took place
on the last day of the festive season. The whole of the procession
is represented in the frieze of the Parthenon, the work of Phidias
and his disciples, now deposited in the British Museum. The chief
object of the procession was to carry the peplus of the goddess
to her temple. This peplus was a crocus-coloured garment for the
goddess, and made by maidens, called ἐργαστῖναι. In it were woven
Enceladus and the giants, as they were conquered by the goddess. The
peplus was not carried to the temple by men, but suspended from the
mast of a ship. The procession proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a
monument called Leocorium, to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, and
thence along the Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo Pythius to
the Pnyx, and thence to the Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva
Polias was adorned with the peplus. In this procession nearly the
whole population of Attica appears to have taken part, either on
foot, on horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in the frieze
of the Parthenon. Aged men carried olive branches, and were called
_Thallophori_ (θαλλοφόροι); young men attended, at least in earlier
times, in armour, and maidens who belonged to the noblest families of
Athens carried baskets, containing offerings for the goddess, whence
they were called _Canephori_ (κανηφόροι). Respecting the part which
aliens took in this procession, and the duties they had to perform,
see HYDRIAPHORIA. Men who had deserved well of the republic were
rewarded with a gold crown at the great Panathenaea, and the herald
had to announce the event during the gymnastic contests.

[Illustration: Pancratiastae. (Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der
Hellen, tav. 21.)]

PANCRĂTĬUM (παγκράτιον), is derived from πάν and κράτος, and
accordingly signifies an athletic game, in which all the powers of
the fighter were called into action. The pancratium was one of the
games or gymnastic contests which were exhibited at all the great
festivals of Greece; it consisted of boxing and wrestling (πυγμή and
πάλη), and was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard exercises
(ἀγωνίσματα βαρέα or βαρύτερα), on account of the violent exertions
it required, and for this reason it was not much practised in the
gymnasia. In Homer we find neither the game nor the name of the
pancratium mentioned, and as it was not introduced at the Olympic
games until Ol. 33, we may presume that the game, though it may
have existed long before in a rude state, was not brought to any
degree of perfection until a short time before that event. The name
of the combatants was _Pancratiastae_ (παγκρατιασταί) or _Pammachi_
(πάμμαχοι). They fought naked, and had their bodies anointed and
covered with sand, by which they were enabled to take hold of one
another. When the contest began, each of the fighters might commence
by boxing or by wrestling, accordingly as he thought he should be
more successful in the one than in the other. The victory was not
decided until one of the parties was killed, or lifted up a finger,
thereby declaring that he was unable to continue the contest either
from pain or fatigue.

PĂNĒGỸRIS (πανήγυρις), signifies a meeting or assembly of a whole
people for the purpose of worshipping at a common sanctuary. The word
is used in three significations:--1. For a meeting of the inhabitants
of one particular town and its vicinity; 2. For a meeting of the
inhabitants of a whole district, a province, or of the whole body
of people belonging to a particular tribe [DELIA; PANIONIA]; and 3.
For great national meetings, as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and
Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis which we know, the religious
character forms the most prominent feature, other subjects, political
discussions and resolutions, as well as a variety of amusements,
were not excluded, though they were perhaps more a consequence of
the presence of many persons than objects of the meeting. Every
panegyris, moreover, was made by tradespeople a source of gain, and
it may be presumed that such a meeting was never held without a fair,
at which all sorts of things were exhibited for sale.

PĂNIŌNĬA (πανιώνια), the great national panegyris of the Ionians on
mount Mycalé, where the national god Poseidon Heliconius had his
sanctuary called the Panionium. One of the principal objects of this
national meeting was the common worship of Poseidon, to whom splendid
sacrifices were offered on the occasion. But religious worship was
not the only object for which they assembled at the Panionium; on
certain emergencies, especially in case of any danger threatening
their country, the Ionians discussed at their meetings political
questions, and passed resolutions which were binding upon all.

PĂNOPLĬA (πανοπλία), a panoply or suit of armour. The articles of
which it consisted both in the Greek and in the Roman army, are
enumerated under ARMA.

PANTŎMĪMUS, the name of a kind of actors peculiar to the Romans, who
very nearly resembled in their mode of acting the modern dancers in
the ballet. They did not speak on the stage, but merely acted by
gestures, movements, and attitudes. All movements, however, were
rhythmical like those in the ballet, whence the general term for them
is _saltatio_, _saltare_; the whole art was called _musica muta_;
and to represent Niobe or Leda was expressed by _saltare Nioben_ and
_saltare Ledam_. During the time of the republic the name pantomimus
does not occur, though the art itself was known to the Romans at an
early period; for the first histriones said to have been introduced
from Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic dancers [HISTRIO],
whence we find that under the empire the names histrio and pantomimus
were used as synonymous. The pantomimic art, however, was not carried
to any degree of perfection until the time of Augustus. The greatest
pantomimes of this time were Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite
of Maecenas, and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological love-stories were
from the first the favourite subjects of the pantomimes, which were
disgraced by the most licentious scenes. In Sicily pantomimic dances
were called _ballismi_ (βαλλισμοί), whence perhaps the modern words
ball and ballet.

PĂPȲRUS. [LIBER.]

PĂRĂDĪSUS (παράδεισος), the name given by the Greeks to the parks
or pleasure-grounds, which surrounded the country residences of the
Persian kings and satraps. They were generally stocked with animals
for the chase, were full of all kinds of trees, watered by numerous
streams, and enclosed with walls.

PĂRĂGRĂPHĒ (παραγραφή). This word does not exactly correspond with
any term in our language, but may without much impropriety be
called _a plea_. It is an objection raised by the defendant to the
admissibility of the plaintiff’s action. The _paragraphé_, like every
other answer (ἀντιγραφή) made by the defendant to the plaintiff’s
charge, was given in writing; as the word itself implies. If the
defendant merely denied the plaintiff’s allegations, a court was
at once held for the trial of the cause. If, however, he put in a
_paragraphé_, a court was to be held to try the preliminary question,
whether the cause could be brought into court or not. Upon this
previous trial the defendant was considered the _actor_. If he
succeeded, the whole cause was at an end; unless the objection was
only to the form of action, or some other such technicality, in which
case it might be recommenced in the proper manner. If, however, the
plaintiff succeeded, the original action, which in the mean time had
been suspended, was proceeded with.

PĂRĂLUS (πάραλος), and SĂLAMĪNĬA (σαλαμινία). The Athenians from very
early times kept for public purposes two sacred or state vessels,
the one of which was called _Paralus_ and the other _Salaminia_:
the crew of the one bore the name of παραλῖται or πάραλοι, and that
of the other σαλαμίνιοι. The Salaminia was also called Δηλία or
Θεωρίς, because it was used to convey the θεωροὶ to Delos, on which
occasion the ship was adorned with garlands by the priest of Apollo.
Both these vessels were quick-sailing triremes, and were used for a
variety of state purposes: they conveyed theories, despatches, &c.
from Athens, carried treasures from subject countries to Athens,
fetched state criminals from foreign parts to Athens, and the like.
In battles they were frequently used as the ships in which the
admirals sailed. These vessels and their crews were always kept in
readiness to act, in case of any necessity arising; and the crew,
although they could not for the greater part of the year be in
actual service, received their regular pay of four oboli per day all
the year round. The names of the two ships seem to point to a very
early period of the history of Attica, when there was no navigation
except between Attica and Salamis, for which the Salaminia was
used, and around the coast of Attica, for which purpose the Paralus
was destined. In later times the names were retained, although the
destination of the ships was principally to serve the purposes of
religion, whence they are frequently called the sacred ships.

PĂRĂNOIĀS GRĂPHĒ (παρανοίας γραφή). This proceeding may be compared
to our commission of lunacy, or writ _de lunatico inquirendo_. It
was a suit at Athens that might be instituted by a son or other
relation against one who, by reason of madness or mental imbecility,
had become incapable of managing his own affairs. If the complaint
was well grounded, the court decreed that the next heir should take
possession of the lunatic’s property, and probably also made some
provision for his being put in confinement, or under proper care and
guardianship. The celebrated tale of Iophon, the son of Sophocles,
accusing his father of lunacy, is related in the life of Sophocles in
the _Classical Dictionary_.

PĂRĂNŎMŌN GRĂPHĒ (παρανόμων γραφή), an indictment at Athens for
propounding an illegal, or rather unconstitutional measure or law.
In order to check rash and hasty legislation, the mover of any law
or decree, though he succeeded in causing it to be passed, was
still amenable to criminal justice, if his enactment was found to
be inconsistent with other laws that remained in force, or with
the public interest. Any person might institute against him the
γραφὴ παρανόμων within a year from the passing of the law. If he was
convicted, not only did the law become void, but any punishment
might be inflicted on him, at the discretion of the judges before
whom he was tried. A person thrice so convicted lost the right of
proposing laws in future. The cognizance of the cause belonged to the
Thesmothetae.

PĂRAPRESBEIA (παραπρεσβεία), signifies any corrupt conduct,
misfeasance, or neglect of duty on the part of an ambassador; for
which he was liable to be called to account and prosecuted on his
return home. Demosthenes accused Aeschines of _Parapresbeia_ on
account of his conduct in the embassy to Philip.

PĂRĂPHERNA. [DOS.]

PĂRĂSANGA (ὁ παρασάγγης), a Persian measure of length, frequently
mentioned by the Greek writers. It is still used by the Persians, who
call it _ferseng_. According to Herodotus the parasang was equal to
30 Greek stadia. Xenophon must also have calculated it at the same,
as he says that 16,050 stadia are equal to 535 parasangs. (16,050
÷ 535 = 30.) Other ancient writers give a different length for the
parasang. Modern English travellers estimate it variously at from
3½ to 4 English miles, which nearly agrees with the calculation of
Herodotus.

PĂRĂSĪTI (παράσιτοι) properly denotes persons who dine with others.
In the early history of Greece the name had a very different
meaning, being given to distinguished persons, who were appointed as
assistants to certain priests and to the highest magistrates. Their
services appear to have been rewarded with a third of the victims
sacrificed to their respective gods. Such officers existed down to a
late period of Greek history. Solon in his legislation called the act
of giving public meals to certain magistrates and foreign ambassadors
in the prytaneum παρασιτεῖν, and it may be that the parasites were
connected with this institution. The class of persons whom we call
parasites was very numerous in ancient Greece, and appears to have
existed from early times. The characteristic features common to all
parasites are importunity, love of sensual pleasures, and above all
the desire of getting a good dinner without paying for it. During the
time of the Roman emperors a parasite seems to have been a constant
guest at the tables of the wealthy.

PĂRĔDRI (πάρεδροι). Each of the three superior archons was at liberty
to have two assessors (πάρεδροι) chosen by himself, to assist him by
advice and otherwise in the performance of his various duties. The
assessor, like the magistrate himself, had to undergo a _docimasia_
(δοκιμασία) in the Senate of Five Hundred and before a judicial
tribunal, before he could be permitted to enter upon his labours. He
was also to render an account (εὐθύνη) at the end of the year. The
duties of the archons, magisterial and judicial, were so numerous,
that one of the principal objects of having assessors must have been
to enable them to get through their business. From the _paredri_ of
the archons we must distinguish those who assisted the _euthyni_ in
examining and auditing magistrates’ accounts.

PĂRENTĀLĬA. [FUNUS.]

PĂRĬES. [DOMUS.]

PARMA, _dim._ PARMŬLA, a round shield, three feet in diameter,
carried by the _velites_ in the Roman army. Though small, compared
with the CLIPEUS, it was so strongly made as to be a very effectual
protection. This was probably owing to the use of iron in its
frame-work. The parma was also worn by the cavalry. We find the term
_parma_ often applied to the target [CETRA], which was also a small
round shield, and therefore very similar to the parma.

[Illustration: Parma. (From the Columna Trajana.)]

PĂROCHI, certain people paid by the state to supply the Roman
magistrates, ambassadors, and other official persons, when
travelling, with those necessaries which they could not conveniently
carry with them. They existed on all the principal stations on the
Roman roads in Italy and the provinces, where persons were accustomed
to pass the night. Of the things which the parochi were bound to
supply, hay, fire-wood, salt, and a certain number of beds appear to
have been the most important.

PĂROPSIS (παροψίς), any food eaten with the ὅψον as the μάζα, a kind
of frumenty or soft cake, broth, or any kind of condiment or sauce.
It was, likewise, the name of the dish or plate, on which such food
was served up, and it is in this latter signification that the Roman
writers use the word.

PARRĬCĪDA, PARRĬCĪDĬUM. A parricida signified originally a murderer
generally, and is hence defined to be a person who kills another
_dolo malo_. It afterwards signified the murderer of a parent, and by
an ancient law such a parricide was sewed up in a sack (_culleus_),
and thrown into a river. A law of the dictator Sulla contained some
provisions against parricide, and probably fixed the same punishment
for the parricide, as the Lex Pompeia de Parricidiis, passed in the
time of Cn. Pompeius. This law extended the crime of parricide to the
killing of a brother, sister, uncle, aunt, and many other relations,
and enacted that he who killed a father or mother, grandfather or
grandmother, should be punished (_more majorum_) by being whipped
till he bled, sewed up in a sack with a dog, cock, viper, and ape,
and thrown into the sea. Other parricides were simply put to death.

PASSUS, a measure of length, which consisted of five Roman feet.
[PES.] The passus was not the step, or distance from heel to heel,
when the feet were at their utmost ordinary extension, but the
distance from the point which the heel leaves to that in which it is
set down. The _mille passuum_, or thousand paces, was the common name
of the Roman mile. [MILLIARE.]

PĂTER FĂMĬLIAE. [FAMILIA; MATRIMONIUM.]

PĂTER PĂTRĀTUS. [FETIALES.]

PĂTĔRA, _dim._ PĂTELLA (φιάλη), a round plate or dish. The paterae
of the most common kind were small plates of the common red
earthenware, on which an ornamental pattern was drawn, and which were
sometimes entirely black. The more valuable paterae were metallic,
being chiefly of bronze; but every family, raised above poverty,
possessed one of silver, together with a silver salt-cellar. The
accompanying cut exhibits a highly ornamented patera, made of bronze.
The view of the upper surface is accompanied by a side-view, showing
the form and depth of the vessel.

[Illustration: Patera. (From Pompeii.)]

PĂTĬBŬLUM. [FURCA.]

PĂTĬNA (λεκάνη), a basin or bowl of earthenware, rarely of bronze or
silver. The patina was of a form intermediate between the _patera_
and the _olla_, not so flat as the former, nor so deep as the latter.
The most frequent use of the _patina_ was in cookery.

PATRES. [PATRICII.]

PĂTRĬA POTESTAS. Potestas signifies generally a power or faculty of
any kind by which we do anything. “Potestas,” says Paulus, a Roman
jurist, “has several significations: when applied to magistrates,
it is Imperium; in the case of children, it is the patria potestas;
in the case of slaves, it is Dominium.” According to Paulus then,
potestas, as applied to magistrates, is equivalent to imperium.
Thus we find potestas associated with the adjectives praetoria,
consularis. But potestas is applied to magistrates who had not the
imperium, as for instance to quaestors and tribuni plebis; and
potestas and imperium are often opposed in Cicero. [IMPERIUM.] Thus
it seems that this word potestas, like many other Roman terms,
had both a wider signification and a narrower one. In its wider
signification it might mean all the power that was delegated to any
person by the state, whatever might be the extent of that power.
In its narrower significations, it was on the one hand equivalent
to imperium; and on the other, it expressed the power of those
functionaries who had not the imperium. Sometimes it was used to
express a magistratus, as a person; and hence in the Italian language
the word podestà signifies a magistrate. Potestas is also one of
the words by which is expressed the power that one private person
has over another, the other two being manus and mancipium. The
potestas is either dominica, that is, ownership as exhibited in the
relation of master and slave [SERVUS]; or patria as exhibited in the
relation of father and child. The mancipium was framed after the
analogy of the potestas dominica. [MANCIPIUM.] Patria potestas then
signifies the power which a Roman father had over the persons of his
children, grandchildren, and other descendants (_filii-familias_,
_filiae-familias_), and generally all the rights which he had by
virtue of his paternity. The foundation of the patria potestas was
a legal marriage, and the birth of a child gave it full effect.
[MATRIMONIUM.] It does not seem that the patria potestas was ever
viewed among the Romans as absolutely equivalent to the dominica
potestas, or as involving ownership of the child; and yet the
original notion of the patria came very near to that of the dominica
potestas. Originally the father had the power of life and death over
his son as a member of his familia; and he could sell him, and so
bring him into the mancipii causa. He could also give his daughter in
marriage, or give a wife to his son, divorce his child, give him in
adoption, and emancipate him at his pleasure.

PATRĬCĬI. This word is evidently a derivative from _pater_, which
frequently occurs in the Roman writers as equivalent to senator.
_Patricii_ therefore signifies those who belonged to the _patres_,
but it is a mistake to suppose that the patricii were only the
offspring of the patres in the sense of senators. On the contrary,
the patricians were, in the early history of Rome, the whole body
of Roman citizens, the _populus Romanus_, and there were no real
citizens besides them. The other parts of the Roman population,
namely clients and slaves, did not belong to the populus Romanus,
and were not burghers or patricians. The senators or patres (in
the narrower sense of the word) were a select body of the populus
or patricians, which acted as their representatives. The burghers
or patricians consisted originally of three distinct tribes, which
afterwards became united into the sovereign populus. These tribes had
founded settlements upon several of the hills which were subsequently
included within the precincts of the city of Rome. Their names were
Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses.
Each of these tribes consisted of ten curiae, and each curia of ten
gentes, and of the same number of decuries, which were established
for representative and military purposes. [SENATUS.] The first
tribe, or the Ramnes, were a Latin colony on the Palatine hill,
said to have been founded by Romulus. As long as it stood alone, it
contained only one hundred gentes, and had a senate of one hundred
members. When the Tities, or Sabine settlers on the Quirinal and
Viminal hills, under king Tatius, became united with the Ramnes,
the number of gentes, as well as that of senators, was increased
to 200. These two tribes after their union continued probably for
a considerable time to be the patricians of Rome, until the third
tribe, the Luceres, which chiefly consisted of Etruscans, who had
settled on the Caelian hill, also became united with the other two as
a third tribe. The amalgamation of these three tribes did not take
place at once: the union between Latins and Sabines is ascribed to
the reign of Romulus, though it does not appear to have been quite
perfect, since the Latins on some occasions claimed a superiority
over the Sabines. The Luceres existed for a long time as a separate
tribe without enjoying the same rights as the two other tribes, until
Tarquinius Priscus, himself an Etruscan, caused them to be placed on
a footing of equality with the others. For this reason he is said to
have increased the number of senators to 300. The Luceres, however,
are, notwithstanding this equalisation, sometimes distinguished
from the other tribes by the name _patres_ or _patricii minorum
gentium_. During the time of the republic, distinguished strangers
and wealthy plebeians were occasionally made Roman patricians; for
instance, Appius Claudius and his gens, and Domitius Ahenobarbus.
When the plebeians became a distinct class of citizens [PLEBES], the
patricians, of course, ceased to be the only class of citizens, but
they still retained the exclusive possession of all the power in the
state. All civil and religious offices were in their possession, and
they continued as before to be the populus, the nation now consisting
of the populus and the plebes. In their relation to the plebeians
or the commonalty, the patricians were a real aristocracy of birth.
A person born of a patrician family was and remained a patrician,
whether he was rich or poor, whether he was a member of the senate,
or an eques, or held any of the great offices of the state, or not:
there was no power that could make a patrician a plebeian. As regards
the census, he might indeed not belong to the wealthy classes, but
his rank remained the same. The only way in which a patrician might
become a plebeian was when of his own accord he left his gens and
curia, gave up the sacra, &c. A plebeian, on the other hand, or even
a stranger, might be made a patrician by a lex curiata. But this
appears to have been done very seldom; and the consequence was, that
in the course of a few centuries the number of patrician families
became so rapidly diminished, that towards the close of the republic
there were not more than fifty such families. Although the patricians
throughout this whole period had the character of an aristocracy of
birth, yet their political rights were not the same at all times.
During the first centuries of the republic there was an almost
uninterrupted struggle between patricians and plebeians, in which
the former exerted every means to retain their exclusive rights, but
which ended in the establishment of the political equality of the
two orders. [PLEBES.] Only a few insignificant priestly offices, and
the performance of certain ancient religious rites and ceremonies,
remained the exclusive privilege of the patricians; of which they
were the prouder, as in former days their religious power and
significance were the basis of their political superiority. At the
time when the struggle between patricians and plebeians ceased, a new
kind of aristocracy began to arise at Rome, which was partly based
upon wealth, and partly upon the great offices of the republic, and
the term nobiles was given to all persons whose ancestors had held
any of the curule offices. (Compare NOBILES.) This aristocracy of
nobiles threw the old patricians as a body still more into the shade,
though both classes of aristocrats united as far as was possible to
monopolise all the great offices of the state. In their dress and
appearance the patricians were scarcely distinguished from the rest
of the citizens, unless they were senators, curule magistrates, or
equites, in which case they wore like others the ensigns peculiar
to these classes. The only thing by which they seem to have been
distinguished in their appearance from other citizens was a peculiar
kind of shoe, which covered the whole foot and part of the leg,
though it was not as high as the shoes of senators and curule
magistrates. These shoes were fastened with four strings (_corrigiae_
or _lora patricia_) and adorned with a lunula on the top.

PĂTRĪMI ET MĀTRĪMI were children born of parents, who had been
married by the religious ceremony called confarreatio: they are
almost always mentioned in connection with religious rites and
ceremonies.

PĂTRŎNŎMI (πατρονόμοι), magistrates at Sparta, who exercised, as it
were, a paternal power over the whole state. They did not exist till
a late period, and they succeeded to the powers which the ephori
formerly possessed.

PĂTRŌNUS. The act of manumission created a new relation between
the manumissor and the slave, which was analogous to that between
father and son. The manumissor became with respect to the manumitted
person his patronus, and the manumitted person became the libertus
of the manumissor. The word patronus (from pater) indicates the
nature of the relation. If the manumissor was a woman, she became
patrona. The libertus adopted the gentile name of the manumissor.
Cicero’s freedman Tiro was called M. Tullius Tiro. The libertus owed
respect and gratitude to his patron, and in ancient times the patron
might punish him in a summary way for neglecting those duties. This
obligation extended to the children of the libertus, and the duty was
due to the children of the patron. It was the duty of the patron to
support his freedman in case of necessity, and if he did not, he lost
his patronal rights; the consequence was the same if he brought a
capital charge against him. The most important of the patronal rights
related to the property of liberti, as in certain cases the patronus
had a right to the whole or a part of the property of a libertus.

PAUPĔRĬES, the legal term for mischief done by an animal
(_quadrupes_) contrary to the nature of the animal, as if a man’s ox
gored another man. In such cases the law of the Twelve Tables gave
the injured person an action against the owner of the animal for the
amount of the damage sustained. The owner was bound either to pay the
full amount of damages or to give up the animal to the injured person
(_noxae dare_).

PĂVĪMENTUM. [DOMUS, p. 144, _b_.]

PECTEN (κτείς), a comb. The Greeks and Romans used combs made of
box-wood. The Egyptians had ivory combs, which also came into use by
degrees among the Romans. The wooden combs, found in Egyptian tombs,
are toothed on one side only; but the Greeks used them with teeth on
both sides. The principal use of the comb was for dressing the hair,
in doing which the Greeks of both sexes were remarkably careful and
diligent. To go with uncombed hair was a sign of affliction.

PĔCŬLĀTUS, is properly the misappropriation or theft of public
property. The person guilty of this offence was _peculator_. The
origin of the word appears to be _pecus_, a term which originally
denoted that kind of moveable property which was the chief sign of
wealth. Originally trials for _peculatus_ were before the populus or
the senate. In the time of Cicero matters of _peculatus_ had become
one of the quaestiones perpetuae.

PĔCŪLĬUM. [SERVUS.]

PĔCŪNĬA. [AES; ARGENTUM; AURUM.]

PĔDĀRĬI. [SENATUS.]

PĔDĬSĔQUI, a class of slaves, whose duty was to follow their master
when he went out of his house. There was a similar class of female
slaves, called _Pedisequae_.

PĔDUM (κορώνη), a shepherd’s crook. On account of its connection
with pastoral life, the crook is often seen in works of ancient art,
in the hands of Pan, Satyrs, Fauns, and shepherds. It was also the
usual attribute of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry.

[Illustration: Pedum, Shepherd’s Crook. (From a Painting found at
Civita Vecchia.)]

PEGMA (πῆγμα), a pageant, _i.e._ an edifice of wood, consisting of
two or more stages (_tabulata_), which were raised or depressed at
pleasure by means of balance weights. These great machines were used
in the Roman amphitheatres, the gladiators who fought upon them
being called _pegmares_. They were supported upon wheels so as to
be drawn into the circus, glittering with silver and a profusion of
wealth. When Vespasian and Titus celebrated their triumph over the
Jews, the procession included pageants of extraordinary magnitude
and splendour, consisting of three or four stages above one another,
hung with rich tapestry, and inlaid with ivory and gold. By the aid
of various contrivances they represented battles and their numerous
incidents, and the attack and defence of the cities of Judaea. The
pegma was also used in sacrifices. A bull having been slain in one of
the stages, the high priest placed himself below in a cavern, so as
to receive the blood upon his person and his garments, and in this
state he was produced by the flamines before the worshippers.

PĔLĂTAE (πελάται), were free labourers working for hire, like the
_thetes_, in contra-distinction to the helots and penestae, who were
bondsmen or serfs. In the later Greek writers, such as Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, and Plutarch, the word is used for the Latin cliens,
though the relations expressed by the two terms are by no means
similar.

PELTA (πέλτη), a small shield. Iphicrates, observing that the ancient
CLIPEUS was cumbrous and inconvenient, introduced among the Greeks a
much smaller and lighter shield, from which those who bore it took
the name of _peltastae_. It consisted principally of a frame of wood
or wicker-work, covered with skin or leather.

PĔNESTAE (πενέσται), a class of serfs in Thessaly, who stood in
nearly the same relation to their Thessalian lords as the helots of
Laconia did to the Dorian Spartans, although their condition seems
to have been on the whole superior. They were the descendants of the
old Pelasgic or Aeolian inhabitants of Thessaly Proper. They occupied
an intermediate position between freemen and purchased slaves, and
they cultivated the land for their masters, paying by way of rent
a portion of the produce of it. The Penestae sometimes accompanied
their masters to battle, and fought on horseback as their vassals:
a circumstance which need not excite surprise, as Thessaly was so
famous for cavalry. There were Penestae among the Macedonians also.

PĔNĔTRĀLE. [TEMPLUM.]

PĒNĬCILLUS. [PICTURA, p. 295 _a_.]

PENTĂCOSĬŎMĔDIMNI. [CENSUS.]

PENTATHLON (πένταθλον, _quinquertium_), was next to the pancratium
the most beautiful of all athletic performances. The persons engaged
in it were called _Pentathli_ (πένταθλοι). The pentathlon consisted
of five distinct kinds of games, viz. leaping (ἅλμα), the foot-race
(δρόμος), the throwing of the discus (δίσκος), the throwing of the
spear (σίγυννος or ἀκόντιον), and wrestling (πάλη), which were all
performed in one day and in a certain order, one after the other, by
the same athletae. The pentathlon was introduced in the Olympic games
in Ol. 18.

PENTĒCOSTĒ (πεντηκοστή), a duty of two per cent, levied upon all
exports and imports at Athens. The money was collected by persons
called πεντηκοστολόγοι. The merchant who paid the duty was said
πεντηκοντεύεσθαι. All the customs appear to have been let to farm,
and probably from year to year. They were let to the highest bidders
by the ten _Poletae_, acting under the authority of the senate. The
farmers were called τελῶναι, and were said ὠνεῖσθαι τὴν πεντηκοστήν.

PEPLUM or PEPLUS (πέπλος), an outer garment or shawl, strictly worn
by females, and thus corresponding to the himation or pallium, the
outer garment worn by men. Like all other pieces of cloth used for
the AMICTUS, it was often fastened by means of a brooch. It was,
however, frequently worn without a brooch. The shawl was also often
worn so as to cover the head while it enveloped the body, and more
especially on occasion of a funeral or of a marriage, when a very
splendid shawl (παστός) was worn by the bride. The following woodcut
may be supposed to represent the moment when the bride, so veiled, is
delivered to her husband at the door of the nuptial chamber. He wears
the PALLIUM only; she has a long shift beneath her shawl, and is
supported by the pronuba. Of all the productions of the loom, pepli
were those on which the greatest skill and labour were bestowed.
So various and tasteful were the subjects which they represented,
that poets delighted to describe them. The art of weaving them was
entirely oriental; and those of the most splendid dyes and curious
workmanship were imported from Tyre and Sidon. They often constituted
a very important part of the treasures of a temple, having been
presented to the divinity by suppliants and devotees.

[Illustration: Peplum. (Bartoli, ‘Admir. Rom. Ant.,’ pl. 57.)]

PĒRA (πήρα), a wallet, made of leather, worn suspended at the side by
rustics and by travellers to carry their provisions, and adopted in
imitation of them by the Cynic philosophers.

PERDŬELLĬO was in the ancient times of the republic nearly the same
as the _Majestas_ of the later times. [MAJESTAS.] _Perduellis_
originally signified _hostis_, and thus the offence was equivalent
to making war on the Roman state. Offenders were tried by two
judges called _Perduellionis Duumviri_. In the time of the kings
the duumviri perduellionis and the quaestores parricidii appear
to have been the same persons; but after the establishment of
the republic, the offices were distinct, for the quaestores were
appointed regularly every year, whereas the duumviri were appointed
very rarely, as had been the case during the kingly period. Livy
represents the duumviri perduellionis as being appointed by the
kings, but they were really proposed by the king and appointed by the
populus. During the early part of the republic they were appointed
by the comitia curiata, and afterwards by the comitia centuriata,
on the proposal of the consuls. In the case of Rabirius (B.C. 63),
however, this custom was violated, as the duumviri were appointed
by the praetor instead of by the comitia centuriata. The punishment
for those who were found guilty of perduellio was death; they were
either hanged on the _arbor infelix_, or thrown from the Tarpeian
rock. But when the duumviri found a person guilty, he might appeal
to the people (in early times the populus, afterwards the comitia
centuriata), as was done in the first case which is on record, that
of Horatius, and in the last, which is that of Rabirius, whom Cicero
defended before the people in the oration still extant.

PĔRĔGRĪNUS, a stranger or foreigner. In ancient times the word
_peregrinus_ was used as synonymous with _hostis_; but in the times
of which we have historical records, a peregrinus was any person who
was not a Roman citizen. In B.C. 247, a second praetor (_praetor
peregrinus_) was appointed for the purpose of administering justice
in matters between Romans and peregrini, and in matters between such
peregrini as had taken up their abode at Rome. [PRAETOR.] The number
of peregrini who lived in the city of Rome appears to have had an
injurious influence upon the poorer classes of Roman citizens, whence
on some occasions they were driven out of the city. The first example
of this kind was set in B.C. 127, by the tribune M. Junius Pennus.
They were expelled a second time by the tribune C. Papius, in B.C.
66. During the last period of the republic and the first centuries
of the empire, all the free inhabitants of the Roman world were, in
regard to their political rights, either Roman citizens, or Latins,
or peregrini, and the latter had, as before, neither commercium nor
connubium with the Romans. They were either free provincials, or
citizens who had forfeited their civitas, and were degraded to the
rank of peregrini, or a certain class of freedmen, called peregrini
dediticii.

PĔRĬOECI (περίοικοι). This word properly denotes the inhabitants of
a district lying around some particular locality, but is generally
used to describe a dependent population, living without the walls or
in the country provinces of a dominant city, and although personally
free, deprived of the enjoyment of citizenship, and the political
rights conferred by it. A political condition such as that of the
_perioeci_ of Greece, and like the vassalage of the Germanic nations,
could hardly have originated in anything else than foreign conquest,
and the _perioeci_ of Laconia furnish a striking illustration
of this. Their origin dates from the Dorian conquest of the
Peloponnesus, when the old inhabitants of the country, the Achaeans,
submitted to their conquerors on certain conditions, by which they
were left in possession of their private rights of citizenship.
They suffered indeed a partial deprivation of their lands, and were
obliged to submit to a king of foreign race, but still they remained
equal in law to their conquerors, and were eligible to all offices
of state except the sovereignty. But this state of things did not
last long: in the next generation after the conquest the relation
between the two parties was changed. The Achaeans were reduced from
citizens to vassals; they were made tributary to Sparta; their lands
were subjected to a tax; and they lost their rights of citizenship,
the right of voting in the general assembly, and their eligibility
to important offices in the state, such as that of a senator, &c.
It does not, however, appear that the _perioeci_ were generally an
oppressed people, though kept in a state of political inferiority
to their conquerors. On the contrary, the most distinguished among
them were admitted to offices of trust, and they sometimes served as
heavy-armed soldiers; as, for instance, at the battle of Plataea. The
Norman conquest of England presents a striking parallel to the Dorian
conquest of Laconia, both in its achievement and consequences. The
Saxons, like the old Achaeans, were deprived of their lands, excluded
from all offices of trust and dignity, and reduced, though personally
free, to a state of political slavery. The Normans, on the contrary,
of whatever rank in their own country, were all nobles and warriors,
compared with the conquered Saxons, and for a long time enjoyed
exclusively the civil and ecclesiastical administration of the land.

PĔRISCĔLIS (περισκελίς), an anklet or bangle, worn by the Orientals,
the Greeks, and the Roman ladies also. It decorated the leg in the
same manner as the bracelet adorns the wrist and the necklace the
throat. The word, however, is sometimes used in the same sense as the
Latin _feminalia_, that is, drawers reaching from the navel to the
knees.

[Illustration: Periscelis, Anklet, worn by a Nereid. (Museo
Borbonico, vol. VI. tav. 34.)]

PĔRISTRŌMA, a coverlet large enough to hang round the sides of the
bed or couch.

PĔRISTȲLĬUM. [DOMUS.]

PĒRO (ἀρβύλη), a low boot of untanned hide worn by ploughmen
(_peronatus arator_), shepherds, and others employed in rural
occupations. The term ἀρβύλη is applied to an appendage to the Greek
chariot. It seems to have been a shoe fastened to the bottom of the
chariot, into which the driver inserted his foot, to assist him in
driving, and to prevent him from being thrown out.

[Illustration: Masks. (From a Tomb at Sidyma in Lycia.)]

PERSŌNA (_larva_, πρόσωπον or προσωπεῖον), a mask. Masks were worn
by Greek and Roman actors in nearly all dramatic representations.
This custom arose undoubtedly from the practice of smearing the
face with certain juices and colours, and of appearing in disguise,
at the festivals of Dionysus. [DIONYSIA.] Now, as the Greek drama
arose out of these festivals, it is highly probable that some mode
of disguising the face was as old as the drama itself. Choerilus
of Samos, however, (about B.C. 500) is said to have been the first
who introduced regular masks. Other writers attribute the invention
of masks to Thespis or Aeschylus, though the latter had probably
only the merit of perfecting and completing the whole theatrical
apparatus and costume. Some masks covered, like the masks of modern
times, only the face, but they appear more generally to have covered
the whole head down to the shoulders, for we always find the hair
belonging to a mask described as being a part of it; and this must
have been the case in tragedy more especially, as it was necessary
to make the head correspond to the stature of an actor, which was
heightened by the cothurnus.

[Illustration: Comic Mask. (Statue of Davus in British Museum.)]

PES (ποῦς), a foot, the standard measure of length among the Greeks
and Romans, as well as among nearly all other nations, both ancient
and modern. The Romans applied the uncial division [AS] to the foot,
which thus contained 12 _unciae_, whence our _inches_; and many of
the words used to express certain numbers of unciae are applied
to the parts of the foot. It was also divided into 16 _digiti_
(finger-breadths): this mode of division was used especially by
architects and land-surveyors, and is found on all the foot-measures
that have come down to us. From the analogy of the as, we have
also _dupondium_ for 2 feet, and _pes sestertius_ for 2½ feet. The
probable value of the Roman foot is 11.6496 inches English. (See
Tables at the end.)

PESSI. [LATRUNCULI.]

PESSŬLUS. [JANUA.]

PĔTĂLISMUS. [EXSILIUM.]

PĔTĂSUS. [PILEUS.]

PĔTĪTOR. [ACTOR.]

PĔTAURISTAE. [PETAURUM.]

PĔTAURUM (πέταυρον, πέτευρον), used in the Roman games, seems to
have been a board moving up and down, with a person at each end, and
supported in the middle, something like our see-saw; only it appears
to have been much longer, and consequently went to a greater height
than is common amongst us. The persons who took part in this game,
were called _Petauristae_ or _Petauristarii_.

PĔTORRĬTUM, a four-wheeled carriage, which, like the ESSEDUM, was
adopted by the Romans in imitation of the Gauls. It differed from
the HARMAMAXA in being uncovered. Its name is compounded of _petor_,
four, and _rit_, a wheel.

PHĂLANX. [EXERCITUS.]

PHĂLĂRĬCA. [HASTA.]

PHĂLĔRAE (φάλαρον), a boss, disc, or crescent of metal, in many cases
of gold, and beautifully wrought so as to be highly prized. They were
usually worn in pairs; and we most commonly read of them as ornaments
attached to the harness of horses, especially about the head, and
often worn as pendants (_pensilia_), so as to produce a terrific
effect when shaken by the rapid motions of the horse. These ornaments
were often bestowed upon horsemen by the Roman generals, in the
same manner as the ARMILLA, the TORQUES, the hasta pura [HASTA], and
the crown of gold [CORONA], in order to make a public and permanent
acknowledgment of bravery and merit.

PHĂRETRA (φαρέτρα), a quiver, was principally made of hide or
leather, and was adorned with gold, painting, and braiding. It had
a lid (πῶμα), and was suspended from the right shoulder by a belt
passing over the breast and behind the back. Its most common position
was on the left hip, and is so seen in the annexed figures, the
right-hand one representing an Amazon, and the left-hand an Asiatic
archer.

[Illustration: Pharetrae, Quivers. (Left-hand figure from the
Aeginetan Marbles; right-hand figure from a Greek Vase.)]

PHARMĂCŌN GRĂPHĒ (φαρμάκων or φαρμακείας γραφή), an indictment at
Athens against one who caused the death of another by poison, whether
given with intent to kill or to obtain undue influence. It was tried
by the court of Areiopagus.

PHĂROS or PHĂRUS (φάρος), a light-house. The most celebrated
light-house of antiquity was that situated at the entrance to the
port of Alexandria, on an island which bore the name of Pharos. It
contained many stories, and the upper stories had windows looking
seawards, and torches or fires were kept burning in them by night in
order to guide vessels into the harbour. The name of Pharos was given
to other light-houses, in allusion to that at Alexandria, which was
the model for their construction.

PHĂSĒLUS (φάσηλος), a vessel rather long and narrow, apparently
so called from its resemblance to the shape of a phaselus or
kidney-bean. It was chiefly used by the Egyptians, and was of various
sizes, from a mere boat to a vessel adapted for long voyages. The
phaselus was built for speed, to which more attention seems to have
been paid than to its strength: whence the epithet _fragilis_ is
given to it by Horace. These vessels were sometimes made of clay, to
which the epithet of Horace may perhaps also refer.

PHASIS (φάσις, from φαίνω), one of the various methods by which
public offenders at Athens might be prosecuted; but the word is
often used to denote any kind of information; and we do not know in
what respects the _Phasis_ was distinguished from other methods of
prosecution. The word _sycophantes_ (συκοφάντης) is derived from
the practice of laying information against those who exported figs.
[SYCOPHANTES.]

PHORMINX. [LYRA.]

PHRATRĬA. [TRIBUS.]

PHỸLARCHI (φύλαρχοι) were at Athens after the age of Cleisthenes ten
officers, one for each of the tribes, and were specially charged with
the command and superintendence of the cavalry. There can be but
little doubt that each of the phylarchs commanded the cavalry of his
own tribe, and they were themselves collectively and individually
under the control of the two hipparchs, just as the taxiarchs
were subject to the two strategi. Herodotus informs us that when
Cleisthenes increased the number of the tribes from four to ten,
he also made ten phylarchs instead of four. It has been thought,
however, that the historian should have said ten phylarchs in the
place of the old phylobasileis, who were four in number, one for each
of the old tribes.

PHỸLŎBĂSĬLEIS (φυλοβασιλεῖς) were four in number, representing
each one of the four ancient Athenian tribes, and probably elected
(but not for life) from and by them. They were nominated from the
Eupatridae, and during the continuance of royalty at Athens these
“kings of the tribes” were the constant assessors of the sovereign,
and rather as his colleagues than counsellors. Though they were
originally connected with the four ancient tribes, still they were
not abolished by Cleisthenes when he increased the number of tribes,
probably because their duties were mainly of a religious character.
They appear to have existed even after his time, and acted as judges,
but in unimportant or merely formal matters.

PICTŪRA (γραφή, γραφική, ζωγραφία), painting. I. _History of the
Art._ It is singular that the poems of Homer do not contain any
mention of painting as an imitative art. This is the more remarkable,
since Homer speaks of rich and elaborate embroidery as a thing not
uncommon. This embroidery is actual painting in principle, and is
a species of painting in practice, and it was considered such by
the Romans, who termed it “pictura textilis.” The various allusions
also to other arts, similar in nature to painting, are sufficient to
prove that painting must have existed in some degree in Homer’s time,
although the only kind of painting he notices is the “red-cheeked”
and “purple-cheeked ships,” and an ivory ornament for the faces
of horses, which a Maeonian or Carian woman colours with purple.
Painting seems to have made considerable progress in Asia Minor
while it was still in its infancy in Greece, for Candaules, king
of Lydia (B.C. 716), is said to have purchased at a high price a
painting of Bularchus, which represented a battle of the Magnetes.
The old Ionic painting probably flourished at the same time with the
Ionian architecture, and continued as an independent school until
the sixth century B.C., when the Ionians lost their liberty, and
with their liberty their art. Herodotus (i. 164) mentions that when
Harpagus besieged the town of Phocaea (B.C. 544), the inhabitants
collected all their valuables, their statues and votive offerings
from the temples, leaving only their _paintings_, and such works in
metal or of stone as could not easily be removed, and fled with them
to the island of Chios; from which we may conclude that paintings
were not only valued by the Phocaeans, but also common among them.
Herodotus (iv. 88) also informs us that Mandrocles of Samos, who
constructed for Darius Hystaspis the bridge of boats across the
Bosporus (B.C. 508), had a picture painted, representing the passage
of Darius’s army, and the king seated on a throne reviewing the
troops as they passed, which he dedicated in the temple of Hera at
Samos. After the conquest of Ionia, Samos became the seat of the
arts. The Heraeum at Samos, in which the picture of Mandrocles was
placed, was a general depository for works of art, and in the time
of Strabo appears to have been particularly rich in paintings, for
he terms it a “picture-gallery” (πινακοθήκη). The first painter in
Greece itself, whose name is recorded, is Cimon of Cleonae. His exact
period is uncertain, but he was probably a contemporary of Solon, and
lived at least a century before Polygnotus. It was with Polygnotus
of Thasos that painting reached its full development (about B.C.
463). Previous to this time the only cities that had paid any
considerable attention to painting were Aegina, Sicyon, Corinth, and
Athens. Sicyon and Corinth had long been famous for their paintings
upon vases and upon articles of furniture; the school of Athens had
attained no celebrity whatever until the arrival of Polygnotus from
Thasos raised it to that pre-eminence which it continued to maintain
for more than two centuries, although very few of the great painters
of Greece were natives of Athens. The principal contemporaries of
Polygnotus were Dionysius of Colophon, Plistaenetus and Panaenus of
Athens, brothers (or the latter perhaps a nephew) of Phidias, and
Micon, also of Athens. The works of Polygnotus and his contemporaries
were conspicuous for expression, character, and design; the more
minute discriminations of tone and local colour, united with
dramatic composition and effect, were accomplished in the succeeding
generation, about 420 B.C., through the efforts of Apollodorus of
Athens and Zeuxis of Heraclea. The contemporaries of Apollodorus and
Zeuxis, and those who carried out their principles, were Parrhasius
of Ephesus, Eupompus of Sicyon, and Timanthes of Cythnus, all
painters of the greatest fame. Athens and Sicyon were the principal
seats of the art at this period. Eupompus of Sicyon was the founder
of the celebrated Sicyonian school of painting which was afterwards
established by Pamphilus. The Alexandrian period was the last of
progression or acquisition; but it only added variety of effect to
the tones it could not improve, and was principally characterised
by the diversity of the styles of so many contemporary artists. The
most eminent painters of this period were Protogenes, Pamphilus,
Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon of Samos, Apelles, Euphranor, Pausias,
Nicias, Nicomachus, and his brother Aristides. Of all these Apelles
was the greatest. The quality in which he surpassed all other
painters will scarcely bear a definition; it has been termed grace,
elegance, beauty, χάρις, _venustas_. His greatest work was perhaps
his Venus Anadyomene, Venus rising out of the waters. He excelled in
portrait, and indeed all his works appear to have been portraits in
an extended sense; for his pictures, both historical and allegorical,
consisted nearly all of single figures. He enjoyed the exclusive
privilege of painting the portraits of Alexander.--The works of Greek
art brought from Sicily by Marcellus were the first to inspire the
Romans with the desire of adorning their public edifices with statues
and paintings, which taste was converted into a passion when they
became acquainted with the great treasures and almost inexhaustible
resources of Greece, and their rapacity knew no bounds. Mummius,
after the destruction of Corinth, B.C. 146, carried off or destroyed
more works of art than all his predecessors put together. Scaurus, in
his aedileship, B.C. 58, had all the public pictures still remaining
in Sicyon transported to Rome, on account of the debts of the former
city, and he adorned the great temporary theatre which he erected
upon that occasion with 3000 bronze statues. Verres ransacked Asia
and Achaia, and plundered almost every temple and public edifice in
Sicily of whatever was valuable in it. Amongst the numerous robberies
of Verres, Cicero mentions particularly twenty-seven beautiful
pictures taken from the temple of Minerva at Syracuse, consisting of
portraits of the kings and tyrants of Sicily. Yet Rome was, about
the end of the republic, full of painters, who appear, however, to
have been chiefly occupied in portrait, or decorative and arabesque
painting. Among the Romans the earliest painter mentioned is a member
of the noble house of the Fabii, who received the surname of Pictor
through some paintings which he executed in the temple of Salus at
Rome, B.C. 304, which lasted till the time of the emperor Claudius,
when they were destroyed by the fire that consumed that temple.
Pacuvius also, the tragic poet, and nephew of Ennius, distinguished
himself by some paintings in the temple of Hercules in the Forum
Boarium, about 180 B.C. But generally speaking the artists at Rome
were Greeks. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, and Augustus were among the
earliest great patrons of artists. Caesar expended great sums in
the purchase of pictures by the old masters. He gave as much as 80
talents for two pictures by his contemporary Timomachus of Byzantium,
one an Ajax, and the other a Medea meditating the murder of her
children. These pictures, which were painted in encaustic, were very
celebrated works; they are alluded to by Ovid (_Trist._ ii. 525),
and are mentioned by many other ancient writers.--There are three
distinct periods observable in the history of painting in Rome. The
first or great period of Graeco-Roman art may be dated from the
conquest of Greece until the time of Augustus, when the artists
were chiefly Greeks. The second, from the time of Augustus to the
so-called Thirty Tyrants and Diocletian, or from the beginning of the
Christian era until about the latter end of the third century, during
which time the great majority of Roman works of art were produced.
The third comprehends the state of the arts during the exarchate,
when Rome, in consequence of the foundation of Constantinople, and
the changes it involved, suffered similar spoliations to those which
it had previously inflicted upon Greece. This was the period of the
total decay of the imitative arts amongst the ancients. About the
beginning of the second period is the earliest age in which we have
any notice of portrait painters (_imaginum pictores_) as a distinct
class. Portraits must have been exceedingly numerous amongst the
Romans; Varro made a collection of the portraits of 700 eminent
men. The portraits or statues of men who had performed any public
service were placed in the temples and other public places; and
several edicts were passed by the emperors of Rome respecting the
placing of them. The portraits of authors also were placed in the
public libraries; they were apparently fixed above the cases which
contained their writings, below which chairs were placed for the
convenience of readers. They were painted also at the beginning of
manuscripts. Several of the most celebrated ancient artists were both
sculptors and painters; Phidias and Euphranor were both; Zeuxis and
Protogenes were both modellers; Polygnotus devoted some attention to
statuary; and Lysippus consulted Eupompus upon style in sculpture.
Moreover scene-painting shows that the Greeks were acquainted with
perspective at a very early period; for when Aeschylus was exhibiting
tragedies at Athens, Agatharchus made a scene, and left a treatise
upon it.--II. _Methods of Painting._ There were two distinct classes
of painting practised by the ancients--in water colours, and in
wax, both of which were practised in various ways. Of the former
the principal were fresco, al fresco; and the various kinds of
distemper (a tempera), with glue, with the white of egg, or with gums
(a guazzo); and with wax or resins when these were rendered by any
means vehicles that could be worked with water. Of the latter the
principal was through fire (διὰ πυρὸς), termed encaustic (ἐγκαυστική,
_encaustica_). The painting in wax (κηρογραφία), or ship painting
(_inceramenta navium_), was distinct from encaustic. It does not
appear that the Greeks or Romans ever painted in oil; the only
mention of oil in ancient writers in connection with painting is
the small quantity which entered into the composition of encaustic
varnish to temper it. They painted upon wood, clay, plaster, stone,
parchment, and canvas. The use of canvas must have been of late
introduction, as there is no mention of it having been employed
by the Greek painters of the best periods. They generally painted
upon panels or tablets (πίνακες, πινόκια, _tabulae_, _tabellae_),
which when finished were fixed into frames of various descriptions
and materials, and encased in walls. The style or cestrum used in
drawing, and for spreading the wax colours, pointed at one end
and broad and flat at the other, was termed γραφίς by the Greeks
and cestrum by the Romans; it was generally made of metal. The
hair pencil (_penicillus_, _penicillum_) was termed ὑπογραφίς, and
apparently also ῥαβδίον. The ancients used also a palette very
similar to that used by the moderns. Encaustic was a method very
frequently practised by the Roman and later Greek painters; but it
was in very little use by the earlier painters, and was not generally
adopted until after the time of Alexander. Pliny defines the term
thus: “ceris pingere ac picturam inurere,” to paint with wax or wax
colours, and to _burn in_ the picture afterwards with the cauterium;
it appears therefore to have been the simple addition of the
process of _burning in_ to the ordinary method of painting with wax
colours. Cerae (waxes) was the ordinary term for painters’ colours
amongst the Romans, but more especially encaustic colours, and they
kept them in partitioned boxes, as painters do at present.--III.
_Polychromy._ Ancient statues were often painted, and what is now
termed polychrome sculpture was very common in Greece. The practice
of colouring statues is undoubtedly as ancient as the art of statuary
itself; although they were perhaps originally coloured more from a
love of colour than from any design of improving the resemblance
of the representation. The Jupiter of the Capitol, placed by
Tarquinius Priscus, was coloured with minium. In later times the
custom seems to have been reduced to a system, and was practised
with more reserve. The practice also of colouring architecture
seems to have been universal amongst the Greeks, and very general
amongst the Romans.--IV. _Vase Painting._ The fictile-vase painting
of the Greeks was an art of itself, and was practised by a distinct
class of artists. The designs upon these vases (which the Greeks
termed λήκυθοι) have been variously interpreted, but they have been
generally considered to be in some way connected with the initiation
into the Eleusinian and other mysteries. They were given as prizes
to the victors at the Panathenaea and other games, and seem to have
been always buried with their owners at their death, for they have
been discovered only in tombs. Even in the time of the Roman empire
painted vases were termed “operis antiqui,” and were then sought for
in the ancient tombs of Campania and other parts of Magna Graecia.
We may form some idea of their immense value from the statement
of Pliny, that they were more valuable than the Murrhine vases.
[MURRHINA VASA.] The paintings on the vases, considered as works of
art, vary exceedingly in the detail of the execution, although in
style of design they may be arranged in two principal classes, the
black and the yellow; for those which do not come strictly under
either of these heads are either too few or vary too slightly to
require a distinct classification. The black are the most ancient,
the yellow the most common.--V. _Mosaic_, or _pictura de musivo_,
_opus musivum_, was very general in Rome in the time of the early
emperors. It was also common in Greece and Asia Minor at an earlier
period, but at the time of the Roman empire it began to a great
extent even to supersede painting. It was used chiefly for floors,
but walls and also ceilings were sometimes ornamented in the same
way. There are still many great mosaics of the ancients extant. The
most valuable is the one discovered in Pompeii a few years ago,
which is supposed to represent the battle of Issus. The composition
is simple, forcible, and beautiful, and the design exhibits in many
respects merits of the highest order.

PĪLA (σφαῖρα), a ball. The game at ball (σφαιριστική) was one of the
most favourite gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, from
the earliest times to the fall of the Roman empire. It is mentioned
in the Odyssey, where it is played by the Phaeacian damsels to the
sound of music, and also by two celebrated performers at the court
of Alcinous in a most artistic manner accompanied with dancing. The
various movements of the body required in the game of ball gave
elasticity and grace to the figure; whence it was highly esteemed
by the Greeks. The Athenians set so high a value on it, that they
conferred upon Aristonicus of Carystus the right of citizenship on
account of his skill in this game. It was equally esteemed by the
other states of Greece; the young Spartans, when they were leaving
the condition of ephebi, were called σφαιρεῖς, probably because
their chief exercise was the game at ball. Every complete gymnasium
had a room (σφαιριστήριον, σφαίριστρα) devoted to this exercise
[GYMNASIUM], where a special teacher (σφαιριστικός) gave instruction
in the art. Among the Romans the game at ball was generally played
at by persons before taking the bath, in a room (_sphaeristerium_)
attached to the baths for the purpose. _Pila_ was used in a general
sense for any kind of ball: but the balls among the Romans seem to
have been of three kinds; the _pila_ in its narrower sense, a small
ball; the _follis_, a great ball filled with air; and the _paganica_,
of which we know scarcely anything, but which appears to have been
smaller than the follis and larger than the pila. The _Harpastum_
(from ἁρπάζω) seems to have been the name of a ball, which was thrown
among the players, each of whom endeavoured to catch it.

[Illustration: Pila, Game at Ball. (From the Baths of Titus.)]

PĪLĀNI. [EXERCITUS, p. 168 _b_.]

PĪLENTUM, a splendid four-wheeled carriage, furnished with soft
cushions, which conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred processions and
in going to the Circensian and other games. The pilentum was probably
very like the HARMAMAXA and CARPENTUM, but open at the sides, so that
those who sat in it might both see and be seen.

PĪLĔUS or PĪLĔUM (πϊλος, πίλημα, πιλωτόν), any piece of felt; more
especially a skull-cap of felt, a hat. There seems no reason to doubt
that felting is a more ancient invention than weaving [TELA], nor
that both of these arts came into Europe from Asia. From the Greeks,
who were acquainted with this article as early as the age of Homer,
the use of felt passed together with its name to the Romans. Its
principal use was to make coverings of the head for the male sex,
and the most common one was a simple skull-cap.--Among the Romans
the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained
his freedom he had his head shaven, and wore instead of his hair an
undyed pileus. This change of attire took place in the temple of
Feronia, who was the goddess of freedmen. Hence the phrase _servos
ad pileum vocare_ is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were
frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty.
The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius,
struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand. The _Petasus_
(πέτασος) differed from the pileus or simple skull-cap in having a
wide brim: the etymology of the word, from πετάννυμι, expresses the
distinctive shape of these hats. It was preferred to the skull-cap as
a protection from the sun.

[Illustration: Petasus, Cap, worn by a Greek Soldier. (From a Greek
Vase.)]

PĪLUM. [HASTA.]

PISCĪNA. [BALNEUM.]

PISTOR (ἀρτοποιός), a baker, from _pinsere_, to pound, since corn was
pounded in mortars before the invention of mills. At Rome bread was
originally made at home by the women of the house; and there were
no persons at Rome who made baking a trade, or any slaves specially
kept for this purpose in private houses, till B.C. 173. The name was
also given to pastry-cooks and confectioners, in which case they
were usually called _pistores dulciarii_ or _candidarii_. Bread was
often baked in moulds called _artoptae_, and the loaves thus baked
were termed ARTOPTICII. Bread was not generally made at home at
Athens, but was sold in the market-place, chiefly by women, called
ἀρτοπώλιδες. These women seem to have been what the fish-women of
London are at present; they excelled in abuse.

PLĂGĬĀRĬUS. [PLAGIUM.]

PLĂGĬUM, the offence of kidnapping, concealing, and selling freemen
and other persons’ slaves was the subject of a Fabia Lex (B.C. 183).
The penalty of the lex was pecuniary; but this fell into disuse,
and persons who offended against the lex were punished according to
the nature of their offence; under the empire they were generally
condemned to the mines. The word _Plagium_ is said to come from the
Greek πλάγιος, oblique, indirect, dolosus. He who committed _plagium_
was _plagiarius_, a word which Martial applies to a person who
falsely gave himself out as the author of a book; and in this sense
the word has come into common use in our language.

PLAUSTRUM or PLOSTRUM (ἅμαξα), a cart or waggon. It had commonly two
wheels, but sometimes four, and it was then called the _plaustrum
majus_. Besides the wheels and axle the plaustrum consisted of a
strong pole (_temo_), to the hinder part of which was fastened a
table of wooden planks. The blocks of stone, or other things to be
carried, were either laid upon this table without any other support,
or an additional security was obtained by the use either of boards
at the sides, or of a large wicker basket tied upon the cart. The
annexed cut exhibits a cart, the body of which is supplied by a
basket. The commonest kind of cart-wheel was that called _tympanum_,
“the drum,” from its resemblance to the musical instrument of the
same name. It was nearly a foot in thickness, and was made either by
sawing the trunk of a tree across in a horizontal direction, or by
nailing together boards of the requisite shape and size. (See the
cut.) These wheels advanced slowly, and made a loud creaking, which
was heard to a great distance.

[Illustration: Plaustrum, Waggon. (From a Bas-Relief at Rome.)]

PLĒBES or PLEBS. PLĒBĒII. This word contains the same root as
_im-pleo_, _com-pleo_, &c., and is therefore etymologically
connected with πλῆθος, a term which was applied to the plebeians
by the more correct Greek writers on Roman history, while others
wrongly called them δῆμος or οἱ δημοτικοί. The plebeians were the
body of commons or the commonalty of Rome, and thus constituted
one of the two great elements of which the Roman nation consisted,
and which has given to the earlier periods of Roman history its
peculiar character and interest. The time when the plebeians first
appear as a distinct class of Roman citizens in contradistinction
to the patricians, is in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Alba, the
head of the Latin confederacy, was in his reign taken by the Romans
and razed to the ground. The most distinguished of its inhabitants
were transplanted to Rome and received among the patricians; but
the great bulk of Alban citizens, who were likewise transferred to
Rome, received settlements on the Caelian hill, and were kept in
a state of submission to the populus Romanus or the patricians.
This new population of Rome, which in number is said to have been
equal to the old inhabitants of the city or the patricians, were
the plebeians. They were Latins, and consequently of the same
blood as the Ramnes, the noblest of the three patrician tribes.
After the conquest of Alba, Rome, in the reign of Ancus Martius,
acquired possession of a considerable extent of country, containing
a number of dependent Latin towns, as Medullia, Fidenae, Politorium,
Tellenae, and Ficana. Great numbers of the inhabitants of these
towns were again transplanted to Rome, and incorporated with the
plebeians already settled there, and the Aventine was assigned to
them as their habitation. Some portions of the land which these
new citizens had possessed were given back to them by the Romans,
so that they remained free land-owners as much as the conquerors
themselves, and thus were distinct from the clients.--The plebeians
were citizens, but not _optimo jure_; they were perfectly distinct
from the patricians, and were neither contained in the three tribes,
nor in the curiae, nor in the patrician gentes. The only point of
contact between the two estates was the army. The plebeians were
obliged to fight and shed their blood in the defence of their
new fellow-citizens, without being allowed to share any of their
rights or privileges, and without even the right of intermarriage
(_connubium_). In all judicial matters they were entirely at the
mercy of the patricians, and had no right of appeal against any
unjust sentence, though they were not, like the clients, bound to
have a patronus. They continued to have their own sacra, which
they had had before the conquest, but these were regulated by the
patrician pontiffs. Lastly, they were free land-owners, and had
their own gentes.--The population of the Roman state thus consisted
of two opposite elements; a ruling class or an aristocracy, and the
commonalty, which, though of the same stock as the noblest among
the rulers, and exceeding them in numbers, yet enjoyed none of the
rights which might enable them to take a part in the management of
public affairs, religious or civil. Their citizenship resembled the
relation of aliens to a state, in which they are merely tolerated on
condition of performing certain services, and they are, in fact,
sometimes called peregrini. That such a state of things could not
last, is a truth which must have been felt by every one who was not
blinded by his own selfishness and love of dominion. Tarquinius
Priscus was the first who conceived the idea of placing the plebeians
on a footing of equality with the old burghers, by dividing them
into three tribes, which he intended to call after his own name and
those of his friends. But this noble plan was frustrated by the
opposition of the augur Attus Navius, who probably acted the part
of a representative of the patricians. All that Tarquinius could do
was to effect the admission of the noblest plebeian families into
the three old tribes, who were distinguished from the old patrician
families by the names of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres secundi, and
their gentes are sometimes distinguished by the epithet minores,
as they entered into the same relation in which the Luceres had
been to the first two tribes, before the time of Tarquinius. It
was reserved to his successor, Servius Tullius, to give to the
commonalty a regular internal organisation, and to determine their
relations to the patricians. He first divided the city into four, and
then the subject country around, which was inhabited by plebeians,
into twenty-six regions or local tribes, and in these regions he
assigned lots of land to those plebeians who were yet without landed
property. [TRIBUS.] Each tribe had its praefect, called tribunus. The
tribes had also their own sacra, festivals, and meetings (_comitia
tributa_), which were convoked by their tribunes. This division into
tribes with tribunes at their heads was no more than an internal
organisation of the plebeians, analogous to the division of the
patricians into thirty curiae, without conferring upon them the right
to interfere in any way in the management of public affairs, or in
the elections, which were left entirely to the senate and the curiae.
These rights, however, they obtained by another regulation of Servius
Tullius, which was made wholly independent of the thirty tribes. For
this purpose he instituted a census, and divided the whole body of
Roman citizens, plebeians as well as patricians, into five classes,
according to the amount of their property. Taxation and the military
duties were arranged according to these classes in such a manner,
that the heavier burdens fell upon the wealthier classes. The whole
body of citizens thus divided was formed into a great national
assembly called comitiatus maximus, or comitia centuriata. [COMITIA.]
In this assembly the plebeians now met the patricians apparently on
a footing of equality, but the votes were distributed in such a way
that it was always in the power of the wealthiest classes, to which
the patricians naturally belonged, to decide a question before it
was put to the vote of the poorer classes. A great number of such
noble plebeian families, as after the subjugation of the Latin towns
had not been admitted into the curies by Tarquinius Priscus, were
now constituted by Servius into a number of equites, with twelve
suffragia in the comitia centuriata. [EQUITES.] In this constitution,
the plebeians, as such, did not obtain admission to the senate, nor
to the highest magistracy, nor to any of the priestly offices. To
all these offices the patricians alone thought themselves entitled
by divine right. The plebeians also continued to be excluded from
occupying any portion of the public land, which as yet was possessed
only by the patricians, and they were only allowed to keep their
cattle upon the common pasture.--In the early times of the republic
there was a constant struggle between the two orders, the history
of which belongs to a history of Rome, and cannot be given here.
Eventually the plebeians gained access to all the civil and religious
offices, until at last the two hostile elements became united into
one great body of Roman citizens with equal rights, and a state of
things arose, totally different from what had existed before. After
the first secession, in B.C. 494, the plebeians gained several great
advantages. First, a law was passed to prevent the patricians from
taking usurious interest of money, which they frequently lent to
impoverished plebeians; secondly, tribunes were appointed for the
protection of the plebeians [TRIBUNI]; and lastly, plebeian aediles
were appointed. [AEDILES.] Shortly after, they gained the right to
summon before their own comitia tributa any one who had violated the
rights of their order, and to make decrees (_plebiscita_), which,
however, did not become binding upon the whole nation, free from
the control of the curies, until the year B.C. 286. In B.C. 445,
the tribune Canuleius established, by his rogations, the connubium
between patricians and plebeians. He also attempted to divide the
consulship between the two orders, but the patricians frustrated the
realisation of this plan by the appointment of six military tribunes,
who were to be elected from both orders. [TRIBUNI.] But that the
plebeians might have no share in the censorial power, with which the
consuls had been invested, the military tribunes did not obtain that
power, and a new curule dignity, the censorship, was established,
with which patricians alone were to be invested. [CENSOR.] In B.C.
421 the plebeians were admitted to the quaestorship, which opened
to them the way into the senate, where henceforth their number
continued to increase. [QUAESTOR; SENATUS.] In B.C. 367 the tribunes
L. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius placed themselves at the head of the
commonalty, and resumed the contest against the patricians. After
a fierce struggle, which lasted for several years, they at length
carried a rogation, according to which decemvirs were to be appointed
for keeping the Sibylline books instead of duumvirs, of whom half
were to be plebeians. The next great step was the restoration of
the consulship, on condition that one consul should always be a
plebeian. A third rogation of Licinius, which was only intended to
afford momentary relief to the poor plebeians, regulated the rate
of interest. From this time forward the plebeians also appear in
the possession of the right to occupy parts of the ager publicus.
In B.C. 366, L. Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian consul.
The patricians, however, who always contrived to yield no more than
what it was absolutely impossible for them to retain, stripped the
consulship of a considerable part of its power, and transferred
it to two new curule offices, viz. that of praetor and of curule
aedile. [AEDILES; PRAETOR.] But after such great advantages had
been once gained by the plebeians, it was impossible to stop them
in their progress towards a perfect equality of political rights
with the patricians. In B.C. 356, C. Marcius Rutilus was the first
plebeian dictator; in B.C. 351 the censorship was thrown open to
the plebeians, and in B.C. 336 the praetorship. The Ogulnian law,
in B.C. 300, also opened to them the offices of pontifex and augur.
These advantages were, as might be supposed, not gained without the
fiercest opposition of the patricians, and even after they were
gained and sanctioned by law, the patricians exerted every means to
obstruct the operation of the law. Such fraudulent attempts led,
in B.C. 286, to the last secession of the plebeians, after which,
however, the dictator Q. Hortensius successfully and permanently
reconciled the two orders, secured to the plebeians all the rights
they had acquired until then, and procured for their plebiscita the
full power of leges binding upon the whole nation. After the passing
of the Hortensian law, the political distinction between patricians
and plebeians ceased, and, with a few unimportant exceptions, both
orders were placed on a footing of perfect equality. Henceforth
the name populus is sometimes applied to the plebeians alone, and
sometimes to the whole body of Roman citizens, as assembled in the
comitia centuriata or tributa. The term plebs or plebecula, on
the other hand, was applied, in a loose manner of speaking, to the
multitude or populace, in opposition to the nobiles or the senatorial
party.--A person who was born a plebeian could only be raised to
the rank of a patrician by a lex curiata, as was sometimes done
during the kingly period, and in the early times of the republic.
It frequently occurs in the history of Rome that one and the same
gens contains plebeian as well as patrician families. In the gens
Cornelia, for instance, we find the plebeian families of the Balbi,
Mammulae, Merulae, &c., along with the patrician Scipiones, Sullae,
Lentuli, &c. The occurrence of this phenomenon may be accounted for
in different ways. It may have been, that one branch of a plebeian
family was made patrician while the others remained plebeians. It may
also have happened that two families had the same nomen gentilicium
without being actual members of the same gens. Again, a patrician
family might go over to the plebeians, and as such a family continued
to bear the name of its patrician gens, this gens apparently
contained a plebeian family. When a peregrinus obtained the civitas
through the influence of a patrician, or when a slave was emancipated
by his patrician master, they generally adopted the nomen gentilicium
of their benefactor, and thus appear to belong to the same gens with
him.

PLĒBISCĪTUM, a name properly applied to a law passed at the comitia
tributa on the rogation of a tribune. Originally, a plebiscitum
required confirmation by the comitia curiata and the senate; but a
Lex Hortensia was passed B.C. 286, to the effect that plebiscita
should bind all the populus (_universus populus_), and this lex
rendered confirmation unnecessary. The Lex Hortensia is always
referred to as the lex which put plebiscita as to their binding force
exactly on the same footing as leges. The principal plebiscita are
mentioned under the article LEX.

PLECTRUM. [LYRA.]

PLETHRON (πλέθρον), the fundamental land measure in the Greek system,
being the square of 100 feet, that is, 10,000 square feet. The later
Greek writers use it as the translation of the Roman _jugerum_,
probably because the latter was the standard land measure in the
Roman system; but, in size, the _plethron_ answered more nearly to
the Roman _actus_, or half-jugerum, which was the older unit of land
measures. As frequently happened with the ancient land measures,
the side of the _plethron_ was taken as a measure of length, with
the same name. This _plethron_ was equal to 100 feet (or about
101 English feet) = 66⅔ πήχεις = 10 ἄκαιναι or κάλαμοι. It was also
introduced into the system of itinerary measures, being 1-6th of the
_stadium_.

PLŬTĔUS, was applied in military affairs to two different objects.
(1) A kind of shed made of hurdles, and covered with raw hides, which
could be moved forward by small wheels attached to it, and under
which the besiegers of a town made their approaches. (2) Boards or
planks placed on the vallum of a camp, on moveable towers or other
military engines, as a kind of roof or covering for the protection of
the soldiers.

PLYNTĒRĬA (πλυντήρια, from πλύνειν, to wash), a festival celebrated
at Athens every year, on the 25th of Thargelion, in honour of Athena,
surnamed Aglauros, whose temple stood on the Acropolis. The day of
this festival was at Athens among the ἀποφράδες or _dies nefasti_;
for the temple of the goddess was surrounded by a rope to preclude
all communication with it; her statue was stripped of its garments
and ornaments for the purpose of cleaning them, and was in the
meanwhile covered over, to conceal it from the sight of man. The
city was therefore, so to speak, on this day without its protecting
divinity, and any undertaking commenced on it was believed to be
necessarily unsuccessful.

PNYX. [ECCLESIA.]

PŌCŬLUM, any kind of drinking-cup, to be distinguished from the
_Crater_ or vessel in which the wine was mixed [CRATER], and from the
_Cyathus_, a kind of ladle or small cup, used to convey the wine from
the Crater to the Poculum or drinking-cup.

PŎDĬUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

POENA (ποινή), a general name for any punishment of any offence.
Multa is the penalty of a particular offence. A Poena was only
inflicted when it was imposed by some lex or some other legal
authority (_quo alio jure_). When no poena was imposed, then a multa
or penalty might be inflicted.

PŎLĔMARCHUS (πολέμαρχος). Respecting the polemarchus at Athens,
see ARCHON. We read also of polemarchs at Sparta, and in various
cities of Boeotia. As their name denotes, they were originally and
properly connected with military affairs, being entrusted either
with the command of armies abroad, or the superintendence of the war
department at home; sometimes with both. The polemarchs of Sparta
appear to have ranked next to the king, when on actual service
abroad, and were generally of the royal kindred or house (γένος).
They commanded single morae, so that they would appear to have been
six in number, and sometimes whole armies. They also formed part of
the king’s council in war, and of the royal escort called _damosia_.
At Thebes there appear to have been two polemarchs, perhaps elected,
annually; and in times of peace they seem to have been invested with
the chief executive power of the state, and the command of the city,
having its military force under their orders. They are not, however,
to be confounded with the Boeotarchs.

PŌLĒTAE (πωλῆται), a board of ten officers, or magistrates, whose
duty it was to grant leases of the public lands and mines, and also
to let the revenues arising from the customs, taxes, confiscations,
and forfeitures. Of such letting the word πωλεῖν (not μισθοῦν) was
generally used, and also the correlative words ὠνεῖσθαι and πρίασθαι.
One was chosen from each tribe. In the letting of the revenue they
were assisted by the managers of the theoric fund (τὸ θεωρικόν), and
they acted under the authority of the senate of Five Hundred, who
exercised a general control over the financial department of the
administration. Resident aliens, who did not pay their residence
tax (μετοίκιον), were summoned before them, and, if found to have
committed default, were sold.

POLLINCTŌRES. [FUNUS.]

PŌMOĒRĬUM. This word is compounded of _post_ and _moerium_ (_murus_),
in the same manner as _pomeridiem_ of _post_ and _meridiem_, and thus
signifies a line running by the walls of a town (_pone_ or _post
muros_). But the walls of a town here spoken of are not its actual
walls or fortifications, but symbolical walls, and the course of the
pomoerium itself was marked by stone pillars, erected at certain
intervals. The sacred line of the Roman pomoerium did not prevent the
inhabitants from building upon or taking into use any place beyond
it, but it was necessary to leave a certain space on each side of it
unoccupied, so as not to unhallow it by profane use. Thus we find
that the Aventine, although inhabited from early times, was for many
centuries not included within the pomoerium. The pomoerium was not
the same at all times; as the city increased the pomoerium also was
extended; but this extension could, according to ancient usage, only
be made by such men as had by their victories over foreign nations
increased the boundaries of the empire, and neither could a pomoerium
be formed nor altered without the augurs previously consulting the
will of the gods by augury: hence the _jus pomoerii_ of the augurs.

POMPA (πομπή), a solemn procession, as on the occasion of a funeral,
triumph, &c. It is, however, more particularly applied to the grand
procession with which the games of the circus commenced (_Pompa
Circensis_). [CIRCUS.]

PONS (γέφυρα), a bridge. As the rivers of Greece were small, and
the use of the arch known to them only to a limited extent, it is
probable that the Greek bridges were built entirely of wood, or,
at best, were nothing more than a wooden platform supported upon
stone piers at each extremity. Pliny mentions a bridge over the
Acheron 1000 feet in length; we also know that the island Euboea was
joined to Boeotia by a bridge; but the only existing specimen of a
Greek bridge is the one over a tributary of the Eurotas. The Romans
regularly applied the arch to the construction of bridges, by which
they were enabled to erect structures of great beauty and solidity,
as well as utility. The width of the passage-way in a Roman bridge
was commonly narrow, as compared with modern structures of the same
kind, and corresponded with the road (_via_) leading to and from
it. It was divided into three parts. The centre one, for horses
and carriages, was denominated _agger_ or _iter_; and the raised
footpaths on each side _decursoria_, which were enclosed by parapet
walls similar in use and appearance to the _pluteus_ in the basilica.
There were eight bridges across the Tiber. I. Of these the most
celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was the PONS SUBLICIUS, so
called because it was built of wood; _sublices_, in the language of
the Formiani, meaning wooden beams. It was built by Ancus Martius,
when he united the Janiculum to the city, and was situated at the
foot of the Aventine.--II. PONS PALATINUS formed the communication
between the Palatine and its vicinities and the Janiculum.--III. IV.
_Pons Fabricius_ and PONS CESTIUS were the two which connected the
Insula Tiberina with the opposite sides of the river; the first with
the city, and the latter with the Janiculum.

[Illustration: Pons Cestius, and Pons Fabricius, at Rome, with the
buildings between restored.]

Both are still remaining. They are represented in the preceding
woodcut: that on the right hand is the pons Fabricius, and that on
the left the pons Cestius.--V. PONS JANICULENSIS, which led direct to
the Janiculum.--VI. PONS VATICANUS, so called because it formed the
communication between the Campus Martius and Campus Vaticanus.--

[Illustration: Pons Aelius at Rome.]

VII. PONS AELIUS, built by Hadrian, which led from the city to
the mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge and castle of St.
Angelo.--VIII. PONS MILVIUS, on the Via Flaminia, now Ponte Molle,
was built by Aemilius Scaurus the censor.--The Roman bridges without
the city were too many to be enumerated here.

[Illustration: Bridge at Arimmum.]

They formed one of the chief embellishments in all the public roads;
and their frequent and stupendous remains, still existing in Italy,
Portugal, and Spain, attest, even to the present day, the scale of
grandeur with which the Roman works of national utility were always
carried on.--When the comitia were held, the voters, in order to
reach the enclosure called _septum_ and _ovile_, passed over a
wooden platform, elevated above the ground, which was called _pons
suffragiorum_, in order that they might be able to give their votes
without confusion or collusion. [COMITIA.] _Pons_ is also used to
signify the platform (ἐπιβάθρα, ἀποβάθρα), used for embarking in, or
disembarking from, a ship.

PONTĬFEX (ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, ἱερονόμος, ἱεροφύλαξ, ἱεροφάντης). The
origin of this word is explained in various ways; but it is probably
formed from _pons_ and _facere_ (in the signification of the Greek
ῥέζειν, to perform a sacrifice), and consequently signifies the
priests who offered sacrifices upon the bridge. The ancient sacrifice
to which the name thus alludes, is that of the Argei on the sacred
or sublician bridge. [ARGEI.] The Roman pontiffs formed the most
illustrious among the great colleges of priests. Their institution,
like that of all important matters of religion, was ascribed to
Numa. The number of pontiffs appointed by this king was four, and at
their head was the pontifex maximus, who is generally not included
when the number of pontiffs is mentioned. It is probable that the
original number of four pontiffs (not including the pontifex maximus)
had reference to the two earliest tribes of the Romans, the Ramnes
and Tities, so that each tribe was represented by two pontiffs. In
the year B.C. 300 the Ogulnian law raised the number of pontiffs to
eight, or, including the pontifex maximus, to nine, and four of them
were to be plebeians. The pontifex maximus, however, continued to
be a patrician down to the year B.C. 254, when Tib. Coruncanius was
the first plebeian who was invested with this dignity. This number
of pontiffs remained for a long time unaltered, until in B.C. 81 the
dictator Sulla increased it to fifteen, and J. Caesar to sixteen. In
both these changes the pontifex maximus is included in the number.
During the empire the number varied, though on the whole fifteen
appears to have been the regular number. The mode of appointing the
pontiffs was also different at different times. It appears that after
their institution by Numa, the college had the right of co-optation,
that is, if a member of the college died (for all the pontiffs held
their office for life), the members met and elected a successor, who,
after his election, was inaugurated by the augurs. This election was
sometimes called _captio_. In B.C. 104 a Lex Domitia was passed,
which transferred the right of electing the members of the great
colleges of priests to the people (probably in the comitia tributa);
that is, the people elected a candidate, who was then made a member
of the college by the co-optatio of the priests themselves, so that
the co-optatio, although still necessary, became a mere matter of
form. The Lex Domitia was repealed by Sulla in a Lex Cornelia de
Sacerdotiis (B.C. 81), which restored to the great priestly colleges
their full right of co-optatio. In B.C. 63 the law of Sulla was
abolished, and the Domitian law was restored, but not in its full
extent; for it was now determined, that in case of a vacancy the
college itself should nominate two candidates, and the people elect
one of them. M. Antonius again restored the right of co-optatio to
the college. The college of pontiffs had the supreme superintendence
of all matters of religion, and of things and persons connected with
public as well as private worship. They had the judicial decision
in all matters of religion, whether private persons, magistrates,
or priests were concerned, and in cases where the existing laws or
customs were found defective or insufficient, they made new laws and
regulations (_decreta pontificum_), in which they always followed
their own judgment as to what was consistent with the existing
customs and usages. The details of these duties and functions were
contained in books called _libri pontificii_ or _pontificales_,
_commentarii sacrorum_ or _sacrorum pontificalium_, which they were
said to have received from Numa, and which were sanctioned by Ancus
Martius. As to the rights and duties of the pontiffs, it must first
of all be borne in mind, that the pontiffs were not priests of any
particular divinity, but a college which stood above all other
priests, and superintended the whole external worship of the gods.
One of their principal duties was the regulation of the sacra, both
publica and privata, and to watch that they were observed at the
proper times (for which purpose the pontiffs had the whole regulation
of the calendar, see CALENDARIUM), and in their proper form. In the
management of the sacra publica they were in later times assisted in
certain duties by the Triumviri Epulones. [EPULONES.] The pontiffs
convoked the assembly of the curies (_comitia calata_ or _curiata_)
in cases where priests were to be appointed, and flamines or a
rex sacrorum were to be inaugurated; also when wills were to be
received, and when a detestatio sacrorum and adoption by adrogatio
took place. [ADOPTIO.] In most cases the sentence of the pontiffs
only inflicted a fine upon the offenders; but the person fined had
the right of appealing to the people, who might release him from the
fine. In regard to the vestal virgins, and the persons who committed
incest with them, the pontiffs had criminal jurisdiction, and might
pronounce sentence of death. A man who had violated a vestal virgin
was, according to an ancient law, scourged to death by the pontifex
maximus in the comitium, and it appears that originally neither the
vestal virgins nor the male offenders in such a case had any right
of appeal. In later times we find that, even when the pontiffs had
passed sentence upon vestal virgins, a tribune interfered, and
induced the people to appoint a quaestor for the purpose of making
a fresh inquiry into the case; and it sometimes happened that after
this new trial the sentence of the pontiffs was modified or annulled.
Such cases, however, seem to have been mere irregularities, founded
upon an abuse of the tribunitian power. In the early times the
pontiffs were in the exclusive possession of the civil as well as
religious law, until the former was made public by Cn. Flavius. The
regulations which served as a guide to the pontiffs in their judicial
proceedings, formed a large collection of laws, which was called
the _jus pontificium_, and formed part of the Libri Pontificii. The
meetings of the college of pontiffs, to which in some instances the
famines and the rex sacrorum were summoned, were held in the curia
regia on the Via Sacra, to which was attached the residence of the
pontifex maximus and of the rex sacrorum. As the chief pontiff was
obliged to live in a domus publica, Augustus, when he assumed this
dignity, changed part of his own house into a domus publica. All
the pontiffs were in their appearance distinguished by the conic
cap, called tutulus or galerus, with an apex upon it, and the toga
praetexta. The pontifex maximus was the president of the college, and
acted in its name, whence he alone is frequently mentioned in cases
in which he must be considered only as the organ of the college. He
was generally chosen from among the most distinguished persons, and
such as had held a curule magistracy, or were already members of
the college. Two of his especial duties were to appoint (_capere_)
the vestal virgins and the flamines [VESTALES; FLAMEN], and to be
present at every marriage by confarreatio. When festive games were
vowed, or a dedication made, the chief pontiff had to repeat over,
before the persons who made the vow or the dedication, the formula
in which it was to be performed (_praeire verba_). During the period
of the republic, when the people exercised sovereign power in every
respect, we find that if the pontiff, on constitutional or religious
grounds, refused to perform this solemnity, he might be compelled by
the people. The pontifex maximus wrote down what occurred in his year
on tablets, which were hung up in his dwelling for the information of
the people, and called _Annales Maximi_. A pontifex might, like all
the members of the great priestly colleges, hold any other military,
civil, or priestly office, provided the different offices did not
interfere with one another. Thus we find one and the same person
being pontiff, augur, and decemvir sacrorum; instances of a pontifex
maximus being at the same time consul are very numerous. But whatever
might be the civil or military office which a pontifex maximus held
beside his pontificate, he was not allowed originally to leave Italy.
The college of pontiffs continued to exist until the overthrow of
paganism. The emperors themselves were always chief pontiffs, and
as such the presidents of the college; hence the title of pontifex
maximus (P. M. or PON. M.) appears on several coins of the emperors.
If there were several emperors at a time, only one bore the title of
pontifex maximus; but in the year A.D. 238 we find that each of the
two emperors Maximus and Balbinus assumed this dignity. From the
time of Theodosius the emperors no longer appear with the dignity of
pontiff; but at last the title was assumed by the Christian bishop
of Rome.--There were other pontiffs at Rome, who were distinguished
by the epithet _Minores_. They appear to have been originally only
the secretaries of the pontiffs; and when the real pontiffs began to
neglect their duties, and to leave the principal business to be done
by their secretaries, it became customary to designate these scribes
by the name of Pontifices Minores. The number of these secretaries is
uncertain.

PŎPA. [SACRIFICIUM.]

PŎPĪNA. [CAUPONA.]

POPŬLĀRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

PŎPŬLUS. [PATRICII.]

PŎPŬLĬFŬGĬA or POPLĬFŬGĬA, the day of the people’s flight, was
celebrated on the nones of July, according to an ancient tradition,
in commemoration of the flight of the people, when the inhabitants
of Ficulae, Fidenae, and other places round about, appeared in arms
against Rome shortly after the departure of the Gauls, and produced
such a panic that the Romans suddenly fled before them. Other writers
say that the Populifugia was celebrated in commemoration of the
flight of the people before the Tuscans; while others again refer its
origin to the flight of the people on the death of Romulus.

PŎRISTAE (πορισταί), magistrates at Athens, who probably levied the
extraordinary supplies.

PORTA (πύλη, _dim._ πυλίς), the gate of a city, citadel, or other
open space inclosed by a wall, in contradistinction to JANUA, which
was the door of a house or any covered edifice. The terms _porta_ and
πύλη are often found in the plural, even when applied to a single
gate, because it consisted of two leaves. The gates of a city were of
course various in their number and position. Thus Megara had 5 gates;
Thebes, in Boeotia, had 7; Athens had 8; and Rome 20, or perhaps
even more. The jambs of the gate were surmounted, 1. by a lintel,
which was large and strong in proportion to the width of the gate.
2. By an arch, as we see exemplified at Pompeii, Paestum, Sepianum,
Volterra, Suza, Autun, Besançon, and Treves. 3. At Arpinum, one of
the gates now remaining is arched, whilst another is constructed with
the stones projecting one beyond another. Gates sometimes had two
passages close together, the one designed for carriages entering, and
the other for carriages leaving the city. In other instances we find
only one gate for carriages, but a smaller one on each side of it
(παραπυλίς) for foot-passengers. When there were no sideways, one of
the valves of the large gate sometimes contained a wicket (_portula_,
πυλίς: ῥινοπύλη), large enough to admit a single person. The gateway
had commonly a chamber (called πυλών) either on one side or on both,
which served as the residence of the porter or guard. Statues of
the gods were often placed near the gate, or even within it in the
barbican, so as to be ready to receive the adoration of those who
entered the city.

PORTĬCUS (στοά), a walk covered with a roof, and supported by
columns, at least on one side. Such shaded walks and places of
resort are almost indispensable in the southern countries of
Europe, where people live much in the open air, as a protection
from the heat of the sun and from rain. The porticoes attached to
the temples were either constructed only in front of them, or went
round the whole building, as is the case in the so-called Temple
of Theseus at Athens. They were originally intended as places for
those persons to assemble and converse in who visited the temple
for various purposes. As such temple-porticoes, however, were
found too small, or not suited for the various purposes of private
and public life, most Grecian towns had independent porticoes,
some of which were very extensive; and in most of these _stoae_,
seats (_exedrae_) were placed, that those who were tired might sit
down. They were frequented not only by idle loungers, but also by
philosophers, rhetoricians, and other persons fond of intellectual
conversation. The Stoic school of philosophy derived its name from
the circumstance, that the founder of it used to converse with his
disciples in a stoa. The Romans derived their great fondness for
such covered walks from the Greeks; and as luxuries among them were
carried in everything to a greater extent than in Greece, wealthy
Romans had their private porticoes, sometimes in the city itself,
and sometimes in their country-seats. In the public porticoes of
Rome, which were exceedingly numerous and very extensive (as those
around the Forum and the Campus Martius), a variety of business was
occasionally transacted: we find that law-suits were conducted here,
meetings of the senate held, goods exhibited for sale, &c.

PORTISCŬLUS (κελευστής), an officer in a ship, who gave the signal
to the rowers, that they might keep time in rowing. This officer is
sometimes called _Hortator_ or _Pausarius_.

PORTĬTŌRES. [PUBLICANI.]

PORTŌRĬUM, a branch of the regular revenues of the Roman state,
consisting of the duties paid on imported and exported goods. A
portorium, or duty upon imported goods, appears to have been paid at
a very early period, for it is said that Valerius Publicola exempted
the plebes from the portoria at the time when the republic was
threatened with an invasion by Porsena. The time of its introduction
is uncertain; but the abolition of it, ascribed to Publicola, can
only have been a temporary measure; and as the expenditure of the
republic increased, new portoria must have been introduced. In
conquered places, and in the provinces, the import and export duties,
which had been paid there before, were generally not only retained,
but increased, and appropriated to the aerarium. Sicily, and above
all, Asia, furnished to the Roman treasury large sums, which were
raised as portoria. In B.C. 60 all the portoria in the ports of Italy
were done away with by a Lex Caecilia, but were restored by Julius
Caesar and the subsequent emperors. Respecting the amount of the
import or export duties we have but little information. In the time
of Cicero the portorium in the ports of Sicily was one-twentieth
(_vicesima_) of the value of taxable articles; and it is probable
that this was the average sum raised in all the other provinces.
In the times of the emperors the ordinary rate of the portorium
appears to have been the fortieth part (_quadragesima_) of the value
of imported goods; and at a later period the exorbitant sum of
one-eighth (_octava_) is mentioned. The portorium was, like all other
vectigalia, farmed out by the censors to the publicani, who collected
it through the _portitores_. [VECTIGALIA; PUBLICANI.]

POSSESSĬO. [AGER PUBLICUS.]

POSTĪCUM. [JANUA.]

POSTLĪMĬNĬUM, POSTLĪMĬNII JUS. If a Roman citizen during war came
into the possession of an enemy, he sustained a _diminutio capitis
maxima_ [CAPUT], and all his civil rights were in abeyance. Being
captured by the enemy, he became a slave; but his rights over his
children, if he had any, were not destroyed, but were said to be in
abeyance (_pendere_) by virtue of the _Jus Postliminii_: when he
returned, his children were again in his power; and if he died in
captivity, they became sui juris. Sometimes by an act of the state
a man was given up bound to an enemy, and if the enemy would not
receive him, it was a question whether he had the Jus Postliminii.
This was the case with Sp. Postumius, who was given up to the
Samnites, and with C. Hostilius Mancinus, who was given up to the
Numantines; but the better opinion was, that they had no _Jus
Postliminii_, and Mancinus was restored to his civic rights by a lex.
It appears that the Jus Postliminii was founded on the fiction of the
captive having never been absent from home; a fiction which was of
easy application, for, as the captive during his absence could not
do any legal act, the interval of captivity was a period of legal
non-activity, which was terminated by his showing himself again.

PŎTESTAS. [PATRIA POTESTAS.]

PRACTŎRES (πράκτορες), subordinate officers at Athens, who collected
the fines and penalties (ἐπιβολάς and τιμήματα) imposed by
magistrates and courts of justice, and payable to the state.

PRAECINCTĬO. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

PRAECŌNES, criers, were employed for various purposes: 1. In
sales by auction, they frequently advertised the time, place, and
conditions of sale: they seem also to have acted the part of the
modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings and amusing
the company, though the property was knocked down by the _magister
auctionis_. [AUCTIO.] 2. In all public assemblies they ordered
silence. 3. In the comitia they called the centuries one by one to
give their votes, pronounced the vote of each century, and called
out the names of those who were elected. They also recited the laws
that were to be passed. 4. In trials, they summoned the accuser and
the accused, the plaintiff and defendant. 5. In the public games,
they invited the people to attend, and proclaimed the victors. 6.
In solemn funerals they also invited people to attend by a certain
form; hence these funerals were called _funera indictiva_. 7. When
things were lost, they cried them and searched for them. 8. In
the infliction of capital punishment, they sometimes conveyed the
commands of the magistrates to the lictors. Their office, called
_Praeconium_, appears to have been regarded as rather disreputable:
in the time of Cicero a law was passed preventing all persons who
had been praecones from becoming decuriones in the municipia. Under
the early emperors, however, it became very profitable, which was no
doubt partly owing to fees, to which they were entitled in the courts
of justice, and partly to the bribes which they received from the
suitors, &c.

PRAEDA signifies moveable things taken by an enemy in war. Such
things were either distributed by the Imperator among the soldiers or
sold by the quaestors, and the produce was brought into the Aerarium.
The difference between Praeda and Manubiae is this:--Praeda is the
things themselves that are taken in war, and Manubiae is the money
realized by their sale. It was the practice to set up a spear at
such sales, which was afterwards used at all sales of things by a
magistrates in the name of the people. [SECTIO.]

PRAEFECTŪRA. [COLONIA.]

PRAEFECTUS AERĀRĬI. [AERARIUM.]

PRAEFECTUS ANNŌNAE, the praefect of the provisions, especially of the
corn-market, was not a regular magistrate under the republic, but
was only appointed in cases of extraordinary scarcity, when he seems
to have regulated the prices at which corn was to be sold. Augustus
created an officer under the title of _Praefectus Annonae_, who had
jurisdiction over all matters appertaining to the corn-market, and,
like the _Praefectus Vigilum_, was chosen from the equites, and was
not reckoned among the ordinary magistrates.

PRAEFECTUS ĂQUĀRUM. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]

PRAEFECTUS CASTRŌRUM, praefect of the camp, is first mentioned in the
reign of Augustus. There was one to each legion.

PRAEFECTUS CLASSIS, the commander of a fleet. This title was
frequently given in the times of the republic to the commander of a
fleet; but Augustus appointed two permanent officers with this title,
one of whom was stationed at Ravenna on the Adriatic, and the other
at Misenum on the Tuscan sea, each having the command of a fleet.

PRAEFECTUS FABRUM. [FABRI.]

PRAEFECTUS JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [COLONIA.]

PRAEFECTUS LĔGĬŌNIS. [EXERCITUS.]

PRAEFECTUS PRAETŌRĬO, was the commander of the troops who guarded
the emperor’s person. [PRAETORIANI.] This office was instituted by
Augustus, and was at first only military, and had comparatively
small power attached to it; but under Tiberius, who made Sejanus
commander of the praetorian troops, it became of much greater
importance, till at length the power of these praefects became only
second to that of the emperors. From the reign of Severus to that
of Diocletian, the praefects, like the vizirs of the east, had the
superintendence of all departments of the state, the palace, the
army, the finances, and the law: they also had a court in which
they decided cases. The office of praefect of the praetorium was
not confined to military officers; it was filled by Ulpian and
Papinian, and other distinguished jurists. Originally there were two
praefects; afterwards sometimes one and sometimes two; from the time
of Commodus sometimes three, and even four. They were, as a regular
rule, chosen only from the equites; but from the time of Alexander
Severus the dignity of senator was always joined with their office.

PRAEFECTUS VĬGĬLUM. [EXERCITUS, p. 171, _a_.]

PRAEFECTUS URBI, praefect or warden of the city, was originally
called _Custos Urbis_. The name _praefectus urbi_ does not seem to
have been used till after the time of the decemvirs. The dignity of
_custos urbis_, being combined with that of _princeps senatus_, was
conferred by the king, as he had to appoint one of the decem primi as
princeps senatus. The functions of the _custos urbis_, however, were
not exercised except in the absence of the king from Rome; and then
he acted as the representative of the king: he convoked the senate,
held the comitia, if necessary, and on any emergency, might take
such measures as he thought proper; in short, he had the imperium in
the city. During the kingly period, the office of _custos urbis_ was
probably for life. Under the republic, the office, and its name of
_custos urbis_, remained unaltered; but in B.C. 487 it was elevated
into a magistracy, to be bestowed by election. The _custos urbis_
was, in all probability, elected by the curiae. Persons of consular
rank were alone eligible. In the early period of the republic the
_custos urbis_ exercised within the city all the powers of the
consuls, if they were absent: he convoked the senate, held the
comitia, and, in times of war, even levied civic legions, which were
commanded by him. When the office of praetor urbanus was instituted,
the wardenship of the city was swallowed up in it; but as the Romans
were at all times averse to dropping altogether any of their old
institutions, a praefectus urbi, though a mere shadow of the former
office, was henceforth appointed every year, only for the time that
the consuls were absent from Rome for the purpose of celebrating the
Feriae Latinae. This praefectus had neither the power of convoking
the senate nor the right of speaking in it; in most cases he was a
person below the senatorial age, and was not appointed by the people,
but by the consuls. An office very different from this, though
bearing the same name, was instituted by Augustus on the suggestion
of Maecenas. This new praefectus urbi was a regular and permanent
magistrate, whom Augustus invested with all the powers necessary to
maintain peace and order in the city. He had the superintendence of
butchers, bankers, guardians, theatres, &c.; and to enable him to
exercise his power, he had distributed throughout the city a number
of milites stationarii, whom we may compare to a modern police. His
jurisdiction, however, became gradually extended; and as the powers
of the ancient republican praefectus urbi had been swallowed up by
the office of the praetor urbanus, so now the power of the praetor
urbanus was gradually absorbed by that of the praefectus urbi; and at
last there was no appeal from his sentence, except to the person of
the princeps himself, while any body might appeal from the sentence
of any other city magistrate, and, at a later period, even from that
of a governor of a province, to the tribunal of the praefectus urbi.

PRAEFĬCAE. [FUNUS.]

PRAEJŪDĬCĬUM is used both in the sense of a precedent, in which case
it is rather _exemplum_ than _praejudicium_ (_res ex paribus causis
judicatae_); and also in the sense of a preliminary inquiry and
determination about something which belongs to the matter in dispute
(_judiciis ad ipsam causam pertinentibus_), from whence also comes
the name Praejudicium.

PRAELŪSĬO. [GLADIATORES.]

PRAENŌMEN. [NOMEN.]

PRAERŎGĀTĪVA TRIBUS. [COMITIA, p. 109.]

PRAES, is a surety for one who buys of the state. The goods of a
Praes were called _Praedia_. The _Praediator_ was a person who bought
a _praedium_, that is, a thing given to the state as a security by a
praes.

PRAESCRIPTĬO, or rather TEMPŎRIS PRAESCRIPTĬO, signifies the Exceptio
or answer which a defendant has to the demand of a plaintiff, founded
on the circumstance of the lapse of time. The word has properly no
reference to the plaintiff’s loss of right, but to the defendant’s
acquisition of a right by which he excludes the plaintiff from
prosecuting his suit. This right of a defendant did not exist in the
old Roman law.

PRAESES. [PROVINCIA.]

PRAESUL. [SALII.]

PRAETEXTA. [TOGA.]

PRAETOR (στρατηγός), was originally a title which designated the
consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. The period
and office of the command of the consuls might appropriately be
called _Praetorium_. Praetor was also a title of office among the
Latins. The first praetor specially so called was appointed in B.C.
366, and he was chosen only from the patricians, who had this new
office created as a kind of indemnification to themselves for being
compelled to share the consulship with the plebeians. No plebeian
praetor was appointed till the year B.C. 337. The praetor was called
_collega consulibus_, and was elected with the same auspices at the
comitia centuriata. The praetorship was originally a kind of third
consulship, and the chief functions of the praetor (_jus in urbe
dicere_, _jura reddere_) were a portion of the functions of the
consuls. The praetor sometimes commanded the armies of the state; and
while the consuls were absent with the armies, he exercised their
functions within the city. He was a magistratus curulis, and he had
the imperium, and consequently was one of the magistratus majores:
but he owed respect and obedience to the consuls. His insignia of
office were six lictors; but at a later period he had only two
lictors in Rome. The praetorship was at first given to a consul of
the preceding year.--In B.C. 246 another praetor was appointed, whose
business was to administer justice in matters in dispute between
peregrini, or peregrini and Roman citizens; and accordingly he was
called _praetor peregrinus_. The other praetor was then called
_praetor urbanus, qui jus inter cives dicit_, and sometimes simply
_praetor urbanus_ and _praetor urbis_. The two praetors determined by
lot which functions they should respectively exercise. If either of
them was at the head of the army, the other performed all the duties
of both within the city. Sometimes the military imperium of a praetor
was prolonged for a second year. When the territories of the state
were extended beyond the limits of Italy, new praetors were made.
Thus, two praetors were created B.C. 227, for the administration of
Sicily and Sardinia, and two more were added when the two Spanish
provinces were formed, B.C. 197. When there were six praetors, two
stayed in the city, and the other four went abroad. The senate
determined their provinces, which were distributed among them by
lot. After the discharge of his judicial functions in the city, a
praetor often had the administration of a province, with the title
of _propraetor_. Sulla increased the number of praetors to eight,
which Julius Caesar raised successively to ten, twelve, fourteen,
and sixteen. Augustus, after several changes, fixed the number
at twelve. Under Tiberius there were sixteen. Two praetors were
appointed by Claudius for matters relating to fideicommissa, when
the business in this department of the law had become considerable,
but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a praetor for
the decision of matters between the fiscus and individuals. Thus
there were eventually eighteen praetors, who administered justice
in the state.--The praetor urbanus was specially named praetor, and
he was the first in rank. His duties confined him to Rome, as is
implied by the name, and he could only leave the city for ten days at
a time. It was part of his duty to superintend the Ludi Apollinares.
He was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice;
and to the edicta of the successive praetors the Roman law owes in
a great degree its development and improvement. Both the praetor
urbanus and the praetor peregrinus had the jus edicendi, and their
functions in this respect do not appear to have been limited on
the establishment of the imperial power, though it must have been
gradually restricted, as the practice of imperial constitutions and
rescripts became common. [EDICTUM.] The chief judicial functions of
the praetor in civil matters consisted in giving a judex. [JUDEX.] It
was only in the case of interdicts that he decided in a summary way.
[INTERDICTUM.] Proceedings before the praetor were technically said
to be _in jure_. The praetors also presided at trials of criminal
matters. These were the quaestiones perpetuae, or the trials for
repetundae, ambitus, majestas, and peculatus, which, when there were
six praetors, were assigned to four out of the number. Sulla added
to these quaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis et veneficis, and
de parricidis, and for this purpose he added two, or, according
to some accounts, four praetors. On these occasions the praetor
presided, but a body of judices determined by a majority of votes the
condemnation or acquittal of the accused. [JUDEX.] The praetor, when
he administered justice, sat on a sella curulis in a tribunal, which
was that part of the court which was appropriated to the praetor and
his assessors and friends, and is opposed to the subsellia, or part
occupied by the judices, and others who were present.

PRAETŌRĬA CŎHORS. [PRAETORIANI.]

PRAETŌRĬĀNI, sc. _milites_, or _praetoriae cohortes_, a body of
troops instituted by Augustus to protect his person and his power,
and called by that name in imitation of the _praetoria cohors_, or
select troops which attended the person of the praetor or general of
the Roman army. They originally consisted of nine or ten cohorts,
each comprising a thousand men, horse and foot. Augustus, in
accordance with his general policy of avoiding the appearance of
despotism, stationed only three of these cohorts in the capital, and
dispersed the remainder in the adjacent towns of Italy. Tiberius,
however, under pretence of introducing a stricter discipline among
them, assembled them all at Rome in a permanent camp, which was
strongly fortified. Their number was increased by Vitellius to
sixteen cohorts, or 16,000 men. The praetorians were distinguished
by double pay and especial privileges. Their term of service was
originally fixed by Augustus at twelve years, but was afterwards
increased to sixteen years; and when they had served their time, each
soldier received 20,000 sesterces. They soon became the most powerful
body in the state, and, like the janissaries at Constantinople,
frequently deposed and elevated emperors according to their pleasure.
Even the most powerful of the emperors were obliged to court their
favour; and they always obtained a liberal donation upon the
accession of each sovereign. After the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193)
they even offered the empire for sale, which was purchased by Didius
Julianus; but upon the accession of Severus in the same year they
were disbanded, on account of the part they had taken in the death
of Pertinax, and banished from the city. The emperors, however,
could not dispense with guards, and accordingly the praetorians were
restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times their
ancient number. Diocletian reduced their numbers and abolished their
privileges; they were still allowed to remain at Rome, but had no
longer the guard of the emperor’s person, as he never resided in the
capital. Their numbers were again increased by Maxentius; but after
his defeat by Constantine, A.D. 312, they were entirely suppressed
by the latter, their fortified camp destroyed, and those who had
not perished in the battle between Constantine and Maxentius were
dispersed among the legions. The commander of the praetorians was
called PRAEFECTUS PRAETORIO.

PRAETŌRĬUM, the name of the general’s tent in the camp, and so
called because the name of the chief Roman magistrate was originally
praetor, and not consul. [CASTRA.] The officers who attended on the
general in the _praetorium_, and formed his council of war, were
called by the same name. The word was also used in several other
significations, which were derived from the original one. Thus the
residence of a governor of a province was called the _praetorium_;
and the same name was also given to any large house or palace. The
camp of the praetorian troops at Rome, and frequently the praetorian
troops themselves, were called by this name. [PRAETORIANI.]

PRANDĬUM. [COENA, p. 96, _b_.]

PRĒLUM. [VINUM.]

PRĪMĬPĪLUS. [CENTURIO.]

PRINCEPS JŬVENTŪTIS. [EQUITES.]

PRINCEPS SĔNĀTUS. [SENATUS.]

PRINCĬPES. [EXERCITUS, p. 168, _b_.]

PRINCĬPĬA, PRINCĬPĀLIS VIA. [CASTRA.]

PRĪVĬLĒGĬUM. [LEX.]

PRŎBŎLĒ (προβολή), an accusation of a criminal nature, preferred
before the people of Athens in assembly, with a view to obtain their
sanction for bringing the charge before a judicial tribunal. The
_probolé_ was reserved for those cases where the public had sustained
an injury, or where, from the station, power, or influence of the
delinquent, the prosecutor might deem it hazardous to proceed in the
ordinary way without being authorised by a vote of the sovereign
assembly. In this point it differed from the _eisangelia_, that in
the latter the people were called upon either to pronounce final
judgment, or to direct some peculiar method of trial; whereas, in the
_probolé_ after the judgment of the assembly, the parties proceeded
to trial in the usual manner. The cases to which the _probolé_ was
applied were, complaints against magistrates for official misconduct
of oppression; against those public informers and mischief-makers who
were called _sycophantae_ (συκοφάνται); against those who outraged
public decency at the religious festivals; and against all such as by
evil practices exhibited disaffection to the state.

PRŎBOULEUMA. [BOULE.]

PRŎBOULI (πρόβουλοι), a name applicable to any persons who are
appointed to consult or take measures for the benefit of the
people. Ten _probouli_ were appointed at Athens, after the end of
the Sicilian war, to act as a committee of public safety. Their
authority did not last much longer than a year; for a year and a half
afterwards Pisander and his colleagues established the council of
Four Hundred, by which the democracy was overthrown.

PRŌCONSUL (ἀνθύπατος), an officer who acted in the place of a
consul, without holding the office of consul itself. The proconsul,
however, was generally one who had held the office of consul, so
that the proconsulship was a continuation, though a modified one,
of the consulship. The first time when the imperium of a consul
was prolonged, was in B.C. 327, in the case of Q. Publilius Philo,
whose return to Rome would have been followed by the loss of most of
the advantages that had been gained in his campaign. The power of
proconsul was conferred by a senatusconsultum and plebiscitum, and
was nearly equal to that of a regular consul, for he had the imperium
and jurisdictio, but it differed inasmuch as it did not extend over
the city and its immediate vicinity, and was conferred, without the
auspicia, by a mere decree of the senate and people, and not in the
comitia for elections. When the number of Roman provinces had become
great, it was customary for the consuls, who during the latter
period of the republic spent the year of their consulship at Rome,
to undertake at its close the conduct of a war in a province, or its
peaceful administration, with the title of proconsuls. There are some
extraordinary cases on record in which a man obtained a province with
the title of proconsul without having held the consulship before. The
first case of this kind occurred in B.C. 211, when young P. Cornelius
Scipio was created proconsul of Spain in the comitia centuriata.

PRŌCŪRĀTOR, a person who has the management of any business committed
to him by another. Thus it is applied to a person who maintains
or defends an action on behalf of another, or, as we should say,
an attorney [ACTIO]: to a steward in a family [CALCULATOR]: to an
officer in the provinces belonging to the Caesar, who attended to the
duties discharged by the quaestor in the other provinces [PROVINCIA]:
to an officer engaged in the administration of the fiscus [FISCUS]:
and to various other officers under the empire.

PRŌDĬGĬUM, in its widest acceptation, denotes any sign by which the
gods indicated to men a future event, whether good or evil, and thus
includes omens and auguries of every description. It is, however,
generally employed in a more restricted sense, to signify some
strange incident or wonderful appearance which was supposed to herald
the approach of misfortune, and happened under such circumstances as
to announce that the calamity was impending over a whole community
or nation rather than over private individuals. The word may be
considered synonymous with _ostentum_, _monstrum_, _portentum_.
Since prodigies were viewed as direct manifestations of the wrath of
heaven, it was believed that this wrath might be appeased by prayers
and sacrifices duly offered to the offended powers. This being a
matter which deeply concerned the public welfare, the necessary rites
were in ancient times regularly performed, under the direction of the
pontifices, by the consuls before they left the city, the solemnities
being called _procuratio prodigiorum_.

PRODŎSĬA (προδοσία) included not only every species of treason,
but also every such crime as (in the opinion of the Greeks) would
amount to a betraying or desertion of the interest of a man’s
country. The highest sort of treason was the attempt to establish a
despotism (τυραννίς), or to subvert the constitution (καταλύειν τὴν
πολιτείαν), and in democracies καταλύειν τὸν δῆμον or τὸ πλῆθος.
Other kinds of treason were a secret correspondence with a foreign
enemy; a betraying of an important trust, such, as a fleet, army,
or fortress, a desertion of post, a disobedience of orders, or any
other act of treachery, or breach of duty in the public service. But
not only would _overt acts_ of disobedience or treachery amount to
the crime of προδοσία, but also the neglect to perform those active
duties which the Greeks in general expected of every good citizen.
Cowardice in battle (δειλία) would be an instance of this kind; so
would any breach of the oath taken by the ἔφηβοι at Athens; or any
line of conduct for which a charge of disaffection to the people
(μισοδημία) might be successfully maintained. The regular punishment
appointed by the law for most kinds of treason appears to have been
death, which, no doubt, might be mitigated by decree of the people,
as in the case of Miltiades and many others. The goods of traitors,
who suffered death, were confiscated, and their houses razed to the
ground; nor were they permitted to be buried in the country, but had
their bodies cast out in some place on the confines of Attica and
Megara. Therefore it was that the bones of Themistocles, who had been
condemned for treason, were brought over and buried secretly by his
friends. The posterity of a traitor became ἄτιμοι, and those of a
tyrant were liable to share the fate of their ancestor.

PRŎĔDRI. [BOULE.]

PRŌFESTI DĬES. [DIES.]

PRŌLĒTĀRĬI. [CAPUT.]

PRŎMĒTHEIA (προμήθεια), a festival celebrated at Athens in honour
of Prometheus. It was one of the five Attic festivals, which were
held with a torch-race in the Ceramicus [comp. LAMPADEPHORIA], for
which the gymnasiarchs had to supply the youths from the gymnasia.
Prometheus himself was believed to have instituted this torch-race,
whence he was called the torch-bearer.

PRŌMULSIS. [COENA, p. 96, _b_.]

PRŌNŬBAE, PRŌNŬBI. [MATRIMONIUM.]

PROPRAETOR. [PRAETOR.]

PRŎPỸLAEA (προπύλαια), the entrance to a temple, or sacred enclosure,
consisted of a gateway flanked by buildings, whence the plural
form of the word. The Egyptian temples generally had magnificent
_propylaea_, consisting of a pair of oblong truncated pyramids of
solid masonry, the faces of which were sculptured with hieroglyphics.
In Greek, except when the Egyptian temples are spoken of, the word is
generally used to signify the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens,
which was executed under the administration of Pericles.

PRŌQUAESTOR. [QUAESTOR.]

PRŌRA. [NAVIS, p. 263.]

PRŌSCĒNĬUM. [THEATRUM.]

PRŌSCRIPTĬO. The verb _proscribere_ properly signifies to exhibit a
thing for sale by means of a bill or advertisement. But in the time
of Sulla it assumed a very different meaning, for he applied it to
a measure of his own invention (B.C. 82), namely, the sale of the
property of those who were put to death at his command, and who were
themselves called _proscripti_. After this example of a proscription
had once been set, it was readily adopted by those in power during
the civil commotions of subsequent years. In the proscription of
Antonius, Caesar, and Lepidus (B.C. 43), Cicero and some of the most
distinguished Romans were put to death.

PRŎSTĂTĒS (προστάτης). [LIBERTUS.]

PRŎSTĂTĒS TOU DĒMOU (προστάτης τοῦ δήμου), a leader of the people,
denoted at Athens and in other democratical states, a person who
by his character and eloquence placed himself at the head of the
people, and whose opinion had the greatest sway amongst them: such
was Pericles. It appears, however, that προστάτης τοῦ δήμου was also
the title of a public officer in those Dorian states in which the
government was democratical.

PRŎTHESMĬA (προθεσμία), the term limited for bringing actions and
prosecutions at Athens. The Athenian expression προθεσμίας νόμος
corresponds to our _statute of limitations_. The time for commencing
actions to recover debts, or compensation for injuries, appears to
have been limited to five years at Athens.

PRŌVINCĬA. This word is merely a shortened form of _providentia_, and
was frequently used in the sense of “a duty” or “matter entrusted
to a person.” But it is ordinarily employed to denote a part of
the Roman dominion beyond Italy, which had a regular organisation,
and was under Roman administration. Livy likewise uses the word
to denote a district or enemy’s country, which was assigned to a
general as the field of his operations, before the establishment
of any provincial governments.--The Roman state in its complete
development consisted of two parts with a distinct organisation,
_Italia_ and the _Provinciae_. There were no Provinciae in this
sense of the word till the Romans had extended their conquests
beyond Italy; and Sicily was the first country that was made a Roman
province: Sardinia was made a province B.C. 235. The Roman province
of Gallia Ulterior in the time of Caesar was sometimes designated
simply by the term Provincia, a name which has been perpetuated in
the modern Provence. A conquered country received its provincial
organisation either from the Roman commander, whose acts required
the approval of the senate; or the government was organised by the
commander and a body of commissioners appointed by the senate out
of their own number. The mode of dealing with a conquered country
was not uniform. When constituted a provincia, it did not become to
all purposes an integral part of the Roman state; it retained its
national existence, though it lost its sovereignty. The organisation
of Sicily was completed by P. Rupilius with the aid of ten legates.
The island was formed into two districts, with Syracuse for the
chief town of the eastern and Lilybaeum of the western district:
the whole island was administered by a governor annually sent from
Rome. He was assisted by two quaestors, and was accompanied by a
train of praecones, scribae, haruspices, and other persons, who
formed his cohors. The quaestors received from the Roman aerarium
the necessary sums for the administration of the island, and they
also collected the taxes, except those which were farmed by the
censors at Rome. One quaestor resided at Lilybaeum, and the other
with the governor or praetor at Syracuse. For the administration of
justice the island was divided into _Fora_ or _Conventus_, which
were territorial divisions. [CONVENTUS.] The island was bound to
furnish and maintain soldiers and sailors for the service of Rome,
and to pay tributum for the carrying on of wars. The governor could
take provisions for the use of himself and his cohors on condition
of paying for them. The Roman state had also the portoria which were
let to farm to Romans at Rome. The governor had complete jurisdictio
in the island, with the imperium and potestas. He could delegate
these powers to his quaestors, but there was always an appeal to
him, and for this and other purposes he made circuits through the
different conventus.--Such was the organisation of Sicilia as a
province, which may be taken as a sample of the general character
of Roman provincial government. The governor, upon entering on his
duties, published an edict, which was often framed upon the Edictum
Urbanum. Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia, says that on some matters
he framed an edict of his own, and that as to others he referred to
the Edicta Urbana. There was one great distinction between Italy
and the provinces as to the nature of property in land. Provincial
land could not be an object of Quiritarian ownership, and it was
accordingly appropriately called Possessio. Provincial land could be
transferred without the forms required in the case of Italian land,
but it was subject to the payment of a land-tax (_vectigal_).--The
Roman provinces up to the battle of Actium are: Sicilia, Sardinia
et Corsica; Hispania Citerior et Ulterior; Gallia Citerior; Gallia
Narbonensis et Comata; Illyricum; Macedonia; Achaia; Asia; Cilicia;
Syria; Bithynia et Pontus; Cyprus; Africa; Cyrenaica et Creta;
Numidia; Mauritania. Those of a subsequent date, which were either
new or arose from division, are: Rhaetia; Noricum; Pannonia; Moesia;
Dacia; Britannia; Mauritania Caesariensis and Tingitana; Aegyptus;
Cappadocia; Galatia; Rhodus; Lycia; Commagene; Judaea; Arabia;
Mesopotamia; Armenia; Assyria.--At first praetors were appointed
as governors of provinces, but afterwards they were appointed to
the government of provinces, upon the expiration of their year of
office at Rome, and with the title of propraetores. In the later
times of the republic, the consuls also, after the expiration of
their year of office, received the government of a province, with
the title of proconsules: such provinces were called consulares. The
provinces were generally distributed by lot, but the distribution
was sometimes arranged by agreement among the persons entitled to
them. By a Sempronian Lex the proconsular provinces were annually
determined before the election of the consuls, the object of which
was to prevent all disputes. A senatus consultum of the year 55 B.C.
provided that no consul or praetor should have a province till after
the expiration of five years from the time of his consulship or
praetorship. A province was generally held for a year, but the time
was often prolonged. When a new governor arrived in his province, his
predecessor was required to leave it within thirty days. The governor
of a province had originally to account at Rome (_ad urbem_) for his
administration, from his own books and those of his quaestors; but
after the passing of a Lex Julia, B.C. 61, he was bound to deposit
two copies of his accounts (_rationes_) in the two chief cities of
his province, and to forward one (_totidem verbis_) to the aerarium.
If the governor misconducted himself in the administration of the
province, the provincials applied to the Roman senate, and to the
powerful Romans who were their patroni. The offences of repetundae
and peculatus were the usual grounds of complaint by the provincials;
and if a governor had betrayed the interests of the state, he was
also liable to the penalties attached to majestas. Quaestiones were
established for inquiries into these offences; yet it was not always
an easy matter to bring a guilty governor to the punishment that
he deserved.--With the establishment of the imperial power under
Augustus, a considerable change was made in the administration of
the provinces. Augustus took the charge of those provinces where a
large military force was required; the rest were left to the care of
the senate and the Roman people. Accordingly we find in the older
jurists the division of provinciae into those which were _propriae
populi Romani_, and those which were _propriae Caesaris_; and this
division, with some modifications, continued to the third century.
The senatorian provinces were distributed among consulares and those
who had filled the office of praetor, two provinces being given to
the consulares and the rest to the praetorii: these governors were
called _proconsules_, or _praesides_, which latter is the usual
term employed by the old jurists for a provincial governor. The
praesides had the jurisdictio of the praetor urbanus and the praetor
peregrinus: and their quaestors had the same jurisdiction that the
curule aediles had at Rome. The imperial provinces were governed
by _legati Caesaris_, with praetorian power, the proconsular power
being in the Caesar himself, and the legati being his deputies and
representatives. The legati were selected from those who had been
consuls or praetors, or from the senators. They held their office and
their power at the pleasure of the emperor; and he delegated to them
both military command and jurisdictio, just as a proconsul in the
republican period delegated these powers to his legati. These legati
had also legati under them. No quaestors were sent to the provinces
of the Caesar. In place of the quaestors, there were _procuratores
Caesaris_, who were either equites or freedmen of the Caesar.
Egypt was governed by an eques with the title of praefectus. The
procuratores looked after the taxes, paid the troops, and generally
were intrusted with the interests of the fiscus. Judaea, which was a
part of the province of Syria, was governed by a procurator, who had
the powers of a legatus. It appears that there were also procuratores
Caesaris in the senatorian provinces, who collected certain dues of
the fiscus, which were independent of what was due to the aerarium.
The regular taxes, as in the republican period, were the poll-tax
and land-tax. The taxation was founded on a census of persons and
property, which was established by Augustus. The portoria and other
dues were farmed by the publicani, as in the republican period.

PRŌVŎCĀTĬO. [APPELLATIO.]

PRŌVŎCĀTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.]

PROXĔNUS (πρόξενος). [HOSPITIUM.]

PRỸTĂNEIUM (πρυτανεῖον), the public hall or town-hall in a Greek
state. The _prytaneia_ of the ancient Greek states and cities were
to the communities living around them, what private houses were to
the families which occupied them. Just as the house of each family
was its home, so was the _prytaneium_ of every state or city the
common home of its members or inhabitants. This correspondence
between the _prytaneium_ or home of the city, and the private home of
a man’s family, was at Athens very remarkable. A perpetual fire was
kept burning on the public altar of the city in the prytaneium, just
as in private houses a fire was kept up on the domestic altar in the
inner court of the house. Moreover, the city of Athens exercised in
its prytaneium the duties of hospitality, both to its own citizens
and to strangers. Thus foreign ambassadors were entertained here,
as well as Athenian envoys, on their return home from a successful
or well-conducted mission. Here, too, were entertained from day to
day the successive prytanes or presidents of the senate, together
with those citizens who, whether from personal or ancestral services
to the state, were honoured with what was called the σίτησις ἐν
πρυτανείῳ, or the privilege of taking their meals there at the public
cost. This was granted sometimes for a limited period, sometimes
for life, in which latter case the parties enjoying it were called
ἀείσιτοι. Moreover, from the ever-burning fire of the prytaneium, or
home of a mother state, was carried the sacred fire which was to be
kept burning in the prytaneia of her colonies; and if it happened
that this was ever extinguished, the flame was rekindled from the
prytaneium of the parent city. Lastly, a prytaneium was also a
distinguishing mark of an independent state. The prytaneium of Athens
lay under the Acropolis on its northern side (near the ἀγορά), and
was, as its name denotes, originally the place of assembly of the
_prytanes_; in the earliest times it probably stood on the Acropolis.
Officers called _prytanes_ (πρυτανεῖς) were entrusted with the chief
magistracy in several states of Greece, as Corcyra, Corinth, Miletus.
At Athens they were in early times probably a magistracy of the
second rank in the state (next to the archon), acting as judges in
various cases (perhaps in conjunction with him), and sitting in the
prytaneium. That this was the case is rendered probable by the fact,
that even in after-times the fees paid into court by plaintiff and
defendant, before they could proceed to trial, and received by the
dicasts, were called _prytaneia_.

PRỸTĂNES. [PRYTANEIUM; BOULE.]

PSĒPHISMA. [BOULE; NOMOTHETES.]

PSĒPHUS (ψῆφος), a ball of stone, used by the Athenian dicasts in
giving their verdict. [CADISCUS.] Hence ψηφίζεσθαι and its various
derivatives are used so often to signify _voting_, _determining_, &c.

PSEUDENGRĂPHĒS GRĂPHĒ (ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή). The name of every state
debtor at Athens was entered in a register by the praetores, whose
duty it was to collect the debts, and erase the name of the party
when he had paid it. If they made a false entry, either wilfully,
or upon the suggestion of another person, the aggrieved party might
institute a prosecution against them, or against the person upon
whose suggestion it was made. Such prosecution was called γραφὴ
ψευδεγγραφῆς. It would lie also, where a man was registered as debtor
for more than was really due from him.

PSEUDŎCLĒTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ψευδοκλητείας γραφή), a prosecution against
one, who had appeared as a witness (κλητήρ or κλήτωρ) to prove that a
defendant had been duly summoned, and thereby enabled the plaintiff
to get a judgment by default. The false witness (κλητήρ) was liable
to be criminally prosecuted, and punished at the discretion of the
court. The γραφὴ ψευδοκλητείας came before the Thesmothetae, and the
question at the trial simply was, whether the defendant in the former
cause had been summoned or not.

PSĪLI (ψιλοί). [ARMA.]

PSYCTĒR (ψυκτήρ, _dim._ ψυκτηρίδιον), a wine-cooler, was sometimes
made of bronze or silver. One of earthenware is preserved in the
Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen. It consists of one deep vessel
for holding ice, which is fixed within another for holding wine. The
wine was poured in at the top. It thus surrounded the vessel of ice
and was cooled by the contact. It was drawn off so as to fill the
drinking-cups by means of a cock at the bottom.

PŪBES, PŪBERTAS. [IMPUBES; INFANS.]

PUBLĬCĀNI, farmers of the public revenues of the Roman state
(_vectigalia_). Their name is formed from _publicum_, which signifies
all that belongs to the state, and is sometimes used by Roman writers
as synonymous with _vectigal_. The revenues which Rome derived from
conquered countries, consisting chiefly of tolls, tithes, harbour
duties, the scriptura, or the tax which was paid for the use of the
public pasture lands, and the duties paid for the use of mines and
salt-works (_salinae_), were let out, or, as the Romans expressed it,
were sold by the censors in Rome itself to the highest bidder. This
sale generally took place in the month of Quinctilis, and was made
for a lustrum. The terms on which the revenues were let, were fixed
by the censors in the so-called _leges censoriae_. The people or the
senate, however, sometimes modified the terms fixed by the censors,
in order to raise the credit of the publicani; and in some cases
even the tribunes of the people interfered in this branch of the
administration. The tithes raised in the province of Sicily alone,
with the exception of those of wine, oil, and garden produce, were
not sold at Rome, but in the districts of Sicily itself, according
to a practice established by Hiero. The persons who undertook the
farming of the public revenue of course belonged to the wealthiest
Romans, and during the latter period of the republic they belonged
almost exclusively to the equestrian order. Their wealth and
consequent influence may be seen from the fact, that as early as the
second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, when the aerarium was
entirely exhausted, the publicani advanced large sums of money to the
state, on condition of repayment after the end of the war. The words
equites and publicani are sometimes used as synonymous. The publicani
had to give security to the state for the sum at which they bought
one or more branches of the revenue in a province; but as for this
reason the property of even the wealthiest individual must have been
inadequate, a number of equites generally united together, and formed
a company (_socii_, _societas_, or _corpus_), which was recognised
by the state, and by which they were enabled to carry on their
undertakings upon a large scale. Such companies appear as early as
the second Punic war. The shares which each partner of such a company
took in the business were called _partes_, and if they were small,
_particulae_. The responsible person in each company, and the one who
contracted with the state, was called _manceps_ [MANCEPS]; but there
was also a _magister_ to manage the business of each society, who
resided at Rome, and kept an extensive correspondence with the agents
in the provinces. He seems to have held his office only for one
year; his representative in the provinces was called _sub magistro_,
who had to travel about, and superintend the actual business of
collecting the revenues. Nobody but a Roman citizen was allowed to
become a member of a company of publicani; freedmen and slaves were
excluded. No Roman magistrate, however, or governor of a province,
was allowed to take any share whatever in a company of publicani,
a regulation which was chiefly intended as a protection against
the oppression of the provincials. The collection of the taxes in
the provinces was performed by an inferior class of men, who were
said _operas publicanis dare_, or _esse in operis societatis_. They
were engaged by the publicani, and consisted of freemen as well as
slaves, Romans as well as provincials. The separate branches of the
public revenue in the provinces (_decumae_, _portoria_, _scriptura_,
and the revenues from the mines and salt-works) were mostly leased
to separate companies of publicani; whence they were distinguished
by names derived from that particular branch which they had taken in
farm; _e.g._ _decumani_, _pecuarii_ or _scripturarii_, _salinarii_ or
_mancipes salinarum_, &c. [DECUMAE; PORTORIUM; SALINAS; SCRIPTURA.]
The _portitores_ were not publicani properly so called, but only
their servants engaged in examining the goods imported or exported,
and levying the custom-duties upon them. They belonged to the same
class as the publicans of the New Testament.

PUBLĬCUM. [PUBLICANI.]

PŬGĬLĀTUS (πύξ, πυγμή, πυγμαχία, πυγμοσύνη), boxing, was one of the
earliest athletic games among the Greeks, and is frequently mentioned
in Homer. In the earliest times boxers (_pugiles_, πύκται) fought
naked, with the exception of a girdle (ζῶμα) round their loins; but
this was not used when boxing was introduced at Olympia, as the
contests in wrestling and racing had been carried on there by persons
entirely naked ever since Ol. 15. Respecting the leathern thongs
with which pugilists surrounded their fists, see Cestus, where its
various forms are illustrated by woodcuts. The Ionians, especially
those of Samos, were at all times more distinguished pugilists than
the Dorians, and at Sparta boxing is said to have been forbidden by
the laws of Lycurgus. But the ancients generally considered boxing as
a useful training for military purposes, and a part of education no
less important than any other gymnastic exercise.

PŬGILLĀRES. [TABULAE.]

PŬGĬO (μάχαιρα), a dagger; a two-edged knife, commonly of bronze,
with the hand in many cases variously ornamented or enriched.

PULLĀRĬUS. [AUSPICIUM.]

PULPĬTUM. [THEATRUM.]

PULVĪNAR, a couch provided with cushions or pillows (_pulvini_),
on which the Romans placed the statues of the gods at the
_Lectisternia_. [EPULONES; LECTISTERNIUM.] There was also a
_pulvinar_, on which the images of the gods were laid, in the Circus.

PŪPILLA, PŪPILLUS, the name given to every _impubes_ not in the power
of their father, but subject to a guardian. [IMPUBES; TUTELA.]

PUPPIS. [NAVIS.]

PŬTĔAL, properly means the enclosure surrounding the opening of a
well, to protect persons from falling into it. It was either round
or square, and seems usually to have been of the height of three
or four feet from the ground. It was the practice in some cases to
surround a sacred place with an enclosure open at the top, and such
enclosures, from the great similarity they bore to _putealia_, were
called by this name. There were two such places in the Roman forum;
one of these was called _Puteal Libonis_ or _Scribonianum_, because
a chapel (_sacellum_) in that place had been struck by lightning,
and Scribonius Libo expiated it by proper ceremonies, and erected
a puteal around it, open at the top, to preserve the memory of the
place. The form of this puteal is preserved on several coins of the
Scribonian gens. This puteal seems to have been near the atrium of
Vesta, and was a common place of meeting for usurers. The other
puteal was in the comitium, on the left side of the senate-house, and
in it were deposited the whetstone and razor of ATTUS NAVIUS.

[Illustration: Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens. (British
Museum.)]

PUTĬCŬLI. [FUNUS.]

PỸANEPSIA (πυανέψια), a festival celebrated at Athens every year on
the seventh of Pyanepsion, in honour of Apollo, said to have been
instituted by Theseus after his return from Crete. The festival, as
well as the month in which it took place, are said to have derived
their names from πύαμος, another form for κύαμος, _i.e._ pulse or
beans, which were cooked at this season and carried about.

PỸLĂGŎRAE. [AMPHICTYONES.]

PỸRA. [FUNUS.]

PYRRHĬCA. [SALTATIO.]

PȲTHĬA (πύθια), one of the four great national festivals of the
Greeks. It was celebrated in the neighbourhood of Delphi, anciently
called Pytho, in honour of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto. The place of
this solemnity was the Crissaean plain, which for this purpose
contained a hippodromus or race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in
length, and a theatre, in which the musical contests took place.
The Pythian games were, according to most legends, instituted by
Apollo himself. They were originally perhaps nothing more than a
religious panegyris, occasioned by the oracle of Delphi, and the
sacred games are said to have been at first only a musical contest,
which consisted in singing a hymn to the honour of the Pythian god,
with the accompaniment of the cithara. They must, on account of the
celebrity of the Delphic oracle, have become a national festival
for all the Greeks at a very early period, and gradually all the
various contests were introduced which occur in the Olympic games.
[OLYMPIA.] Down to Ol. 48. the Delphians had been the agonothetae at
the Pythian games; but in the third year of this Olympiad, after the
Crissaean war, the Amphictyons took the management under their care,
and appointed certain persons, called _Epimeletae_ (ἐπιμεληταί),
to conduct them. Some of the ancients date the institution of the
Pythian games from this time. Previous to Ol. 48. the Pythian games
had been an ἐνναετηρίς, that is, they had been celebrated at the
end of every eighth year; but in Ol. 48. 3. they became, like the
Olympia, a πενταετηρίς, _i.e._ they were held at the end of every
fourth year; and a Pythiad, therefore, from the time that it was
used as an aera, comprehended a space of four years, commencing
with the third year of every Olympiad. They were in all probability
held in the spring, and took place in the month of Bucatius, which
corresponded to the Attic Munychion.

PȲTHĬI (πύθιοι), four persons appointed by the Spartan kings, two by
each, as messengers to the temple of Delphi. Their office was highly
honourable and important; they were always the messmates of the
Spartan kings.

PYXIS, _dim._ PYXĬDŬLA (πύξις, dim. πυξίδιον), a casket; a
jewel-box. The caskets in which the ladies of ancient times kept
their jewels and other ornaments, were made of gold, silver, ivory,
mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c. They were also much enriched
with sculpture. The annexed woodcut represents a very plain
jewel-box, out of which a dove is extracting a riband or fillet.

[Illustration: Pyxis, jewel-box. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)]

QUADRĀGĒSĬMA, the fortieth part of the imported goods, was the
ordinary rate of the Portorium under the empire. [PORTORIUM.]

QUADRANS. [AS.]

QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA only, was the principal
Roman measure of capacity for fluids. A standard model of the
_Amphora_ was kept with great care in the temple of Jupiter in the
Capitol, and was called _amphora Capitolina_. It contained 5·77
imperial gallons, or a little more than 5¾ gallons, or than 5 gallons
and 6 pints.

QUADRĪGA. [CURRUS.]

QUADRĪGĀTUS. [DENARIUS.]

QUADRŬPLĀTŌRES: public informers or accusers were so called, either
because they received a fourth part of the criminal’s property, or
because those who were convicted were condemned to pay fourfold
(_quadrupli damnari_), as in cases of violation of the laws
respecting gambling, usury, &c.

QUAESTIŌNES, QUAESTIŌNES PERPĔTUAE. [JUDEX: PRAETOR.]

QUAESTOR (ταμίας), a name given to two distinct classes of Roman
officers. It is derived from _quaero_, and Varro gives a definition
which embraces the principal functions of both classes of officers:
_Quaestores a quaerendo, qui conquirerent publicas pecunias et
maleficia_. The one class, therefore, had to do with the collecting
and keeping of the public revenues, and the others were a kind of
public accusers. The former bore the name of _Quaestores Classici_,
the latter of _Quaestores Parricidii_.--The _Quaestores Parricidii_
were public accusers, two in number, who conducted the accusation of
persons guilty of murder or any other capital offence, and carried
the sentence into execution. In the early period of the republic
the quaestores parricidii appear to have become a standing office,
which, like others, was held only for one year. They were appointed
by the populus or the curies on the presentation of the consuls.
When these quaestores discovered that a capital offence had been
committed, they had to bring the charge before the comitia for trial.
When the sentence had been pronounced by the people, the quaestores
parricidii executed it; thus they threw Spurius Cassius from the
Tarpeian rock. They were mentioned in the laws of the Twelve Tables,
and after the time of the decemvirate they still continued to be
appointed, though probably no longer by the curies, but either in
the comitia centuriata or tribute, which they therefore must have had
the right of assembling in cases of emergency. From the year B.C. 366
they are no longer mentioned in Roman history, as their functions
were gradually transferred to the triumviri capitales. [TRIUMVIRI
CAPITALES.]--The _Quaestores Classici_, usually called _Quaestores_
simply, were officers entrusted with the care of the public money.
They were elected by the centuries, and the office is said to have
been first instituted by Valerius Publicola. They were at first
only two in number, and of course taken only from the patricians.
As the senate had the supreme administration of the finances, the
quaestors were in some measure only its agents or paymasters, for
they could not dispose of any part of the public money without being
directed by the senate. Their duties consequently consisted in making
the necessary payments from the aerarium, and receiving the public
revenues. Of both they had to keep correct accounts in their _tabulae
publicae_. Demands which any one might have on the aerarium, and
outstanding debts, were likewise registered by them. Fines to be paid
to the public treasury were registered and exacted by them. Another
branch of their duties, which, however, was likewise connected with
the treasury, was to provide the proper accommodation for foreign
ambassadors, and such persons as were connected with the republic
by ties of public hospitality.--In B.C. 421 the number of quaestors
was doubled, and the tribunes tried to effect, by an amendment of
the law, that a part (probably two) of the quaestores should be
plebeians. This attempt was indeed frustrated, but the interrex L.
Papirius effected a compromise, that the election should not be
restricted to either order. After this law was carried, eleven years
passed without any plebeian being elected to the office: at last, in
B.C. 409, three of the four quaestors were plebeians. A person who
had held the office of quaestor had undoubtedly, as in later times,
the right to take his seat in the senate, unless he was excluded as
unworthy by the next censors. And this was probably the reason why
the patricians so resolutely opposed the admission of plebeians to
this office. Henceforth the consuls, whenever they took the field
against an enemy, were accompanied by one quaestor each, who at
first had only to superintend the sale of the booty, the produce of
which was either divided among the legion, or was transferred to
the aerarium. Subsequently, however, we find that these quaestors
also kept the funds of the army, which they had received from the
treasury at Rome, and gave the soldiers their pay; they were in fact
the paymasters of the army. The two other quaestors, who remained
at Rome, continued to discharge the same duties as before, and
were distinguished from those who accompanied the consuls by the
epithet _urbani_. In B.C. 265, after the Romans had made themselves
masters of Italy, and when, in consequence, the administration of
the treasury and the raising of the revenues became more laborious
and important, the number of quaestors was again doubled to eight;
and it is probable that henceforth their number continued to be
increased in proportion as the empire became extended. One of the
eight quaestors was appointed by lot to the _Quaestura Ostiensis_,
a most laborious and important post, as he had to provide Rome with
corn. Besides the quaestor Ostiensis, who resided at Ostia, three
other quaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise those parts of
the revenue which were not farmed by the publicani, and to control
the latter. One of them resided at Cales, and the two others probably
in towns on the Upper Sea. The two remaining quaestors were sent to
Sicily.--Sulla, in his dictatorship, raised the number of quaestors
to twenty, that he might have a large number of candidates for the
senate, and J. Caesar even to forty. In the year B.C. 49 no quaestors
were elected, and Caesar transferred the keeping of the aerarium
to the aediles. From this time forward the treasury was sometimes
entrusted to the praetors, sometimes to the praetorii, and sometimes
again to quaestors. [AERARIUM.] Quaestors, however, both in the city
and in the provinces, occur down to the latest period of the empire.
The proconsul or praetor, who had the administration of a province,
was attended by a quaestor. This quaestor had undoubtedly to perform
the same functions as those who accompanied the armies into the
field; they were in fact the same officers, with the exception that
the former were stationary in their province during the time of
their office, and had consequently rights and duties which those who
accompanied the armies could not have. In the provinces the quaestors
had the same jurisdiction as the curule aediles at Rome. The relation
existing between a praetor or proconsul of a province and his
quaestor was, according to ancient custom, regarded as resembling
that between a father and his son. When a quaestor died in his
province, the praetors had the right of appointing a _proquaestor_ in
his stead; and when the praetor was absent, the quaestor supplied his
place, and was then attended by lictors. In what manner the provinces
were assigned to the quaestors after their election at Rome, is
not mentioned, though it was probably by lot, as in the case of the
quaestor Ostiensis.

QUAESTŌRĬUM. [CASTRA.]

QUĀLUS. [CALATHUS.]

QUARTĀRĬUS. [SEXTARIUS.]

QUĂSILLĀRĬAE. [CALATHUS.]

QUĂSILLUM. [CALATHUS.]

QUĂTŬORVĬRI JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [COLONIA.]

QUĂTŬORVĬRI VĬĀRUM CŪRANDĀRUM, four officers who had the
superintendence of the roads (_viae_), were first appointed after the
war with Pyrrhus, when so many public roads were made by the Romans.

QUĪNĀRĬUS. [DENARIUS.]

QUINCUNX. [AS.]

QUINDĔCIMVĬRI. [DECIMVIRI.]

QUINQUATRUS or QUINQUATRĬA, a festival sacred to Minerva, which was
celebrated on the 19th of March. Ovid says that it was celebrated
for five days, that on the first day no blood was shed, but that on
the last four there were contests of gladiators. It would appear,
however, that only the first day was the festival properly so called,
and that the last four were merely an addition made perhaps in the
time of Caesar, to gratify the people, who became so passionately
fond of gladiatorial combats. On the fifth day of the festival,
according to Ovid, the trumpets used in sacred rites were purified;
but this seems to have been originally a separate festival called
_Tubilustrium_, which was celebrated, as we know from the ancient
calendars, on the 23rd of March, and would of course, when the
Quinquatrus was extended to five days, fall on the last day of that
festival. There was also another festival of this name, called
_Quinquatrus Minusculae_ or _Quinquatrus Minores_, celebrated on
the Ides of June, on which the tibicines went through the city in
procession to the temple of Minerva.

QUINQUENNĀLĬA, were games instituted by Nero, A.D. 60, in imitation
of the Greek festivals, and celebrated like the Greek πενταετηρίδες,
at the end of every four years: they consisted of musical, gymnastic,
and equestrian contests.

QUINQUENNĀLIS. [COLONIA, p. 101, _a_.]

QUINQUĔRĒMIS. [NAVIS.]

QUINQUERTĬUM. [PENTATHLON.]

QUINQUĔVĬRI, or five commissioners, were frequently appointed under
the republic as extraordinary magistrates to carry any measure into
effect.

QUINTĀNA. [CASTRA.]

QUĬRĪNĀLĬA, a festival sacred to Quirinus, which was celebrated on
the 17th of February, on which day Romulus (Quirinus) was said
to have been carried up to heaven. This festival was also called
_Stultorum feriae_, respecting the meaning of which see FORNACALIA.

QUĬRĪTĬUM JUS. [JUS.]

RAMNES. [PATRICII.]

RĂPĪNA. [FURTUM.]

RĔCŬPĔRĀTŌRES. [JUDEX.]

RĔDEMPTOR, the general name for a contractor, who undertook the
building and repairing of public works, private houses, &c., and in
fact of any kind of work. The farmers of the public taxes were also
called _Redemptores_.

RĔDĬMĪCULUM (καθετήρ), a fillet attached to the _calautica_,
_diadema_, _mitra_, or other head-dress at the occiput, and passed
over the shoulders, so as to hang on each side over the breast.
_Redimicula_ were properly female ornaments.

RĒGĬFŬGĬUM or FŬGĀLIA, the king’s flight, a festival which was held
by the Romans every year on the 24th of February, and, according
to some ancient writers, in commemoration of the flight of king
Tarquinius Superbus from Rome. The day is marked in the Fasti as
nefastus. In some ancient calendars the 24th of May is likewise
called Regifugium. It is doubtful whether either of these days had
anything to do with the flight of king Tarquinius: they may have
derived their name from the symbolical flight of the Rex Sacrorum
from the comitium; for this king-priest was generally not allowed to
appear in the comitium, which was destined for the transaction of
political matters in which he could not take part. But on certain
days in the year, and certainly on the two days mentioned above,
he had to go to the comitium for the purpose of offering certain
sacrifices, and immediately after he had performed his functions
there, he hastily fled from it; and this symbolical flight was called
Regifugium.

RĔLĒGĀTĬO. [EXSILIUM.]

RĔMANCĬPĀTIO. [EMANCIPATIO.]

RĔMULCUM (ῥυμουλκηῖν τὰς ναῦς), a rope for towing a ship, and
likewise a tow-barge.

RĔMŪRĬA. [LEMURIA.]

RĒMUS. [NAVIS.]

RĔPĔTUNDAE, or PĔCŪNĬAE RĔPĔTUNDAE, was the term used to designate
such sums of money as the socii of the Roman state or individuals
claimed to recover from magistratus, judices, or publici curatores,
which they had improperly taken or received in the Provinciae, or
in the Urbs Roma, either in the discharge of their jurisdictio,
or in their capacity of judices, or in respect of any other public
function. Sometimes the word Repetundae was used to express the
illegal act for which compensation was sought, as in the phrase
_repetundarum insimulari, damnari_; and Pecuniae meant not only
money, but anything that had value. The first lex on the subject
was the Calpurnia, which was proposed and carried by the tribunus
plebis L. Calpurnius Piso (B.C. 149). By this lex a praetor was
appointed for trying persons charged with this crime. It seems that
the penalties of the Lex Calpurnia were merely pecuniary, and at
least did not comprise exsilium. Various leges de repetundis were
passed after the Lex Calpurnia, and the penalties were continually
made heavier. The Lex Junia was passed probably about B.C. 126, on
the proposal of M. Junius Pennus, tribunus plebis. The Lex Servilia
Glaucia was proposed and carried by C. Servilius Glaucia, praetor,
in the sixth consulship of Marius, B.C. 100. This lex applied to
any magistratus who had improperly taken or received money from
any private person; but a magistratus could not be accused during
the term of office. The lex enacted that the praetor peregrinus
should annually appoint 450 judices for the trial of this offence:
the judices were not to be senators. The penalties of the lex were
pecuniary and exsilium; the law allowed a comperendinatio. [JUDEX.]
Before the Lex Servilia, the pecuniary penalty was simply restitution
of what had been wrongfully taken; this lex seems to have raised
the penalty to double the amount of what had been wrongfully taken;
and subsequently it was made quadruple. Exsilium was only the
punishment in case a man did not abide his trial, but withdrew from
Rome. The lex gave the civitas to any person on whose complaint a
person was convicted of repetundae. The Lex Acilia, which seems
to be of uncertain date, was proposed and carried by M’. Acilius
Glabrio, a tribune of the plebs, and enacted that there should be
neither ampliatio nor comperendinatio. The Lex Cornelia was passed
in the dictatorship of Sulla, and continued in force to the time of
C. Julius Caesar. It extended the penalties of repetundae to other
illegal acts committed in the provinces, and to judices who received
bribes, to those to whose hands the money came, and to those who did
not give into the aerarium their proconsular accounts (_proconsulares
rationes_). The praetor who presided over this quaestio chose the
judges by lot from the senators, whence it appears that the Servilia
Lex was repealed by this lex, at least so far as related to the
constitution of the court. This lex also allowed ampliatio and
comperendinatio. The penalties were pecuniary (_litis aestimatio_)
and the _aquae et ignis interdictio_. Under this lex were tried
L. Dolabella, Cn. Piso, C. Verres, C. Macer, M. Fonteius, and L.
Flaccus, the two last of whom were defended by Cicero. In the Verrine
Orations Cicero complains of the comperendinatio or double hearing
of the cause, which the Lex Cornelia allowed, and refers to the
practice under the Lex Acilia, according to which the case for the
prosecution, the defence, and the evidence were only heard once, and
so the matter was decided. The last lex de repetundis was the Lex
Julia, passed in the first consulship of C. Julius Caesar, B.C. 59.
This lex repealed the penalty of exsilium, but in addition to the
litis aestimatio, it enacted that persons convicted under this lex
should lose their rank, and be disqualified from being witnesses,
judices, or senators. The lex had been passed when Cicero made his
oration against Piso, B.C. 55. A. Gabinius was convicted under this
lex. Under the empire the offence was punishable with exile.

RĔPŌTĬA. [MATRIMONIUM.]

RĔPŬDĬUM. [DIVORTIUM.]

RĒTĬĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.]

RĒTĬCŬLUM. [COMA.]

[Illustration: Retia, Nets (From a Bas-Relief at Ince-Blundell.)]

RĒTIS and RĒTE; _dim._ RĒTĬCŬLUM (δίκτυον), a net. Nets were made
most commonly of flax or hemp, whence they are sometimes called
_lina_ (λίνα). The meshes (_maculae_, βρόχοι, _dim._ βροχίδες) were
great or small according to the purposes intended. By far the most
important application of net-work was to the three kindred arts
of fowling, hunting, and fishing. In fowling the use of nets was
comparatively limited. In hunting it was usual to extend nets in
a curved line of considerable length, so as in part to surround a
space into which the beasts of chace, such as the hare, the boar,
the deer, the lion, and the bear, were driven through the opening
left on one side. This range of nets was flanked by cords, to which
feathers dyed scarlet and of other bright colours were tied, so as to
flare and flutter in the wind. The hunters then sallied forth with
their dogs, dislodged the animals from their coverts, and by shouts
and barking drove them first within the _formido_, as the apparatus
of string and feathers was called, and then, as they were scared
with this appearance, within the circuit of the nets. In the drawing
below three servants with staves carry on their shoulders a large
net, which is intended to be set up as already described. In the
lower figure the net is set up. At each end of it stands a watchman
holding a staff. Being intended to take such large quadrupeds as
boars and deer (which are seen within it), the meshes are very wide
(_retia rara_). The net is supported by three stakes (στάλικες,
_ancones_, _vari_). To dispose the nets in this manner was called
_retia ponere_, or _retia tendere_. Comparing it with the stature of
the attendants, we perceive the net to be between five and six feet
high. The upper border of the net consists of a strong rope, which
was called σαρδών. Fishing-nets (ἁλιευτικὰ δίκτυα) were of different
kinds. Of these the most common were the ἀμφίβληστρον, or casting-net
(_funda_, _jaculum_, _retinaculum_) and the σαγήνη, _i.e._ the
drag-net, or sean (_tragum_, _tragula_, _verriculum_).

[Illustration: Retia, Nets. (From the same.)]

RĔUS. [ACTOR.]

REX (βασιλεύς, ἄναξ), king.--(1) GREEK. In the heroic age, as
depicted in the poems of Homer, the kingly form of government was
universal. The authority of these kings and its limitations were
derived not from any definite scheme, or written code, but from
the force of traditionary usage, and the natural influence of the
circumstances in which the kings were placed, surrounded as they were
by a body of chiefs or nobles, whose power was but little inferior
to that of the kings themselves. Even the title βασιλῆες is applied
to them as well as to the king. The maintenance of regal authority
doubtless depended greatly on the possession of personal superiority
in bravery, military prowess, wisdom in council and eloquence in
debate. When old age had blunted his powers and activity, a king
ran a great chance of losing his influence. There was, however, an
undefined notion of a sort of divine right connected with the kingly
office, whence the epithet διοτρεφής, so commonly applied to kings
in Homer. The characteristic emblem of the kingly office was the
σκῆπτρον. [SCEPTRUM.] Our information respecting the Grecian kings
in the more historical age is not ample or minute enough to enable
us to draw out a detailed scheme of their functions. Respecting the
kings of Sparta the reader is referred to the article EPHORI. As
an illustration of the gradual limitation of the prerogatives of
the king or chief magistrate, the reader may consult the article
ARCHON. The title _Basileus_ was sometimes applied to an officer
who discharged the priestly functions of the more ancient kings,
as in Athens. [ARCHON.]--(2) ROMAN. Rome was originally governed
by kings. All the ancient writers agree in representing the king
as elected by the people for life, and as voluntarily entrusted by
them with the supreme power in the state. No reference is made to
the hereditary principle in the election of the first four kings;
and it is not until the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus obtained the
sovereignty, that anything is said about the children of the deceased
king. Since the people had conferred the regal power, it returned
to them upon the death of the king. But as a new king could not
be immediately appointed, an Interrex forthwith stepped into his
place. The necessity for an immediate successor to the king arose
from the circumstance that he alone had had the power of taking the
auspicia on behalf of the state; and as the auspicia devolved upon
the people at his death, it was imperative upon them to create a
magistrate, to whom they could delegate the auspicia, and who would
thus possess the power of mediating between the gods and the state.
Originally the people consisted only of the patres or patricii;
and accordingly on the death of the king, we read _res ad patres
redit_, or, what is nearly the same thing, _auspicia ad patres
redeunt_. [AUGUR.] The interrex was elected by the whole body of
the patricians, and he appointed (_prodebat_) his successor, as it
was a rule that the first interrex could not hold the comitia for
the election; but it frequently happened that the second interrex
appointed a third, the third a fourth, and so on, till the election
took place. The Interrex presided over the comitia curiata, which
were assembled for the election of the king. The person whom the
senate had selected was proposed by the interrex to the people in
a regular _rogatio_, which the people could only accept or reject,
for they had not the initiative and could not themselves propose
any name. If the people voted in favour of the rogation, they were
said _creare regem_, and their acceptance of him was called _jussus
populi_. But the king did not immediately enter upon his office. Two
other acts had still to take place before he was invested with the
full regal authority and power. First, his _inauguratio_ had to be
performed, as it was necessary to obtain the divine will respecting
his appointment by means of the auspices, since he was the high
priest of the people. This ceremony was performed by an augur, who
conducted the newly-elected king to the _arx_, or citadel, and there
placed him on a stone seat with his face turned to the south, while
the people waited below in anxious suspense until the augur announced
that the gods had sent the favourable tokens confirming the king
in his priestly character. The inauguratio did not confer upon him
the auspicia; for these he obtained by his election to the royalty,
as the comitia were held _auspicato_. The second act which had to
be performed was the conferring of the imperium upon the king. The
curiae had only determined by their previous vote who was to be
king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power upon him;
they had, therefore, to grant him the imperium by a distinct vote.
Accordingly the king himself proposed to the curiae a _lex curiata
de imperio_, and the curiae by voting in favour of it gave him the
imperium. Livy in his first book makes no mention of the _lex curiata
de imperio_, but he uses the expressions _patres auctores fierent_,
_patres auctores facti_; but these expressions are equivalent to the
_lex curiata de imperio_ in the kingly period.--The king possessed
the supreme power in the earliest times, and the senate and the
comitia of the curiae were very slight checks upon its exercise. In
the first place, the king alone possessed the right of taking the
auspices on behalf of the state; and as no public business of any
kind could be performed without the approbation of the gods expressed
by the auspices, the king stood as mediator between the gods and
the people, and in an early stage of society must necessarily have
been regarded with religious awe. [AUGUR.] Secondly, the people
surrendered to the king the supreme military and judicial authority
by conferring the _imperium_ upon him. The king was not only the
commander in war, but the supreme judge in peace. Seated on his
throne in the comitium, he administered justice to all comers,
and decided in all cases which were brought before him, civil as
well as criminal. Again, all the magistrates in the kingly period
appear to have been appointed by the king and not elected by the
curiae. Further, the king was not dependent upon the people for his
support; but a large portion of the ager publicus belonged to him,
which was cultivated at the expense of the state on his behalf. He
had also the absolute disposal of the booty taken in war and of
the conquered lands. It must not, however, be supposed that the
authority of the king was absolute. The senate and the assembly of
the people must have formed some check upon his power. But these were
not independent bodies possessing the right of meeting at certain
times and discussing questions of state. They could only be called
together when the king chose, and further could only determine upon
matters which the king submitted to them. The only public matter in
which the king could not dispense with the co-operation of the senate
and the curiae was in declarations of war. There is no trace of the
people having had anything to do with the conclusion of treaties
of peace.--The insignia of the king were the fasces with the axes
(_secures_), which twelve lictors carried before him as often as he
appeared in public, the _trabea_, the _sella curulis_, and the _toga
praetexta_ and _picta_. The _trabea_ appears to have been the most
ancient official dress, and is assigned especially to Romulus: it
was of Latin origin, and is therefore represented by Virgil as worn
by the Latin kings. The _toga praetexta_ and _picta_ were borrowed,
together with the _sella curulis_, from the Etruscans, and their
introduction is variously ascribed to Tullus Hostilius or Tarquinius
Priscus.

REX SACRĬFĬCŬLUS, REX SACRĬFĬCUS, or REX SACRORUM. When the civil
and military powers of the king were transferred to two praetors
or consuls, upon the establishment of the republican government at
Rome, these magistrates were not invested with that part of the royal
dignity by virtue of which the king had been the high priest of his
nation and had conducted several of the sacra publica, but this
priestly part of his office was transferred to a priest called Rex
Sacrificulus or Rex Sacrorum. The first rex sacrorum was designated,
at the command of the consuls, by the college of pontiffs, and
inaugurated by the augurs. He was always elected and inaugurated
in the comitia curiata under the presidency of the pontiffs,
and as long as a rex sacrificulus was appointed at Rome, he was
always a patrician, for as he had no influence upon the management
of political affairs, the plebeians never coveted this dignity.
Considering that this priest was the religious representative of
the kings, he ranked indeed higher than all other priests, and even
higher than the pontifex maximus, but in power and influence he was
far inferior to him. He held his office for life, was not allowed to
hold any civil or military dignity, and was at the same time exempted
from all military and civil duties. His principal functions were: 1.
To perform those sacra publica which had before been performed by the
kings; and his wife, who bore the title of _regina sacrorum_, had
also, like the queens of former days, to perform certain priestly
functions. These sacra publica he or his wife had to perform on
all the Calends, Ides, and the Nundines; he to Jupiter, and she to
Juno in the regia. 2. On the days called regifugium he had to offer
a sacrifice in the comitium. [REGIFUGIUM.] 3. When extraordinary
portenta seemed to announce some general calamity, it was his duty to
try to propitiate the anger of the gods. 4. On the nundines, when the
people assembled in the city, the rex sacrorum announced (_edicebat_)
to them the succession of the festivals for the month. This part
of his functions, however, must have ceased after the time of Cn.
Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on the via sacra, near the regia
and the house of the vestal virgins.

RHĒDA or RĒDA, a travelling carriage with four wheels. Like the
COVINUS and the ESSEDUM it was of Gallic origin, and may perhaps
contain the same root as the German _reiten_ and our _ride_. It
was the common carriage used by the Romans for travelling, and was
frequently made large enough not only to contain many persons, but
also baggage and utensils of various kinds. The word _Epirhedium_,
which was formed by the Romans from the Greek preposition ἐπι and
the Gallic _rheda_, is explained by the Scholiast on Juvenal as
“Ornamentum rhedarum aut plaustrum.”

RHĒTRAE (ῥῆτραι), specially the name of the ordinances of Lycurgus.
The word _Rhetra_ means a solemn compact, either originally emanating
from, or subsequently sanctioned by the gods, who are always parties
to such agreements. The Rhetra of Lycurgus emanated from the Delphian
god: but the kings, senators, and people all bound themselves, both
to each other and to the gods, to obey it.

RHYTON (ῥυτόν), a drinking-horn (κέρας). Its original form was
probably the horn of the ox, but one end of it was afterwards
ornamented with the heads of various animals and birds. The _rhyton_
had a small opening at the bottom, which the person who drank put
into his mouth, and allowed the wine to run in: hence it derived its
name.

[Illustration: Rhyton, drinking-horn. (Museo Borbonico.)]

RĪCA. [FLAMEN.]

RĪCĪNĬUM, an article of female dress, appears to have been a kind of
mantle, with a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover the
head. The _mavortium_, _mavorte_, or _mavors_ of later times was
thought to be only another name for what had formerly been called
ricinium.

RŌBĪGĀLĬA, a public festival in honour of the god Robigus, to
preserve the fields from mildew, is said to have been instituted by
Numa, and was celebrated April 25th. The sacrifices offered on this
occasion consisted of the entrails of a dog and a sheep, accompanied
with frankincense and wine: a prayer was presented by a flamen in the
grove of the ancient deity, whom Ovid and Columella make a goddess. A
god Robigus or a goddess Robigo is a mere invention from the name of
this festival, for the Romans paid no divine honours to evil deities.

RŎGĀTĬO. [LEX, p. 225.]

RŎGĀTŌRES. [COMITIA, p. 107.]

RŎGUS. [FUNUS, p. 188, _b_.]

ROMPHEA. [HASTA.]

RŌRĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 165.]

ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name applied to the stage (_suggestus_)
in the Forum, from which the orators addressed the people. This
stage was originally called _templum_, because it was consecrated by
the augurs, but obtained its name of _Rostra_ at the conclusion of
the great Latin war, when it was adorned with the beaks (_rostra_)
of the ships of the Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys in
the same way for the purpose of trophies: this was called by them
ἀκρωτηριάζειν. [ACROTERIUM.] The rostra lay between the Comitium or
place of meeting for the curies, and the Forum or place of meeting
for the tribes, so that the speaker might turn either to the one or
the other; but down to the time of C. Gracchus, even the tribunes
in speaking used to front the Comitium; he first turned his back
to it and spoke with his face towards the forum. The rostra was a
circular building, raised on arches, with a stand or platform on the
top, bordered by a parapet, the access to it being by two flights of
steps, one on each side. It fronted towards the comitium, and the
rostra were affixed to the front of it, just under the arches. Its
form has been in all the main points preserved in the ambones or
circular pulpits of the most ancient churches, which also had two
flights of steps leading up to them, one on the east side, by which
the preacher ascended, and another on the west side, for his descent.
The speaker was thus enabled to walk to and fro, while addressing his
audience. The suggestus or rostra was transferred by Julius Caesar
to a corner of the Forum, but the spot where the ancient rostra had
stood still continued to be called _Rostra Vetera_, while the other
was called _Rostra Nova_ or _Rostra Julia_. Both the rostra contained
statues of illustrious men.

[Illustration: Rostra on Coin of M. Lollius Palicanus. (British
Museum.)]

ROSTRUM. [NAVIS.]

RŎTA. [CURRUS.]

RŬDĬĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.]

RŬDIS. [GLADIATORES.]

SACCUS (σάκκος) signified in general any kind of sack or bag made
of hair, cloth, or other materials. We have only to notice here its
meaning as--(1) A head-dress. [COMA.]--(2) A sieve for straining
wine. [COLUM.]--(3) A purse for holding money. Hence the phrase in
Plautus _ire ad saccum_, “to go a begging.”

SĂCELLUM is a diminutive of _sacer_, and signifies a small place
consecrated to a god, containing an altar, and sometimes also a
statue of the god to whom it was dedicated, but it was without a
roof. It was therefore a sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence or
wall, and thus answered to the Greek περίβολος.

SĂCERDOS, SĂCERDŌTĬUM. As all the different kinds of priests are
treated of separately in this work, it is only necessary here to
make some general remarks. In comparison with the civil magistrates,
all priests at Rome were regarded as _homines privati_, though all
of them, as priests, were sacerdotes publici, in as far as their
office (_sacerdotium_) was connected with any worship recognised
by the state. The appellation of _sacerdos publicus_ was, however,
given principally to the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis, who
were at the same time the only priests who were members of the senate
by virtue of their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia were
held for life, without responsibility to any civil magistrate. A
priest was generally allowed to hold any other civil or military
office besides his priestly dignity; some priests, however, formed an
exception, for the duumviri, the rex sacrorum, and the flamen dialis
were not allowed to hold any state office, and were also exempt
from service in the armies. Their priestly character was, generally
speaking, inseparable from their person as long as they lived: hence
the augurs and fratres arvales retained their character even when
sent into exile, or when they were taken prisoners. It also occurs
that one and the same person held two or three priestly offices at a
time. Thus we find the three dignities of pontifex maximus, augur,
and decemvir sacrorum united in one individual. Bodily defects
incapacitated a person at Rome, as among all ancient nations, from
holding any priestly office. All priests were originally patricians,
but from the year B.C. 367 the plebeians also began to take part
in the sacerdotia [PLEBES]; and those priestly offices which down
to the latest times remained in the hands of the patricians alone,
such as that of the rex sacrorum, the flamines, salii, and others,
had no influence upon the affairs of the state. As regards the
appointment of priests, the ancients unanimously state, that at first
they were appointed by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were
once instituted, each college of priests--for nearly all priests
constituted certain corporations called collegia--had the right of
filling up, by cooptatio, the vacancies which occurred. [PONTIFEX.]
Other priests, on the contrary, such as the vestal virgins and the
flamines, were appointed (_capiebantur_) by the pontifex maximus, a
rule which appears to have been observed down to the latest times;
others again, such as the duumviri sacrorum, were elected by the
people, or by the curiae, as the curiones. But in whatever manner
they were appointed, all priests after their appointment required
to be inaugurated by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by the latter
alone. Those priests who formed colleges had originally, as we have
already observed, the right of cooptatio; but in the course of
time they were deprived of this right, or at least the cooptatio
was reduced to a mere form, by several leges, called leges de
sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Cornelia, and Julia; their
nature is described in the article PONTIFEX, and what is there said
in regard to the appointment of pontiffs applies equally to all the
other colleges. All priests had some external distinction, as the
apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praetexta, as well as honorary
seats in the theatres, circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the
priestly colleges possessed landed property, and some priests had
also a regular annual salary (_stipendium_), which was paid to them
from the public treasury. This is expressly stated in regard to the
vestal virgins, the augurs, and the curiones, and may therefore be
supposed to have been the case with other priests also. The pontifex
maximus, the rex sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreover a
domus publica as their place of residence.

SACRA. This word, in its widest sense, expresses what we call
divine worship. In ancient times, the state, as well as all its
subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms of worship, whence at
Rome we find sacra of the whole Roman people, of the curies, gentes,
families, and even of private individuals. All these sacra, however,
were divided into two great classes, the public and private sacra
(_sacra publica et privata_), that is, they were performed either on
behalf of the whole nation, and at the expense of the state, or on
behalf of individuals, families, or gentes, which had also to defray
their expenses. This division is ascribed to Numa. All sacra, publica
as well as privata, were superintended and regulated by the pontiffs.

SACRĀMENTUM, the military oath, which was administered in the
following manner:--Each tribunus militum assembled his legion, and
picked out one of the men, to whom he put the oath, that he would
obey the commands of his generals, and execute them punctually. The
other men then came forward, one after another, and repeated the same
oath, saying that they would do like the first.

SACRĀRĬUM was any place in which sacred things were deposited and
kept, whether this place was a part of a temple or of a private house.

SACRIFĬCĬUM (ἱερεῖον), a sacrifice. Sacrifices or offerings formed
the chief part of the worship of the ancients. They were partly
signs of gratitude, partly a means of propitiating the gods, and
partly also intended to induce the deity to bestow some favour
upon the sacrificer, or upon those on whose behalf the sacrifice
was offered. Sacrifices in a wider sense would also embrace the
DONARIA; in a narrower sense sacrificia were things offered to the
gods, which merely afforded momentary gratification, and which
were burnt upon their altars, or were believed to be consumed by
the gods. All sacrifices may be divided into bloody sacrifices and
unbloody sacrifices.--_Bloody sacrifices._ In the early times of
Greece we find mention of human sacrifices, but with a few exceptions
these had ceased in the historical ages. Owing to the influence
of civilisation, in many cases animals were substituted for human
beings; in others, a few drops of human blood were thought sufficient
to propitiate the gods. The custom of sacrificing human life to the
gods arose from the belief that the nobler the sacrifice and the
dearer to its possessor, the more pleasing it would be to the gods.
Hence the frequent instances in Grecian story of persons sacrificing
their own children, or of persons devoting themselves to the gods of
the lower world. That the Romans also believed human sacrifices to
be pleasing to the gods, might be inferred from the story of Curtius
and from the self-sacrifice of the Decii. The symbolic sacrifice
of human figures made of rushes at the Lemuralia [LEMURALIA] also
shows that in the early history of Italy human sacrifices were not
uncommon. For another proof of this practice, see VER SACRUM. A
second kind of bloody sacrifices were those of animals of various
kinds, according to the nature and character of the divinity. The
sacrifices of animals were the most common among the Greeks and
Romans. The victim was called ἱερεῖον, and in Latin _hostia_ or
_victima_. In the early times it appears to have been the general
custom to burn the whole victim (ὁλοκαυτεῖν) upon the altars of the
gods, and the same was in some cases also observed in later times.
But as early as the time of Homer it was the almost general practice
to burn only the legs (μηροί, μηρία, μῆρα) enclosed in fat, and
certain parts of the intestines, while the remaining parts of the
victim were consumed by men at a festive meal. The gods delighted
chiefly in the smoke arising from the burning victims, and the
greater the number of victims, the more pleasing was the sacrifice.
Hence it was not uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred bulls
(ἑκατόμβη) at once, though it must not be supposed that a hecatomb
always signifies a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name was
used in a general way to designate any great sacrifice. Such great
sacrifices were not less pleasing to men than to the gods, for in
regard to the former they were in reality a donation of meat. Hence
at Athens the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the highest
degree. The animals which were sacrificed were mostly of the domestic
kind, as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, pigs, dogs, and
horses; and each god had his favourite animals which he liked best
as sacrifices. The head of the victim, before it was killed, was in
most cases strewed with roasted barley meal (οὐλόχυτα or οὐλοχύται)
mixed with salt (_mola salsa_). The persons who offered the sacrifice
wore generally garlands round their heads, and sometimes also carried
them in their hands, and before they touched anything belonging to
the sacrifice they washed their hands in water. The victim itself
was likewise adorned with garlands, and its horns were sometimes
gilt. Before the animal was killed, a bunch of hair was cut from its
forehead, and thrown into the fire as primitiae (κατάρχεσθαι). In the
heroic ages the princes, as the high priests of their people, killed
the victim; in later times this was done by the priests themselves.
When the sacrifice was to be offered to the Olympic gods, the head
of the animal was drawn heavenward; when to the gods of the lower
world, to heroes, or to the dead, it was drawn downwards. While the
flesh was burning upon the altar, wine and incense were thrown upon
it, and prayers and music accompanied the solemnity. The most common
animal sacrifices at Rome were the _suovetaurilia_ or _solitaurilia_,
consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. They were performed in all
cases of a lustration, and the victims were carried around the thing
to be lustrated, whether it was a city, a people, or a piece of land.
[LUSTRATIO.] The Greek _trittya_ (τριττύα), which likewise consisted
of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the same sacrifice as the Roman
suovetaurilia. The customs observed before and during the sacrifice
of an animal were on the whole the same as those observed in Greece.
But the victim was in most cases not killed by the priests who
conducted the sacrifice, but by a person called _popa_, who struck
the animal with a hammer before the knife was used. The better parts
of the intestines (_exta_) were strewed with barley meal, wine, and
incense, and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts of the animal
which were burnt were called _prosecta_, _prosiciae_, or _ablegmina_.
When a sacrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of the sea, these
parts were not burnt, but thrown into the water. Respecting the use
which the ancients made of sacrifices to learn the will of the gods,
see HARUSPEX and DIVINATIO.--_Unbloody sacrifices._ Among these we
may first mention the libations (_libationes_, λοιβαί or σπονδαί).
Bloody sacrifices were usually accompanied by libations, as wine was
poured upon them. The wine was usually poured out in three separate
streams. Libations always accompanied a sacrifice which was offered
in concluding a treaty with a foreign nation, and that here they
formed a prominent part of the solemnity, is clear from the fact that
the treaty itself was called σπονδαί. But libations were also made
independent of any other sacrifice, as in solemn prayers, and on
many other occasions of public and private life, as before drinking
at meals, and the like. Libations usually consisted of unmixed wine
(ἔνσπονδος, _merum_), but sometimes also of milk, honey, and other
fluids, either pure or diluted with water. The libations offered
to the Furies were always without wine. Incense was likewise an
offering which usually accompanied bloody sacrifices, but it was
also burned as an offering for itself. A third class of unbloody
sacrifices consisted of fruit and cakes. The former were mostly
offered to the gods as primitiae or tithes of the harvest, and as
a sign of gratitude. They were sometimes offered in their natural
state, sometimes also adorned or prepared in various ways. Cakes were
peculiar to the worship of certain deities, as to that of Apollo.
They were either simple cakes of flour, sometimes also of wax, or
they were made in the shape of some animal, and were then offered as
symbolical sacrifices in the place of real animals, either because
they could not easily be procured, or were too expensive for the
sacrificer.

SACRĬLĔGĬUM, the crime of stealing things consecrated to the gods,
or things deposited in a consecrated place. A Lex Julia appears to
have placed the crime of sacrilegium on an equality with peculatus.
[PECULATUS.]

SAECŬLUM was, according to the calculation of the Etruscans, which
was adopted by the Romans, a space of time containing 110 lunar
years. The return of each saeculum at Rome was announced by the
pontiffs, who also made the necessary intercalations in such a
manner, that at the commencement of a new saeculum the beginning of
the ten months’ year, of the twelve months’ year, and of the solar
year coincided. But in these arrangements the greatest caprice and
irregularity appear to have prevailed at Rome, as may be seen from
the unequal intervals at which the ludi saeculares were celebrated.
[LUDI SAECULARES.] This also accounts for the various ways in which a
saeculum was defined by the ancients; some believed that it contained
thirty, and others that it contained a hundred years: the latter
opinion appears to have been the most common in later times, so that
saeculum answered to our century.

SĂGITTĀRĬI. [ARCUS.]

SAGMĬNA, were the same as the _verbenae_, namely, herbs torn up by
their roots from within the inclosure of the Capitoline, which were
always carried by the Fetiales or ambassadors, when they went to a
foreign people to demand restitution for wrongs committed against
the Romans, or to make a treaty. [FETIALES.] They served to mark the
sacred character of the ambassadors, and answered the same purpose as
the Greek κηρύκεια.

SĂGUM, the cloak worn by the Roman soldiers and inferior officers,
in contradistinction to the paludamentum of the general and superior
officers. [PALUDAMENTUM.] It is used in opposition to the toga or
garb of peace, and we accordingly find, that when there was a war
in Italy, all citizens put on the sagum even in the city, with the
exception of those of consular rank (_saga sumere_, _ad saga ire_,
_in sagis esse_). The sagum was open in the front, and usually
fastened across the shoulders by a clasp: it resembled in form the
paludamentum (see cut, p. 281). The cloak worn by the general and
superior officers is sometimes called _sagum_, but the diminutive
_sagulum_ is more commonly used in such cases. The cloak worn by the
northern nations of Europe is also called sagum. The German sagum is
mentioned by Tacitus: that worn by the Gauls seems to have been a
species of plaid (_versicolor sagum_).

SĂLĂMINĬA. [PARALUS.]

SĂLĬI, priests of Mars Gradivus, said to have been instituted by
Numa. They were twelve in number, chosen from the patricians even
in the latest times, and formed an ecclesiastical corporation. They
had the care of the twelve Ancilia, which were kept in the temple of
Mars on the Palatine hill, whence these priests were sometimes called
Salii Palatini, to distinguish them from the other Salii mentioned
below. The distinguishing dress of the Salii was an embroidered tunic
bound with a brazen belt, the trabea, and the apex, also worn by the
Flamines. [APEX.] Each had a sword by his side, and in his right hand
a spear or staff. The festival of Mars was celebrated by the Salii on
the 1st of March and for several successive days; on which occasion
they were accustomed to go through the city in their official dress,
carrying the ancilia in their left hands or suspended from their
shoulders, and at the same time singing and dancing, whence comes
their name. The songs or hymns which they sang on this occasion were
called _Asamenta, ssamenta_, or _Axamenta_, and were chiefly in
praise of Mamurius Veturius, generally said to be the armourer, who
made eleven ancilia like the one that was sent from heaven (ancile),
though some modern writers suppose it to be merely another name of
Mars. The praises of the gods were also celebrated in the songs
of the Salii. In later times these songs were scarcely understood
even by the priests themselves. At the conclusion of the festival
the Salii were accustomed to partake of a splendid entertainment in
the temple of Mars, which was proverbial for its excellence. The
members of the collegium were elected by co-optation. We read of the
dignities of praesul, vates, and magister in the collegium. The shape
of the ancile is exhibited in the annexed cut, which illustrates the
accounts of the ancient writers that its form was oval, but with the
two sides receding inwards with an even curvature, and so as to make
it broader at the ends than in the middle. The persons engaged in
carrying these ancilia on their shoulders, suspended from a pole, are
probably servants of the Salii. At the top of the cut is represented
one of the rods with which the Salii were accustomed to beat the
shield in their dance, as already described.

[Illustration: Salii carrying the Ancilia. (From an ancient Gem.)]

Tullus Hostilius established another collegium of Salii, in
fulfilment of a vow which he made in a war with the Sabines. These
Salii were also twelve in number, chosen from the patricians, and
appear to have been dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They were
called the Salii Collini, Agonales or Agonenses. It is supposed that
the oldest and most illustrious college, the Palatine Salii, were
chosen originally from the oldest tribe, the Ramnes, and the one
instituted by Tullus Hostilius, or the Quirinalian, from the Tities
alone: a third college for the Luceres was never established.

SĂLĪNAE (ἁλαὶ, ἁλοπήγιον), a salt-work. Throughout the Roman empire
the salt-works were commonly public property, and were let by the
government to the highest bidder. The first salt-works are said to
have been established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The publicani who
farmed these works appear to have sold this most necessary of all
commodities at a very high price, whence the censors M. Livius and
C. Claudius (B.C. 204) fixed the price at which those who took the
lease of them were obliged to sell the salt to the people. At Rome
the medius was, according to this regulation, sold for a sextans,
while in other parts of Italy the price was higher and varied. The
salt-works in Italy and in the provinces were very numerous.

SĂLĪNUM, a salt-cellar. All Romans who were raised above poverty
had one of silver, which descended from father to son, and was
accompanied by a silver plate, which was used together with the
salt-cellar in the domestic sacrifices. [PATERA.] These two articles
of silver were alone compatible with the simplicity of Roman manners
in the early times of the republic.

[Illustration: A Dance. (Lamberti, Villa Borghese.)]

SALTĀTĬO (ὄρχησις, ὀρχηστύς), dancing. The dancing of the Greeks as
well as of the Romans had very little in common with the exercise
which goes by that name in modern times. It may be divided into two
kinds, gymnastic and mimetic; that is, it was intended either to
represent bodily activity, or to express by gestures, movements,
and attitudes certain ideas or feelings, and also single events, or
a series of events, as in the modern ballet. All these movements,
however, were accompanied by music; but the terms ὄρχησις and
_saltatio_ were used in so much wider a sense than our word dancing,
that they were applied to designate gestures, even when the body did
not move at all. We find dancing prevalent among the Greeks from the
earliest times. It was originally closely connected with religion.
In all the public festivals, which were so numerous among the Greeks,
dancing formed a very prominent part. We find from the earliest times
that the worship of Apollo was connected with a religious dance,
called _Hyporchema_ (ὑπόρχημα). All the religious dances, with the
exception of the Bacchic and the Corybantian, were very simple, and
consisted of gentle movements of the body, with various turnings and
windings around the altar: such a dance was the _Geranus_ (γέρανος),
which Theseus is said to have performed at Delos on his return from
Crete. The Dionysiac or Bacchic, and the Corybantian, were of a very
different nature.

[Illustration: Corybantian Dance. (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem., vol. iv.
tav. 9.)]

In the former the life and adventures of the god were represented
by mimetic dancing. [DIONYSIA.] The Corybantian was of a very wild
character: it was chiefly danced in Phrygia and in Crete; the dancers
were armed, struck their swords against their shields, and displayed
the most extravagant fury; it was accompanied chiefly by the flute.
Respecting the dances in the theatre, see CHORUS. Dancing was applied
to gymnastic purposes and to training for war, especially in the
Doric states, and was believed to have contributed very much to the
success of the Dorians in war, as it enabled them to perform their
evolutions simultaneously and in order. There were various dances
in early times, which served as a preparation for war: hence Homer
calls the Hoplites πρυλέες, a war-dance having been called πρύλις by
the Cretans. Of such dances the most celebrated was the Pyrrhic (ἡ
πυῤῥίχη), of which the πρύλις was probably only another name. It was
danced to the sound of the flute, and its time was very quick and
light, as is shown by the name of the Pyrrhic foot (˘˘), which must
be connected with this dance. In the non-Doric states it was probably
not practised as a training for war, but only as a mimetic dance:
thus we read of its being danced by women to entertain a company. It
was also performed at Athens at the greater and lesser Panathenaea
by ephebi, who were called Pyrrhichists (πυῤῥιχισταί), and were
trained at the expense of the choragus. In the mountainous parts of
Thessaly and Macedon dances are performed at the present day by men
armed with muskets and swords. The Pyrrhic dance was introduced in
the public games at Rome by Julius Caesar, when it was danced by the
children of the leading men in Asia and Bithynia. There were other
dances, besides the PYRRHIC, in which the performers had arms; but
these seem to have been entirely mimetic, and not practised with any
view to training for war. Such was the _Carpaea_ (καρπαία), peculiar
to the Aenianians and Magnetes, and described by Xenophon in the
Anabasis. Such dances were frequently performed at banquets for the
entertainment of the guests, where also the tumblers (κυβιστῆρες)
were often introduced, who in the course of their dance flung
themselves on their head and alighted again upon their feet. These
tumblers were also accustomed to make their somersets over knives and
swords, which was called κυβιστάν εἰς μαχαίρας. We learn from Tacitus
that the German youths also used to dance among swords and spears
pointed at them. Other kinds of dances were frequently performed at
entertainments, in Rome as well as in Greece, by courtezans, many of
which were of a very indecent and lascivious nature. Among the dances
performed without arms one of the most important was the _Hormos_
(ὅρμος), which was danced at Sparta by youths and maidens together:
the youth danced first some movements suited to his age, and of a
military nature; the maiden followed in measured steps and with
feminine gestures. Another common dance at Sparta was the _bibasis_
(βίβασις), in which the dancer sprang rapidly from the ground and
struck the feet behind.--Dancing was common among the Romans in
ancient times, in connection with religious festivals and rites,
because the ancients thought that no part of the body should be free
from the influence of religion. The dances of the Salii, which were
performed by men of patrician families, are described elsewhere.
[ANCILE.] Dancing, however, was not performed by any Roman citizens
except in connection with religion, and it was considered disgraceful
for any freeman to dance. The mimetic dances of the Romans, which
were carried to such perfection under the empire, are described under
PANTOMIMUS. The dancers on the tight-rope (_funambuli_) under the
empire were as skilful as they are in the present day.

[Illustration: Tumbler. (Museo Borbonico, vol. VII. tav. 58.)]

SĂLŪTATŌRES, the name given in the later times of the republic, and
under the empire, to a class of men who obtained their living by
visiting the houses of the wealthy early in the morning, to pay their
respects to them (_salutare_), and to accompany them when they went
abroad. This arose from the visits which the clients were accustomed
to pay to their patrons, and degenerated in later times into the
above-mentioned practice: such persons seem to have obtained a good
living among the great number of wealthy and vain persons at Rome,
who were gratified by this attention. [SPORTULA.]

SAMBŪCA (σαμβύκη), a harp, was of oriental origin. The performances
of _sambucistriae_ (σαμβυκίστριαι) were only known to the early
Romans as luxuries brought over from Asia. _Sambuca_ was also the
name of a military engine, used to scale the walls and towers of
besieged cities. It was called by this name on account of its general
resemblance to the form of a harp.

SAMNĪTES. [GLADIATORES.]

SANDĂLĬUM (σανδάλιον or σάνδαλον), a kind of shoe worn only by women.
The sandalium must be distinguished from the _hypodema_ (ὑπόδημα),
which was a simple sole bound under the foot, whereas the sandalium
was a sole with a piece of leather covering the toes, so that it
formed the transition from the _hypodema_ to real shoes. The piece of
leather over the toes was called ζυγός or ζυγόν.

SANDĂPĬLA. [FUNUS.]

SARCŎPHĂGUS. [FUNUS.]

SARISSA. [HASTA.]

SARRĀCUM, a kind of common cart or waggon, which was used by the
country-people of Italy for conveying the produce of their fields,
trees, and the like, from one place to another.

SĂTŬRA, the root of which is _sat_, literally means a mixture of
all sorts of things. The name was accordingly applied by the Romans
in many ways, but always to things consisting of various parts or
ingredients, _e.g._ _lanx satura_, an offering consisting of various
fruits, such as were offered at harvest festivals and to Ceres; _lex
per saturam lata_, a law which contained several distinct regulations
at once, and to a species of poetry, afterwards called _Satira_.

SĀTURNĀLĬA, the festival of Saturnus, to whom the inhabitants of
Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of
civilized life. Falling towards the end of December, at the season
when the agricultural labours of the year were fully completed, it
was celebrated in ancient times by the rustic population as a sort
of joyous harvest-home, and in every age was viewed by all classes
of the community as a period of absolute relaxation and unrestrained
merriment. During its continuance no public business could be
transacted, the law courts were closed, the schools kept holiday,
to commence a war was impious, to punish a malefactor involved
pollution. Special indulgences were granted to the slaves of each
domestic establishment; they were relieved from all ordinary toils,
were permitted to wear the _pileus_, the badge of freedom, were
granted full freedom of speech, and partook of a banquet attired in
the clothes of their masters, and were waited upon by them at table.
All ranks devoted themselves to feasting and mirth, presents were
interchanged among friends, _cerei_ or wax tapers being the common
offering of the more humble to their superiors, and crowds thronged
the streets, shouting, _Io Saturnalia_ (this was termed _clamare
Saturnalia_), while sacrifices were offered with uncovered head,
from a conviction that no ill-omened sight would interrupt the rites
of such a happy day. Many of the peculiar customs of this festival
exhibit a remarkable resemblance to the sports of our own Christmas
and of the Italian Carnival. Thus on the Saturnalia public gambling
was allowed by the aediles, just as in the days of our ancestors the
most rigid were wont to countenance card-playing on Christmas-eve;
the whole population threw off the toga, wore a loose gown, called
_synthesis_, and walked about with the pileus on their heads, which
reminds us of the dominos, the peaked caps, and other disguises worn
by masques and mummers; the _cerei_ were probably employed as the
_moccoli_ now are on the last night of the Carnival; and lastly,
one of the amusements in private society was the election of a mock
king, which at once calls to recollection the characteristic ceremony
of Twelfth-night. During the republic, although the whole month of
December was considered as dedicated to Saturn, only one day, the
XIV. Kal. Jan., was set apart for the sacred rites of the divinity.
When the month was lengthened by the addition of two days upon the
adoption of the Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia fell on the XVI.
Kal. Jan., which gave rise to confusion and mistakes among the more
ignorant portion of the people. To obviate this inconvenience, and
allay all religious scruples, Augustus enacted that three whole days,
the 17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in all time coming be
hallowed, thus embracing both the old and new style. Under the empire
the merry-making lasted for seven days, and three different festivals
were celebrated during this period. First came the _Saturnalia_
proper, commencing on XVI. Kal. Dec., followed by the _Opalia_,
anciently coincident with the Saturnalia, on XIV. Kal. Jan.; these
two together lasted for five days, and the sixth and seventh were
occupied with the _Sigillaria_, so called from little earthenware
figures (_sigilla_, _oscilla_) exposed for sale at this season, and
given as toys to children.

SCALPTŪRA or SCULPTŪRA, originally signified cutting figures out of
a solid material, but was more particularly applied to the art of
cutting figures into the material (intaglios), which was chiefly
applied to producing seals and matrices for the mints; and 2. the
art of producing raised figures (cameos), which served for the most
part as ornaments. _Sculpture_ in our sense of the word was usually
designated by the term STATUARIA. The first artist who is mentioned
as an engraver of stones is Theodoras, the son of Telecles, the
Samian, who engraved the stone in the ring of Polycrates. The most
celebrated among them was Pyrgoteles, who engraved the seal-rings
for Alexander the Great. Several of the successors of Alexander and
other wealthy persons adopted the custom of adorning their gold and
silver vessels, craters, candelabras, and the like, with precious
stones on which raised figures (cameos) were worked. The art was
in a particularly flourishing state at Rome under Augustus and his
successors, in the hands of Dioscurides and other artists, many of
whose works are still preserved. Numerous specimens of intaglios and
cameos are still preserved in the various museums of Europe.

SCAMNUM, _dim._ SCĂBELLTUM, a step which was placed before the beds
of the ancients in order to assist persons in getting into them, as
some were very high: others which were lower required also lower
steps, which were called _scabella_. A scamnum was also used as a
footstool. A scamnum extended in length becomes a bench, and in
this sense the word is frequently used. The benches in ships were
sometimes called scamna.

SCĒNA. [THEATRUM.]

SCEPTRUM (σκῆπτρον), which originally denoted a simple staff or
walking-stick, was emblematic of station and authority. In ancient
authors the sceptre is represented as belonging more especially
to kings, princes, and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by
judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers. The sceptre descended
from father to son, and might be committed to any one in order to
express the transfer of authority. Those who bore the sceptre swore
by it, solemnly taking it in the right hand and raising it towards
heaven. The ivory sceptre of the kings of Rome, which descended to
the consuls, was surmounted by an eagle.

SCHOENUS (ὁ, ἡ, σχοῖνος), an Egyptian and Persian measure, the length
of which is stated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 parasangs. It was
used especially for measuring land.

SCORPĬO. [TORMENTUM.]

SCRĪBAE, public notaries or clerks, in the pay of the Roman state.
They were chiefly employed in making up the public accounts,
copying out laws, and recording the proceedings of the different
functionaries of the state. The phrase _scriptum facere_ was used
to denote their occupation. Being very numerous, they were divided
into companies or classes (_decuriae_), and were assigned by lot to
different magistrates, whence they were named Quaestorii, Aedilicii,
or Praetorii, from the officers of state to whom they were attached.
The appointment to the office of a “scriba” seems to have been
either made on the nomination of a magistrate, or purchased. Horace,
for instance, bought for himself a “patent place as clerk in the
treasury” (_scriptum quaestorium comparavit_). In Cicero’s time,
indeed, it seems that any one might become a scriba or public clerk
by purchase, and consequently, as freedmen and their sons were
eligible, and constituted a great portion of the public clerks at
Rome, the office was not highly esteemed, though frequently held by
ingenui or free-born citizens. Very few instances are recorded of
the scribae being raised to the higher dignities of the state. Cn.
Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius, was raised to the office of
curule aedile in gratitude for his making public the various forms
of actions, which had previously been the exclusive property of the
patricians [ACTIO]; but the returning officer refused to acquiesce in
his election till he had given up his books and left his profession.

SCRĪNĬUM. [CAPSA.]

SCRIPTA DUŎDĔCIM. [LATRUNCULI.]

SCRIPTŪRA, that part of the revenue of the Roman Republic which was
derived from letting out, as pasture land, those portions of the
ager publicus which were not taken into cultivation. The names for
such parts of the ager publicus were, _pascua publica_, _saltus_,
or _silvae_. They were let by the censors to the publicani, like
all other vectigalia; and the persons who sent their cattle to
graze on such public pastures had to pay a certain tax or duty to
the publicani, which of course varied according to the number and
quality of the cattle which they kept upon them. The publicani had
to keep the lists of persons who sent their cattle upon the public
pastures, together with the number and quality of the cattle. From
this registering (_scribere_) the duty itself was called _scriptura_,
the public pasture land _ager scripturarius_, and the publicani, or
their agents who raised the tax, _scripturarii_. The Lex Thoria (B.C.
111) did away with the scriptura in Italy, where the public pastures
were very numerous and extensive, especially in Apulia, and the lands
themselves were now sold or distributed. In the provinces, where the
public pastures were also let out in the same manner, the practice
continued until the time of the empire; but afterwards the scriptura
is no longer mentioned.

SCRŪPŬLUM, or more properly SCRIPULUM or SCRIPLUM (γράμμα), the
smallest denomination of weight among the Romans. It was the 24th
part of the UNCIA, or the 288th of the LIBRA, and therefore = 18·06
grains English, which is about the average weight of the scrupular
aurei still in existence. [AURUM.] As a square measure, it was the
smallest division of the jugerum, which contained 288 scrupula.
[JUGERUM.]

SCŪTUM (θυρεός), the Roman shield worn by the heavy-armed infantry,
instead of being round, like the Greek CLIPEUS, was adapted to the
form of the human body, by being made either oval or of the shape
of a door, (θύρα), which it also resembled in being made of wood or
wicker-work, and from which consequently its Greek name was derived.
Polybius says that the dimensions of the scutum were 4 feet by 2½.

[Illustration: Scuta, shields. (Bartoli, Arcus Triumph.)]

SCỸTĂLĒ (σκυτάλη) is the name applied to a secret mode of writing, by
which the Spartan ephors communicated with their kings and generals
when abroad. When a king or general left Sparta, the ephors gave to
him a staff of a definite length and thickness, and retained for
themselves another of precisely the same size. When they had any
communications to make to him, they cut the material upon which they
intended to write into the shape of a narrow riband, wound it round
their staff, and then wrote upon it the message which they had to
send to him. When the strip of writing material was taken from the
staff, nothing but single letters appeared, and in this state the
strip was sent to the general, who, after having wound it round his
staff, was able to read the communication.

SCỸTHAE (Σκύθαι). [DEMOSII.]

SĔCESPĬTA, an instrument used by the Roman priests in killing the
victims at sacrifices, probably an axe. In the annexed coin, the
reverse represents a culter, a simpuvium, and a secespita.

[Illustration: Secespita, Culter, and Simpuvium. (Coin of Sulpicia
Gens.)]

SECTĬO, the sale of a man’s property by the state (_publice_). This
was done in consequence of a condemnatio, and for the purpose of
repayment to the state of such sums of money as the condemned person
had improperly appropriated; or in consequence of a proscriptio.
Sometimes the things sold were called _sectio_. Those who bought the
property were called _sectores_. The property was sold _sub hasta_.

SECTOR. [SECTIO.]

SĔCŪRIS (ἀξινη, πέλεκυς), an axe or hatchet. The axe was either made
with a single edge, or with a blade or head on each side of the haft,
the latter kind being denominated _bipennis_. The axe was used as a
weapon of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations. It was a part of the
Roman fasces. [FASCES.]

SĔCŪTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.]

[Illustration: Sellae Curules. (The top figure from the Vatican
collection; the two bottom figures from the Museum at Naples.)]

SELLA, the general term for a seat or chair of any description.--(1)
SELLA CURULIS, the chair of state. _Curulis_ is derived by the
ancient writers from _currus_, but it more probably contains the
same root as _curia_. The sella curulis is said to have been used at
Rome from a very remote period as an emblem of kingly power, having
been imported, along with various other insignia of royalty, from
Etruria. Under the republic the right of sitting upon this chair
belonged to the consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors; to
the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to those whom he deputed to
act under himself, as the _magister equitum_, since he might be said
to comprehend all magistracies within himself. After the downfall of
the constitution, it was assigned to the emperors also, or to their
statues in their absence; to the augustales, and perhaps, to the
praefectus urbi. It was displayed upon all great public occasions,
especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the
praetor when he administered justice. In the provinces it was
assumed by inferior magistrates, when they exercised proconsular or
propraetorian authority. We find it occasionally exhibited on the
medals of foreign monarchs likewise, as on those of Ariobarzanes
II. of Cappadocia, for it was the practice of the Romans to present
a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a toga praetexta, and such-like
ornaments, as tokens of respect and confidence to those rulers whose
friendship they desired to cultivate. The sella curulis appears
from the first to have been ornamented with ivory; and at a later
period it was overlaid with gold. In shape it was extremely plain,
closely resembling a common folding camp-stool with crooked legs. The
sella curulis is frequently represented upon the denarii of Roman
families. In the following cut are represented two pair of bronze
legs, belonging to a sella curulis, and likewise a sella curulis
itself.--(2) SELLA GESTATORIA, or FERTORIA, a sedan used both in
town and country, and by men as well as by women. It is expressly
distinguished from the LECTICA, a portable bed or sofa, in which the
person carried lay in a recumbent position, while the _sella_ was
a portable chair, in which the occupant sat upright. It differed
from the _cathedra_ also, but in what the difference consisted,
it is not easy to determine. [CATHEDRA.] It appears not to have
been introduced until long after the lectica was common, since we
scarcely, if ever, find any allusion to it until the period of the
empire. The sella was sometimes entirely open, but more frequently
shut in. It was made sometimes of plain leather, and sometimes
ornamented with bone, ivory, silver, or gold, according to the
fortune of the proprietor. It was furnished with a pillow to support
the head and neck (_cervical_); the motion was so easy that one might
study without inconvenience, while at the same time it afforded a
healthful exercise.--(3) Chairs for ordinary domestic purposes have
been discovered in excavations, or are seen represented in ancient
frescoes, many displaying great taste.

[Illustration: Sellae, Chairs. (The right-hand figure from the
Vatican collection; the left-hand figure from a Painting at Pompeii.)]

SĒMIS, SĒMISSIS. [AS.]

SĒMUNCĬA. [UNCIA.]

SĒMUNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [FENUS.]

SĔNĀTUS. In all the republics of antiquity the government was divided
between a senate and a popular assembly; and in cases where a king
stood at the head of affairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the
king had little more than the executive. A senate in the early times
was always regarded as an assembly of elders, which is in fact the
meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the Spartan (γερουσία), and its
members were elected from among the nobles of the nation. The number
of senators in the ancient republics always bore a distinct relation
to the number of tribes of which the nation was composed. [BOULE;
GEROUSIA.] Hence in the earliest times, when Rome consisted of only
one tribe, its senate consisted of one hundred members (_senatores_
or _patres_; compare PATRICII), and when the Sabine tribe or the
Tities became united with the Latin tribe or the Ramnes, the number
of senators was increased to two hundred. This number was again
augmented to three hundred by Tarquinius Priscus, when the third
tribe or the Luceres became incorporated with the Roman state. The
new senators added by Tarquinius Priscus were distinguished from
those belonging to the two older tribes by the appellation _patres
minorum gentium_, as previously those who represented the Tities had
been distinguished, by the same name, from those who represented
the Ramnes. Under Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators is
said to have become very much diminished, as he is reported to have
put many to death and sent others into exile. This account however
appears to be greatly exaggerated, and it is probable that several
vacancies in the senate arose from many of the senators accompanying
the tyrant into his exile. The vacancies which had thus arisen were
filled up immediately after the establishment of the republic, when
several noble plebeians of equestrian rank were made senators. These
new senators were distinguished from the old ones by the name of
_Conscripti_; and hence the customary mode of addressing the whole
senate henceforth always was: _Patres Conscripti_, that is, _Patres
et Conscripti_.--The number of 300 senators appears to have remained
unaltered for several centuries. The first permanent increase to
their number was made by Sulla, and the senate seems henceforth
to have consisted of between five and six hundred. Julius Caesar
augmented the number to 900, and raised to this dignity even common
soldiers, freedmen, and peregrini. Augustus cleared the senate of
the unworthy members, who were contemptuously called by the people
_Orcini senatores_, and reduced its number to 600.--In the time
of the kings the senate was probably elected by the gentes, each
gens appointing one member as its representative; and as there
were 300 gentes, there were consequently 300 senators. The whole
senate was divided into decuries, each of which corresponded to a
curia. When the senate consisted of only one hundred members, there
were accordingly only ten decuries of senators; and ten senators,
one being taken from each decury, formed the _Decem Primi_, who
represented the ten curies. When subsequently the representatives
of the two other tribes were admitted into the senate, the Ramnes
with their decem primi retained for a time their superiority over
the two other tribes, and gave their votes first. The first among
the decem primi was the _princeps senatus_, who was appointed by
the king, and was at the same time custos urbis. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.]
Respecting the age at which a person might be elected into the senate
during the kingly period, we know no more than what is indicated
by the name senator itself, that is, that they were persons of
advanced age.--Soon after the establishment of the republic, though
at what time is uncertain, the right of appointing senators passed
from the gentes into the hands of the consuls, consular tribunes,
and subsequently of the censors. At the same time, the right which
the magistrates possessed of electing senators was by no means an
arbitrary power, for the senators were usually taken from among
those whom the people had previously invested with a magistracy,
so that in reality the people themselves always nominated the
candidates for the senate, which on this account remained, as before,
a representative assembly. After the institution of the censorship,
the censors alone had the right of introducing new members into
the senate from among the ex-magistrates, and of excluding such
as they deemed unworthy. [CENSOR.] The exclusion was effected by
simply passing over the names, and not entering them on the lists of
senators, whence such men were called _Praeteriti Senatores_. On one
extraordinary occasion the eldest among the ex-censors was invested
with dictatorial power for the purpose of filling up vacancies in
the senate.--As all curule magistrates, and also the quaestors, had
by virtue of their office a seat in the senate, even if they had not
been elected senators, we must distinguish between two classes of
senators, viz., real senators, or such as had been regularly raised
to their dignity by the magistrates or the censors, and such as had,
by virtue of the office which they held or had held, a right to
take their seats in the senate and to speak (_sententiam dicere_,
_jus sententiae_), but not to vote. To this ordo senatorius also
belonged the pontifex maximus and the flamen dialis. Though these
senators had no right to vote, they might, when the real senators
had voted, step over or join the one or the other party, whence they
were called _Senatores Pedarii_, an appellation which had in former
times been applied to those juniores who were not consulars. When at
length all the state offices had become equally accessible to the
plebeians and the patricians, and when the majority of offices were
held by the former, their number in the senate naturally increased in
proportion. The senate had gradually become an assembly representing
the people, as formerly it had represented the populus, and down to
the last century of the republic the senatorial dignity was only
regarded as one conferred by the people. But notwithstanding this
apparently popular character of the senate, it was never a popular
or democratic assembly, for now its members belonged to the nobiles,
who were as aristocratic as the patricians. [NOBILES.] The office of
princeps senatus, which had become independent of that of praetor
urbanus, was now given by the censors, and at first always to the
eldest among the ex-censors, but afterwards to any other senator
whom they thought most worthy; and unless there was any charge to
be made against him, he was re-elected at the next lustrum. This
distinction, however, great as it was, afforded neither power nor
advantages, and did not even confer the privilege of presiding at the
meetings of the senate, which only belonged to those magistrates who
had the right of convoking the senate.--During the republican period
no senatorial census existed, although senators naturally always
belonged to the wealthiest classes. The institution of a census for
senators belongs to the time of the empire. Augustus first fixed
it at 400,000 sesterces, afterwards increased it to double this
sum, and at last even to 1,200,000 sesterces. Those senators whose
property did not amount to this sum received grants from the emperor
to make it up. As regards the age at which a person might become a
senator, we have no express statement for the time of the republic,
although it appears to have been fixed by some custom or law, as
the aetas senatoria is frequently mentioned, especially during the
latter period of the republic. But we may by induction discover the
probable age. We know that, according to the lex annalis of the
tribune Villius, the age fixed for the quaestorship was 31. Now as
it might happen that a quaestor was made a senator immediately after
the expiration of his office, we may presume that the earliest age
at which a man could become a senator was 32. Augustus at last fixed
the senatorial age at 25, which appears to have remained unaltered
throughout the time of the empire.--No senator was allowed to carry
on any mercantile business. About the commencement of the second
Punic war, some senators appear to have violated this law or custom,
and in order to prevent its recurrence a law was passed, with the
vehement opposition of the senate, that none of its members should
be permitted to possess a ship of more than 300 amphorae in tonnage,
as this was thought sufficiently large to convey to Rome the produce
of their estates abroad. It is clear, however, that this law was
frequently violated.--Regular meetings of the senate (_senatus
legitimus_) took place during the republic, and probably during the
kingly period also, on the calends, nones, and ides of every month:
extraordinary meetings (_senatus indictus_) might be convoked on any
other day, with the exception of those which were atri, and those on
which comitia were held. The right of convoking the senate during the
kingly period belonged to the king, or to his vicegerent, the custos
urbis. This right was during the republic transferred to the curule
magistrates, and at last to the tribunes also. If a senator did not
appear on a day of meeting, he was liable to a fine, for which a
pledge was taken (_pignoris captio_) until it was paid. Towards the
end of the republic it was decreed, that during the whole month of
February the senate should give audience to foreign ambassadors on
all days on which the senate could lawfully meet, and that no other
matters should be discussed until these affairs were settled.--The
places where the meetings of the senate were held (_curiae_,
_senacula_) were always inaugurated by the augurs. [TEMPLUM.] The
most ancient place was the Curia Hostilia, in which alone originally
a senatus-consultum could be made. Afterwards, however, several
temples were used for this purpose, such as the temple of Concordia,
a place near the temple of Bellona [LEGATUS], and one near the porta
Capena. Under the emperors the senate also met in other places: under
Caesar, the Curia Julia, a building of extraordinary splendour, was
commenced; but subsequently meetings of the senate were frequently
held in the house of a consul.--The subjects laid before the senate
belonged partly to the internal affairs of the state, partly to
legislation, and partly to finance; and no measure could be brought
before the populus without having previously been discussed and
prepared by the senate. The senate was thus the medium through which
all affairs of the whole government had to pass: it considered and
discussed whatever measures the king thought proper to introduce,
and had, on the other hand, a perfect control over the assembly
of the populus, which could only accept or reject what the senate
brought before it. When a king died, the royal dignity, until a
successor was elected, was transferred to the Decem Primi, each of
whom in rotation held this dignity for five days. Under the republic,
the senate had at first the right of proposing to the comitia the
candidates for magistracies, but this right was subsequently lost:
the comitia centuriata became quite free in regard to elections, and
were no longer dependent upon the proposal of the senate. The curies
only still possessed the right of sanctioning the election; but in
the year B.C. 299 they were compelled to sanction any election of
magistrates which the comitia might make, before it took place, and
this soon after became law by the Lex Maenia. When at last the curies
no longer assembled for this empty show of power, the senate stepped
into their place, and henceforth in elections, and soon after also
in matters of legislation, the senate had previously to sanction
whatever the comitia might decide. After the Lex Hortensia a decree
of the comitia tributa became law, even without the sanction of
the senate. The original state of things had thus gradually become
reversed, and the senate had lost very important branches of its
power, which had all been gained by the comitia tributa. In its
relation to the comitia centuriata, however, the ancient rules were
still in force, as laws, declarations of war, conclusions of peace,
treaties, &c., were brought before them, and decided by them on the
proposal of the senate.--The powers of the senate, after both orders
were placed upon a perfect equality, may be thus briefly summed up.
The senate continued to have the supreme superintendence in all
matters of religion; it determined upon the manner in which a war was
to be conducted, what legions were to be placed at the disposal of a
commander, and whether new ones were to be levied; it decreed into
what provinces the consuls and praetors were to be sent [PROVINCIA],
and whose imperium was to be prolonged. The commissioners who were
generally sent out to settle the administration of a newly-conquered
country, were always appointed by the senate. All embassies for the
conclusion of peace or treaties with foreign states were sent out by
the senate, and such ambassadors were generally senators themselves,
and ten in number. The senate alone carried on the negotiations with
foreign ambassadors, and received the complaints of subject or allied
nations, who always regarded the senate as their common protector.
By virtue of this office of protector it also settled all disputes
which might arise among the municipia and colonies of Italy, and
punished all heavy crimes committed in Italy, which might endanger
the public peace and security. Even in Rome itself, the judices to
whom the praetor referred important cases, both public and private,
were taken from among the senators, and in extraordinary cases the
senate appointed especial commissions to investigate them; but
such a commission, if the case in question was a capital offence
committed by a citizen, required the sanction of the people. When
the republic was in danger, the senate might confer unlimited power
upon the magistrates by the formula, _Videant consules, ne quid
respublica detrimenti capiat_, which was equivalent to a declaration
of martial law within the city. This general care for the internal
and external welfare of the republic included, as before, the right
of disposing of the finances requisite for these purposes. Hence all
the revenue and expenditure of the republic were under the direct
administration of the senate, and the censors and quaestors were
only its ministers or agents. [CENSOR; QUAESTOR.] All the expenses
necessary for the maintenance of the armies required the sanction
of the senate, before anything could be done, and it might even
prevent the triumph of a returning general, by refusing to assign the
money necessary for it. There are, however, instances of a general
triumphing without the consent of the senate.--How many members were
required to be present in order to constitute a legal assembly, is
uncertain, though it appears that there existed some regulations on
this point, and there is one instance on record, in which at least
one hundred senators were required to be present. The presiding
magistrate opened the business with the words _Quod bonum, faustum,
felix fortunatumque sit populo Romano Quiritibus_, and then laid
before the assembly (_referre_, _relatio_) what he had to propose.
Towards the end of the republic the order in which the question was
put to the senators appears to have depended upon the discretion of
the presiding consul, who called upon each member by pronouncing his
name; but he usually began with the princeps senatus, or if consules
designati were present, with them. The consul generally observed
all the year round the same order in which he had commenced on the
first of January. A senator when called upon to speak might do so
at full length, and even introduce subjects not directly connected
with the point at issue. It depended upon the president which of the
opinions expressed he would put to the vote, and which he would pass
over. The majority of votes always decided a question. The majority
was ascertained either by _numeratio_ or _discessio_; that is, the
president either counted the votes, or the members who voted on the
same side separated from those who voted otherwise. The latter mode
seems to have been the usual one. What the senate determined was
called _senatus consultum_, because the consul, who introduced the
business, was said _senatum consulere_. In the enacting part of a
lex the populus were said _jubere_, and in a plebiscitum _scire_;
in a senatusconsultum the senate was said _censere_. Certain forms
were observed in drawing up a senatusconsultum, of which there is an
example in Cicero: “S. C. Auctoritates Pridie Kal. Octob. in Aede
Apollinis, scribendo adfuerunt L. Domitius Cn. Filius Ahenobarbus,
&c. Quod M. Marcellus Consul V. F. (_verba fecit_) de prov. Cons. D.
E. R. I. C. (_de ea re ita censuerunt Uti, &c._)” The names of the
persons who were witnesses to the drawing up of the senatusconsultum
were called the _auctoritates_, and these auctoritates were cited
as evidence of the fact of the persons named in them having been
present at the drawing up of the S.C. There can be no doubt that
certain persons were required to be present _scribendo_, but others
might assist if they chose, and a person in this way might testify
his regard for another on behalf of whom or with reference to whom
the S. C. was made. Besides the phrase _scribendo adesse_, there are
_esse ad scribendum_ and _poni ad scribendum_. When a S. C. was made
on the motion of a person, it was said to be made _in sententiam
ejus_. If the S. C. was carried, it was written on tablets, and
placed in the Aerarium. Senatusconsulta were, properly speaking,
laws, for it is clear that the senate had legislative power even
in the republican period; but it is difficult to determine how far
their legislative power extended. A _decretum_ of the senate was a
rule made by the senate as to some matter which was strictly within
its competence, and thus differed from a _senatusconsultum_, which
was a law; but these words are often used indiscriminately and with
little precision. Many of the senatusconsulta of the republican
period were only determinations of the senate, which became leges
by being carried in the comitia. One instance of this kind occurred
on the occasion of the trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries
of the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subject of the trial was proposed
to the comitia ex senatusconsulto, which is also spoken of as the
_auctoritas_ of the senate. A senate was not allowed to be held
before sunrise or to be prolonged after sunset: on extraordinary
emergencies, however, this regulation was set aside.--During the
latter part of the republic the senate was degraded in various ways
by Sulla, Caesar, and others, and on many occasions it was only an
instrument in the hands of the men in power. In this way it became
prepared for the despotic government of the emperors, when it was
altogether the creature and obedient instrument of the princeps. The
emperor himself was generally also princeps senatus, and had the
power of convoking both ordinary and extraordinary meetings, although
the consuls, praetors and tribunes continued to have the same right.
The ordinary meetings, according to a regulation of Augustus, were
held twice in every month. In the reign of Tiberius the election of
magistrates was transferred from the people to the senate, which,
however, was enjoined to take especial notice of those candidates who
were recommended to it by the emperor. At the demise of an emperor
the senate had the right of appointing his successor, in case no one
had been nominated by the emperor himself; but the senate very rarely
had an opportunity of exercising this right, as it was usurped by the
soldiers. The aerarium at first still continued nominally to be under
the control of the senate, but the emperors gradually took it under
their own exclusive management, and the senate retained nothing but
the administration of the funds of the city (_arca publica_), which
were distinct both from the aerarium and from the fiscus. Augustus
ordained that no accusations should any longer be brought before the
comitia, and instead of them he raised the senate to a high court
of justice, upon which he conferred the right of taking cognisance
of capital offences committed by senators, of crimes against the
state and the person of the emperors, and of crimes committed by the
provincial magistrates in the administration of their provinces.
Respecting the provinces of the senate, see PROVINCIA. Under the
empire, senatusconsulta began to take the place of leges, properly so
called, and as the senate was, with the exception of the emperor, the
only legislating body, such senatusconsulta are frequently designated
by the name of the consuls in whose year of office they were
passed.--The distinctions and privileges enjoyed by senators were:
1. The tunica with a broad purple stripe (_latus clavus_) in front,
which was woven in it, and not, as is commonly believed, sewed upon
it. 2. A kind of short boot, with the letter C. on the front of the
foot. This C. is generally supposed to mean _centum_, and to refer
to the original number of 100 (_centum_) senators. 3. The right of
sitting in the orchestra in the theatres and amphitheatres. This
distinction was first procured for the senators by Scipio Africanus
Major, 194 B.C. 4. On a certain day in the year a sacrifice was
offered to Jupiter in the Capitol, and on this occasion the senators
alone had a feast in the Capitol; the right was called the _jus
publice epulandi_. 5. The _jus liberae legationis_. [LEGATUS, p. 224.]

SĔNĬŌRES. [COMITIA.]

SEPTEMVĬRI ĔPŬLŌNES. [EPULONES.]

SEPTĬMONTĬUM, a Roman festival which was held in the month of
December. It was celebrated by the montani, or the inhabitants of the
seven ancient hills or rather districts of Rome, who offered on this
day sacrifices to the gods in their respective districts. These sacra
were, like the Paganalia, not sacra publica, but privata. They were
believed to have been instituted to commemorate the enclosure of the
seven hills of Rome within the walls of the city, and must certainly
be referred to a time when the Capitoline, Quirinal, and Viminal were
not yet incorporated with Rome.

SEPTUM. [COMITIA, p. 107.]

SEPTUNX. [AS.]

SĔPULCRUM. [FUNUS.]

SĔRA. [JANUA.]

SĒRĬCUM (σηρικόν), silk, also called _bombycinum_. Raw silk was
brought from the interior of Asia, and manufactured in Cos, as early
as the fourth century B.C. From this island it appears that the Roman
ladies obtained their most splendid garments [COA VESTIS], which
were remarkably thin, sometimes of a fine purple dye, and variegated
with transverse stripes of gold. Silk was supposed to come from
the country of the Seres in Asia, whence a silk garment is usually
called _Serica vestis_. Under the empire the rage for such garments
was constantly on the increase. Even men aspired to be adorned with
silk, and hence the senate, early in the reign of Tiberius, enacted
_ne vestis Serica viros fœdaret_. The eggs of the silkworm were first
brought into Europe in the age of Justinian, A.D. 530, in the hollow
stem of a plant from “Serinda,” which was probably Khotan in Little
Bucharia, by some monks who had learnt the method of hatching and
rearing them.

SERTA. [CORONA.]

SERVUS (δοῦλος), a slave. (1) GREEK. Slavery existed almost
throughout the whole of Greece; and Aristotle says that a complete
household is that which consists of slaves and freemen, and he
defines a slave to be a living working-tool and possession. None of
the Greek philosophers ever seem to have objected to slavery as a
thing morally wrong; Plato in his perfect state only desires that
no Greeks should be made slaves by Greeks, and Aristotle defends
the justice of the institution on the ground of a diversity of
race, and divides mankind into the free and those who are slaves by
nature; under the latter description he appears to have regarded
all barbarians in the Greek sense of the word, and therefore
considers their slavery justifiable. In the most ancient times
there are said to have been no slaves in Greece, but we find them
in the Homeric poems, though by no means so generally as in later
times. They are usually prisoners taken in war, who serve their
conquerors: but we also read as well of the purchase and sale of
slaves. They were, however, at that time mostly confined to the
houses of the wealthy. There were two kinds of slavery among the
Greeks. One species arose when the inhabitants of a country were
subdued by an invading tribe, and reduced to the condition of serfs
or bondsmen. They lived upon and cultivated the land which their
masters had appropriated to themselves, and paid them a certain
rent. They also attended their masters in war. They could not be
sold out of the country or separated from their families, and could
acquire property. Such were the Helots of Sparta [HELOTES], and
the Penestae of Thessaly [PENESTAE]. The other species of slavery
consisted of domestic slaves acquired by purchase, who were entirely
the property of their masters, and could be disposed of like any
other goods and chattels: these were the δοῦλοι properly so called,
and were the kind of slaves that existed at Athens and Corinth. In
commercial cities slaves were very numerous, as they performed the
work of the artisans and manufacturers of modern towns. In poorer
republics, which had little or no capital, and which subsisted
wholly by agriculture, they would be few: thus in Phocis and Locris
there are said to have been originally no domestic slaves. The
majority of slaves was purchased; few comparatively were born in the
family of the master, partly because the number of female slaves
was very small in comparison with the male, and partly because the
cohabitation of slaves was discouraged, as it was considered cheaper
to purchase than to rear slaves. It was a recognised rule of Greek
national law that the persons of those who were taken prisoners in
war became the property of the conqueror, but it was the practice
for Greeks to give liberty to those of their own nation on payment
of a ransom. Consequently almost all slaves in Greece, with the
exception of the serfs above-mentioned, were barbarians. The chief
supply seems to have come from the Greek colonies in Asia Minor,
which had abundant opportunities of obtaining them from their own
neighbourhood and the interior of Asia. A considerable number of
slaves also came from Thrace, where the parents frequently sold
their children.--At Athens, as well as in other states, there was a
regular slave-market, called the κύκλος, because the slaves stood
round in a circle. They were also sometimes sold by auction, and were
then placed on a stone, as is now done when slaves are sold in the
United States of North America: the same was also the practice in
Rome, whence the phrase _homo de lapide emtus_. [AUCTIO.] At Athens
the number of slaves was far greater than the free population. Even
the poorest citizen had a slave for the care of his household, and
in every moderate establishment many were employed for all possible
occupations, as bakers, cooks, tailors, &c.--Slaves either worked on
their masters’ account or their own (in the latter case they paid
their masters a certain sum a day); or they were let out by their
master on hire, either for the mines or any other kind of labour,
or as hired servants for wages. The rowers on board the ships were
usually slaves, who either belonged to the state or to private
persons, who let them out to the state on payment of a certain sum.
It appears that a considerable number of persons kept large gangs
of slaves merely for the purpose of letting out, and found this
a profitable mode of investing their capital. Great numbers were
required for the mines, and in most cases the mine-lessees would
be obliged to hire some, as they would not have sufficient capital
to purchase as many as they wanted. The rights of possession with
regard to slaves differed in no respect from any other property;
they could be given or taken as pledges. The condition, however, of
Greek slaves was upon the whole better than that of Roman ones, with
the exception perhaps of Sparta, where, according to Plutarch, it is
the best place in the world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a
slave. At Athens especially the slaves seem to have been allowed a
degree of liberty and indulgence which was never granted to them at
Rome. The life and person of a slave at Athens were also protected
by the law: a person who struck or maltreated a slave was liable
to an action; a slave too could not be put to death without legal
sentence. He could even take shelter from the cruelty of his master
in the temple of Theseus, and there claim the privilege of being
sold by him. The person of a slave was, of course, not considered
so sacred as that of a freeman: his offences were punished with
corporal chastisement, which was the last mode of punishment
inflicted on a freeman; he was not believed upon his oath, but
his evidence in courts of justice was always taken with torture.
Notwithstanding the generally mild treatment of slaves in Greece,
their insurrection was not unfrequent: but these insurrections in
Attica were usually confined to the mining slaves, who were treated
with more severity than the others. Slaves were sometimes manumitted
at Athens, though not so frequently as at Rome. Those who were
manumitted (ἀπελεύθεροι) did not become citizens, as they might at
Rome, but passed into the condition of _metoici_. They were obliged
to honour their former master as their patron (προστάτης), and to
fulfil certain duties towards him, the neglect of which rendered them
liable to the δίκη ἀποστασίου, by which they might again be sold
into slavery. Respecting the public slaves at Athens, see DEMOSII.
It appears that there was a tax upon slaves at Athens, which was
probably three oboli a year for each slave.--(2) ROMAN. The Romans
viewed liberty as the natural state, and slavery as a condition which
was contrary to the natural state. The mutual relation of slave and
master among the Romans was expressed by the terms _Servus_ and
_Dominus_; and the power and interest which the dominus had over and
in the slave was expressed by _Dominium_. Slaves existed at Rome
in the earliest times of which we have any record; but they do not
appear to have been numerous under the kings and in the earliest
ages of the republic. The different trades and the mechanical arts
were chiefly carried on by the clients of the patricians, and the
small farms in the country were cultivated for the most part by
the labours of the proprietor and of his own family. But as the
territories of the Roman state were extended, the patricians obtained
possession of large estates out of the ager publicus, since it was
the practice of the Romans to deprive a conquered people of part
of their land. These estates probably required a larger number of
hands for their cultivation than could readily be obtained among the
free population, and since the freemen were constantly liable to be
called away from their work to serve in the armies, the lands began
to be cultivated almost entirely by slave labour. Through war and
commerce slaves could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, and
their number soon became so great, that the poorer class of freemen
was thrown almost entirely out of employment. This state of things
was one of the chief arguments used by Licinius and the Gracchi for
limiting the quantity of public land which a person might possess.
In Sicily, which supplied Rome with so great a quantity of corn,
the number of agricultural slaves was immense: the oppressions to
which they were exposed drove them twice to open rebellion, and
their numbers enabled them to defy for a time the Roman power. The
first of these servile wars began in B.C. 134 and ended in B.C. 132,
and the second commenced in B.C. 102 and lasted almost four years.
Long, however, after it had become the custom to employ large gangs
of slaves in the cultivation of the land, the number of those who
served as personal attendants still continued to be small. Persons
in good circumstances seem usually to have had one only to wait upon
them, who was generally called by the name of his master with the
word _por_ (that is, _puer_) affixed to it, as _Caipor_, _Lucipor_,
_Marcipor_, _Publipor_, _Quintipor_, &c. But during the latter times
of the republic and under the empire the number of domestic slaves
greatly increased, and in every family of importance there were
separate slaves to attend to all the necessities of domestic life. It
was considered a reproach to a man not to keep a considerable number
of slaves. The first question asked respecting a person’s fortune
was _Quot pascit servos_, “How many slaves does he keep?” Ten slaves
seem to have been the lowest number which a person could keep in the
age of Augustus, with a proper regard to respectability in society.
The immense number of prisoners taken in the constant wars of the
republic, and the increase of wealth and luxury, augmented the number
of slaves to a prodigious extent. A freedman under Augustus, who had
lost much property in the civil wars, left at his death as many as
4,116. Two hundred was no uncommon number for one person to keep. The
mechanical arts, which were formerly in the hands of the clients,
were now entirely exercised by slaves: a natural growth of things,
for where slaves perform certain duties or practise certain arts,
such duties or arts are thought degrading to a freeman. It must not
be forgotten, that the games of the amphitheatre required an immense
number of slaves trained for the purpose. [GLADIATORES.] Like the
slaves in Sicily, the gladiators in Italy rose in B.C. 73 against
their oppressors, and under the able generalship of Spartacus,
defeated a Roman consular army, and were not subdued till B.C. 71,
when 60,000 of them are said to have fallen in battle.--A slave
could not contract a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman was
_contubernium_; and no legal relation between him and his children
was recognized. A slave could have no property. He was not incapable
of acquiring property, but his acquisitions belonged to his master.
Slaves were not only employed in the usual domestic offices and in
the labours of the field, but also as factors or agents for their
masters in the management of business, and as mechanics, artisans,
and in every branch of industry. It may easily be conceived that,
under these circumstances, especially as they were often entrusted
with property to a large amount, there must have arisen a practice
of allowing the slave to consider part of his gains as his own; this
was his _Peculium_, a term also applicable to such acquisitions of
a filius-familias as his father allowed him to consider as his own.
[PATRIA POTESTAS.] According to strict law, the _peculium_ was the
property of the master, but according to usage, it was considered
to be the property of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed between
master and slave, that the slave should purchase his freedom with
his _peculium_ when it amounted to a certain sum. A runaway slave
(_fugitivus_) could not lawfully be received or harboured. The master
was entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased; and it was the duty
of all authorities to give him aid in recovering the slave. It was
the object of various laws to check the running away of slaves in
every way, and accordingly a runaway slave could not legally be an
object of sale. A class of persons called _Fugitivarii_ made it their
business to recover runaway slaves. A person was a slave either
jure gentium or jure civili. Under the republic, the chief supply
of slaves arose from prisoners taken in war, who were sold by the
quaestors with a crown on their heads (_sub corona venire, vendere_),
and usually on the spot where they were taken, as the care of a large
number of captives was inconvenient. Consequently slave-dealers
usually accompanied an army, and frequently after a great battle had
been gained many thousands were sold at once, when the slave-dealers
obtained them for a mere nothing. The slave trade was also carried
on to a great extent, and after the fall of Corinth and Carthage,
Delos was the chief mart for this traffic. When the Cilician pirates
had possession of the Mediterranean, as many as 10,000 slaves are
said to have been imported and sold there in one day. A large number
came from Thrace and the countries in the north of Europe, but the
chief supply was from Africa, and more especially Asia, whence we
frequently read of Phrygians, Lycians, Cappadocians, &c. as slaves.
The trade of slave-dealers (_mangones_) was considered disreputable;
but it was very lucrative, and great fortunes were frequently
realised from it. Slaves were usually sold by auction at Rome. They
were placed either on a raised stone (hence _de lapide emtus_), or a
raised platform (_catasta_), so that every one might see and handle
them, even if they did not wish to purchase them. Purchasers usually
took care to have them stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse
to as many tricks to conceal personal defects as the horse-jockeys of
modern times: sometimes purchasers called in the advice of medical
men. Newly imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and
those that came from the East had their ears bored, which we know was
a sign of slavery among many eastern nations. The slave-market, like
all other markets, was under the jurisdiction of the aediles, who
made many regulations by edicts respecting the sale of slaves. The
character of the slave was set forth in a scroll (_titulus_) hanging
around his neck, which was a warranty to the purchaser: the vendor
was bound to announce fairly all his defects, and if he gave a false
account had to take him back within six months from the time of his
sale, or make up to the purchaser what the latter had lost through
obtaining an inferior kind of slave to what had been warranted. The
chief points which the vendor had to warrant, were the health of
the slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and that he had not a
tendency to thievery, running away, or committing suicide. Slaves
sold without any warranty wore at the time of sale a cap (_pileus_)
upon their head. Slaves newly imported were generally preferred
for common work: those who had served long were considered artful
(_veteratores_); and the pertness and impudence of those born in
their master’s house, called _vernae_, were proverbial. The value
of slaves depended of course upon their qualifications; but under
the empire the increase of luxury and the corruption of morals led
purchasers to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves, or such as
ministered to the caprice or whim of the purchaser. Eunuchs always
fetched a very high price, and Martial speaks of beautiful boys who
sold for as much as 100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (885_l._ 8_s._
4_d._ and 1770_l._ 16_s._ 8_d._). Slaves who possessed a knowledge
of any art which might bring profit to their owners, also sold for a
large sum. Thus literary men and doctors frequently fetched a high
price, and also slaves fitted for the stage.--Slaves were divided
into many various classes: the first division was into public or
private. The former belonged to the state and public bodies, and
their condition was preferable to that of the common slaves. They
were less liable to be sold, and under less control, than ordinary
slaves: they also possessed the privilege of the testamenti factio
to the amount of one half of their property, which shows that they
were regarded in a different light from other slaves. Public slaves
were employed to take care of the public buildings, and to attend
upon magistrates and priests. A body of slaves belonging to one
person was called _familia_, but two were not considered sufficient
to constitute a _familia_. Private slaves were divided into urban
(_familia urbana_) and rustic (_familia rustica_); but the name of
urban was given to those slaves who served in the villa or country
residence as well as in the town house; so that the words urban and
rustic rather characterised the nature of their occupations than
the place where they served. Slaves were also arranged in certain
classes, which held a higher or a lower rank according to the nature
of their occupation. These classes are _ordinarii_, _vulgares_,
and _mediastini_.--_Ordinarii_ seem to have been those slaves who
had the superintendence of certain parts of the housekeeping. They
were always chosen from those who had the confidence of their
master, and they generally had certain slaves under them. To this
class the _actores_, _procuratores_, and _dispensatores_ belong,
who occur in the familia rustica as well as the familia urbana,
but in the former are almost the same as the _villici_. They were
stewards or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the slaves who
had the charge of the different stores, and who correspond to our
house-keepers and butlers: they are called _cellarii_, _promi_,
_condi_, _procuratores peni_, &c.--_Vulgares_ included the great
body of slaves in a house who had to attend to any particular duty
in the house, and to minister to the domestic wants of their master.
As there were distinct slaves or a distinct slave for almost every
department of household economy, as bakers (_pistores_), cooks
(_coqui_), confectioners (_dulciarii_), picklers (_salmentarii_),
&c., it is unnecessary to mention these more particularly. This
class also included the porters (_ostiarii_), the bed-chamber slaves
(_cubicularii_), the litter-bearers (_lecticarii_), and all personal
attendants of any kind.--_Mediastini_, the name given to slaves
used for any common purpose, was chiefly applied to certain slaves
belonging to the familia rustica.--The treatment of slaves of course
varied greatly, according to the disposition of their masters, but
they were upon the whole, as has been already remarked, treated with
greater severity and cruelty than among the Athenians. Originally the
master could use the slave as he pleased; under the republic the law
does not seem to have protected the person or life of the slave at
all; but the cruelty of masters was to some extent restrained under
the empire by various enactments. In early times, when the number of
slaves was small, they were treated with more indulgence, and more
like members of the family: they joined their masters in offering up
prayers and thanksgivings to the gods, and partook of their meals in
common with their masters, though not at the same table with them,
but upon benches (_subsellia_) placed at the foot of the lectus.
But with the increase of numbers and of luxury among masters, the
ancient simplicity of manners was changed: a certain quantity of
food was allowed them (_dimensum_ or _demensum_), which was granted
to them either monthly (_menstruum_) or daily (_diarium_). Their
chief food was the corn called _far_, of which either four or five
modii were granted them a month, or one Roman pound (_libra_) a
day. They also obtained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato allowed
his slaves a sextarius of oil a month and a modius of salt a year.
They also got a small quantity of wine, with an additional allowance
on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, and sometimes fruit, but seldom
vegetables. Butcher’s meat seems to have been hardly ever given
them. Under the republic they were not allowed to serve in the army,
though after the battle of Cannae, when the state was in imminent
danger, 8000 slaves were purchased by the state for the army, and
subsequently manumitted on account of their bravery. The offences
of slaves were punished with severity, and frequently with the
utmost barbarity. One of the mildest punishments was the removal
from the familia urbana to the rustica, where they were obliged to
work in chains or fetters. They were frequently beaten with sticks
or scourged with the whip. Runaway slaves (_fugitivi_) and thieves
(_fures_) were branded on the forehead with a mark (_stigma_),
whence they are said to be _notati_ or _inscripti_. Slaves were also
punished by being hung up by their hands with weights suspended to
their feet, or by being sent to work in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum.
[ERGASTULUM.] The carrying of the furca was a very common mode of
punishment. [FURCA.] The toilet of the Roman ladies was a dreadful
ordeal to the female slaves, who were often barbarously punished by
their mistresses for the slightest mistake in the arrangement of
the hair or a part of the dress. Masters might work their slaves
as many hours in the day as they pleased, but they usually allowed
them holidays on the public festivals. At the festival of Saturnus,
in particular, special indulgences were granted to all slaves, of
which an account is given under SATURNALIA. There was no distinctive
dress for slaves. It was once proposed in the senate to give slaves
a distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since it was considered
dangerous to show them their number. Male slaves were not allowed
to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise
they were dressed nearly in the same way as poor people, in clothes
of a dark colour (_pullati_) and slippers (_crepidae_). The rights
of burial, however, were not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans
regarded slavery as an institution of society, death was considered
to put an end to the distinction between slaves and freemen. Slaves
were sometimes even buried with their masters, and we find funeral
inscriptions addressed to the Dii Manes of slaves (_Dis Manibus_).

SESCUNX. [AS.]

SESTERTĬUS, a Roman coin, which properly belonged to the silver
coinage, in which it was one-fourth of the denarius, and therefore
equal to 2½ asses. Hence the name, which is an abbreviation of
_semis tertius_ (sc. _nummus_), the Roman mode of expressing 2½.
The word _nummus_ is often expressed with _sestertius_, and often
it stands alone, meaning _sestertius_. Hence the symbol HS or IIS,
which is used to designate the sestertius. It stands either for LLS
(_Libra Libra et Semis_), or for IIS, the two I’s merely forming
the numeral two (sc. _asses_ or _librae_), and the whole being in
either case equivalent to _dupondius et semis_. When the as was
reduced to half an ounce, and the number of asses in the denarius
was made sixteen instead of ten [AS, DENARIUS], the sestertius was
still ¼ of the denarius, and therefore contained no longer 2½, but
4 asses. The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius was kept,
however, in paying the troops. After this change the sestertius was
coined in brass as well as in silver; the metal used for it was that
called _aurichalcum_, which was much finer than the common _aes_, of
which the asses were made. The sum of 1000 _sestertii_ was called
_sestertium_. This was also denoted by the symbol HS, the obvious
explanation of which is “IIS (2½ millia).” The _sestertium_ was
always a sum of money, never a _coin_; the _coin_ used in the payment
of large sums was the denarius. According to the value we have
assigned to the DENARIUS, up to the time of Augustus, we have--

_£. s. d. farth._
the sestertius = 0 0 2 ·5
the sestertium = 8 17 1
After the reign of Augustus--
the sestertius = 0 0 1 3·5
the sestertium = 7 16 3

The sestertius was the denomination of money almost always used in
reckoning considerable amounts. There are a very few examples of the
use of the denarius for this purpose. The mode of reckoning was as
follows:--_Sestertius_ = _sestertius nummus_ = _nummus_. Sums below
1000 _sestertii_ were expressed by the numeral adjectives joined with
either of these forms. The sum of 1000 sestertii = _mille sestertii_
= M _sestertium_ (for _sestertiorum_) = M _nummi_ = M _nummum_
(for _nummorum_) = M _sestertii nummi_ = M _sestertium nummum_ =
_sestertium_. These forms are used with the numeral adjectives below
1000: sometimes _millia_ is used instead of _sestertia_: sometimes
both words are omitted: sometimes _nummum_ or _sestertium_ is added.
For example, 600,000 sestertii = _sescenta sestertia_ = _sescenta
millia_ = _sescenta_ = _sescenta sestertia nummum_. For sums of a
thousand _sestertia_ (_i.e._ a million _sestertii_) and upwards,
the numeral adverbs in _ies_ (_decies, undecies, vicies, &c._) are
used, with which the words _centena millia_ (a hundred thousand) must
be understood. With these adverbs the neuter singular _sestertium_
is joined in the case required by the construction. Thus, _decies
sestertium_ = _decies centena millia sestertium_ = _ten times a
hundred thousand sestertii_ = 1,000,000 sestertii = 1000 _sestertia_:
_millies_ HS = _millies centena millia sestertium_ = a thousand times
one hundred thousand sestertii = 100,000,000 _sestertii_ = 100,000
_sestertia_. When the numbers are written in cypher, it is often
difficult to know whether _sestertii_ or _sestertia_ are meant. A
distinction is sometimes made by a line placed over the numeral when
_sestertia_ are intended, or in other words, when the numeral is an
adverb in _ies_. Thus

HS. M.C. = 1100 sestertii, but
HS. M̄.C̄. = HS millies centies
= 110,000 sestertia
= 110,000,000 sestertii.

_Sesterce_ is sometimes used as an English word. If so, it ought
to be used only as the translation of _sestertius_, never of
_sestertium_.

SĒVIR. [EQUITES.]

SEX SUFFRĀGĬA. [EQUITES.]

SEXTANS. [AS.]

SEXTĀRĬUS, a Roman dry and liquid measure. It was one-sixth of the
congius, and hence its name. It was divided, in the same manner as
the As, into parts named _uncia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quincunx,
semissis, &c._ The uncia, or twelfth part of the sextarius, was the
CYATHUS; its _sextans_ was therefore two cyathi, its _quadrans_
three, its _triens_ four, its _quincunx_ five, &c. (See Tables.)

SĬBYLLĪNI LIBRI. These books are said to have been obtained in the
reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or according to other accounts in
that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a Sibyl (Σίβυλλα), or prophetic
woman, presented herself before the king, and offered nine books
for sale. Upon the king refusing to purchase them, she went and
burnt three, and then returned and demanded the same price for the
remaining six as she had done for the nine. The king again refused
to purchase them, whereupon she burnt three more, and demanded the
same sum for the remaining three as she had done at first for the
nine; the king’s curiosity now became excited, so that he purchased
the books, and then the Sibyl vanished. These books were probably
written in Greek, as the later ones undoubtedly were. They were kept
in a stone chest under ground in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,
under the custody of certain officers, at first only two in number,
but afterwards increased successively to ten and fifteen, of whom
an account is given under DECEMVIRI. The public were not allowed to
inspect the books, and they were only consulted by the officers, who
had the charge of them, at the special command of the senate. They
were not consulted, as the Greek oracles were, for the purpose of
getting light concerning future events; but to learn what worship
was required by the gods, when they had manifested their wrath by
national calamities or prodigies. Accordingly we find that the
instruction they give is in the same spirit; prescribing what honour
was to be paid to the deities already recognised, or what new
ones were to be imported from abroad. When the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus was burnt in B.C. 82, the Sibylline books perished in the
fire; and in order to restore them, ambassadors were sent to various
towns in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, to make fresh collections,
which on the rebuilding of the temple were deposited in the same
place that the former had occupied. The Sibylline books were also
called _Fata Sibyllina_ and _Libri Fatales_. Along with the Sibylline
books were preserved, under the guard of the same officers, the books
of the two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etruscan prophecies of
the nymph Bygoe, and those of Albuna or Albunea of Tibur. Those of
the Marcii, which had not been placed there at the time of the battle
of Cannae, were written in Latin.

SĪCA, _dim._ SĪCĪLA, whence the English _sickle_, a curved dagger,
adapted by its form to be concealed under the clothes, and therefore
carried by robbers and murderers. _Sica_ may be translated _a
scimitar_, to distinguish it from PUGIO, which denoted a dagger of
the common kind. _Sicarius_, though properly meaning one who murdered
with the sica, was applied to murderers in general. Hence the forms
_de sicariis_ and _inter sicarios_ were used in the criminal courts
in reference to murder. Thus _judicium inter sicarios_, “a trial for
murder;” _defendere inter sicarios_, “to defend against a charge of
murder.”

SĬGILLĀRĬA. [SATURNALIA.]

SIGNA MĪLĬTĀRĬA (σημεῖα, σημαίαι), military ensigns or standards.
The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have
been a handful of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence
the company of soldiers belonging to it was called _Manipulus_. The
bundle of hay or fern was soon succeeded by the figures of animals,
viz. the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar.
These appear to have corresponded to the five divisions of the Roman
army as shown on p. 165. The eagle (_aquila_) was carried by the
_aquilifer_ in the midst of the _hastati_, and we may suppose the
wolf to have been carried among the _principes_, and so on. In the
second consulship of Marius, B.C. 104, the four quadrupeds were
entirely laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone retained.
It was made of silver, or bronze, and with expanded wings, but was
probably of a small size, since a standard-bearer (_signifer_) under
Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of danger to have wrenched the
eagle from its staff, and concealed it in the folds of his girdle.
Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for
many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account
sometimes called _aquila_, and at the same time each cohort had
for its own ensign the serpent or dragon (_draco_, δράκων), which
was woven on a square piece of cloth, elevated on a gilt staff,
to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose, and carried by
the _draconarius_. Another figure used in the standards was a ball
(_pila_), supposed to have been emblematic of the dominion of Rome
over the world; and for the same reason a bronze figure of Victory
was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff. Under the eagle or other
emblem was often placed a head of the reigning emperor, which was to
the army the object of idolatrous adoration. The minor divisions of a
cohort, called _centuries_, had also each an ensign, inscribed with
the number both of the cohort and of the century. By this provision
every soldier was enabled with the greatest ease to take his place.
The standard of the cavalry, properly called _vexillum_, was a
square piece of cloth expanded upon a cross in the manner already
indicated, and perhaps surmounted by some figure. The following cut,
containing several standards, represents the performance of the
sacrifice called _suovetaurilia_. The imperial standard from the time
of Constantine was called _labarum_; on it a figure or emblem of
Christ was woven in gold upon purple cloth, and this was substituted
for the head of the emperor. Since the movements of a body of troops
and of every portion of it were regulated by the standards, all the
evolutions, acts, and incidents of the Roman army were expressed by
phrases derived from this circumstance. Thus _signa inferre_ meant
to advance, _referre_ to retreat, and _convertere_ to face about;
_efferre_, or _castris vellere_, to march out of the camp; _ad signa
convenire_, to re-assemble. Notwithstanding some obscurity in the
use of terms, it appears that, whilst the standard of the legion was
properly called _aquila_, those of the cohorts were in a special
sense of the term called _signa_, their bearers being _signiferi_,
and that those of the manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort
were denominated _vexilla_, their bearers being _vexillarii_. In time
of peace the standards were kept in the AERARIUM, under the care of
the QUAESTOR.

[Illustration: Military Standards. (Bellori, Vet. Arc. Aug.)]

SĬLĬCERNĬUM. [FUNUS.]

SIMPŬLUM or SIMPŬVĬUM, the name of a small cup used in sacrifices, by
which libations of wine were offered to the gods. It is represented
on the coin figured under SECESPITA. There was a proverbial
expression _excitare fluctus in simpulo_, “to make much ado about
nothing.”

SĪPĂRĬUM, a piece of tapestry stretched on a frame, which rose before
the stage of the theatre, and consequently answered the purpose of
the drop-scene with us, although, contrary to our practice, it was
depressed when the play began, so as to go below the level of the
stage (_aulaea premuntur_), and was raised again when the performance
was concluded (_tolluntur_). It appears that human figures were
represented upon it, whose feet seemed to rest upon the stage when
this screen was drawn up. These figures were sometimes those of
Britons woven in the canvass, and raising their arms in the attitude
of lifting up a purple curtain, so as to be introduced in the same
manner as Atlantes, Persae, and Caryatides. [CARYATIDES.] In a more
general sense, _siparium_ denoted any piece of cloth or canvass
stretched upon a frame.

SISTRUM (σεῖστρον), a mystical instrument of music, used by the
ancient Egyptians in their ceremonies, and especially in the worship
of Isis. It was held in the right hand (see cut), and shaken, from
which circumstance it derived its name. The introduction of the
worship of Isis into Italy shortly before the commencement of the
Christian aera made the Romans familiar with this instrument.

[Illustration: Sistra. (The two figures on the left hand from
paintings found at Portici; the right-hand figure represents a
Sistrum formerly belonging to the library of St. Genovefa at Paris.)]

SĬTELLA. [SITULA.]

SĪTŎPHỸLĂCES (σιτοφύλακες), a board of officers, chosen by lot, at
Athens. They were at first three, afterwards increased to fifteen, of
whom ten were for the city, five for the Peiraeus. Their business was
partly to watch the arrival of the corn ships, take account of the
quantity imported, and see that the import laws were duly observed;
partly to watch the sales of corn in the market, and take care that
the prices were fair and reasonable, and none but legal weights and
measures used by the factors; in which respect their duties were much
the same as those of the Agoranomi and Metronomi with regard to other
saleable articles.

SĪTOS (σῖτος), corn. The soil of Attica, though favourable to the
production of figs, olives, and grapes, was not so favourable for
corn; and accordingly a large quantity of corn was annually imported.
Exportation was entirely prohibited, nor was any Athenian or resident
alien allowed to carry corn to any other place than Athens. Whoever
did so, was punishable with death. Of the corn brought into the
Athenian port two-thirds was to be brought into the city and sold
there. No one might lend money on a ship that did not sail with
an express condition to bring a return cargo, part of it corn, to
Athens. Strict regulations were made with respect to the sale of
corn in the market. Conspiracies among the corn-dealers (σιτοπῶλαι)
to buy up the corn (συνωνεῖσθαι), or raise the price (συνιστάναι τὰς
τιμὰς), were punished with death. The sale of corn was placed under
the supervision of a special board of officers called _Sitophylaces_
(σιτοφύλακες), while that of all other marketable commodities
was superintended by the agoranomi. It was their business to see
that meal and bread were of the proper quality, and sold at the
legal weight and price. Notwithstanding these careful provisions,
scarcities (σιτοδεῖαι) frequently occurred at Athens. The state then
made great efforts to supply the wants of the people by importing
large quantities of corn, and selling it at a low price. Public
granaries were kept in the Odeum, Pompeum, Long Porch, and naval
storehouse near the sea. _Sitonae_ (σιτῶναι) were appointed to
get in the supply and manage the sale. Persons called _apodectae_
(ἀποδέκται) received the corn, measured it out, and distributed it in
certain quantities.

SĪTOU DĬCĒ (σίτου δίκη). If anything happened to sever a marriage
contract, the husband or his representative was bound to repay the
marriage portion (προῖξ); or, if he failed to do so, he was liable
to pay interest upon it at the rate of eighteen per cent. per annum.
A woman’s fortune was usually secured by a mortgage of the husband’s
property; but whether this was so or not, her guardian might bring an
action against the party who unjustly withheld it; δίκη προικὸς, to
recover the principal, δίκη σίτου, for the interest. The interest was
called σῖτος (alimony or maintenance), because it was the income out
of which the woman had to be maintained. The word σῖτος is often used
generally for provisions, just as we use the word _bread_.

SĬTŬLA, _dim._ SĬTELLA (ὑδρία), was probably a bucket or pail
for drawing and carrying water, but was more usually applied to
the vessel from which lots were drawn. The diminutive _sitella_,
however, was more commonly used in this signification. It appears
that the vessel was filled with water (as among the Greeks, whence
the word ὑδρία), and that the lots (_sortes_) were made of wood;
and as, though increasing in size below, it had a narrow neck, only
one lot could come to the top of the water at the same time, when
it was shaken. The vessel used for drawing lots was also called
_urna_ or _orca_ as well as _Situla_ or _Sitella_. It is important
to understand the difference in meaning, between Sitella and Cista,
in their use in the comitia and courts of justice, since they have
been frequently confounded. The _Sitella_ was the urn, from which
the names of the tribes or centuries were drawn out by lot, so that
each might have its proper place in voting, and the _Cista_ was the
ballot-box into which the tabellae were cast in voting. The Cista
seems to have been made of wicker or similar work.

[Illustration: Cista. Sitella.]

SOCCUS, _dim._ SOCCŬLUS, was nearly if not altogether equivalent in
meaning to CREPIDA, and denoted a slipper or low shoe, which did not
fit closely, and was not fastened by any tie. The Soccus was worn by
comic actors, and was in this respect opposed to the COTHURNUS.

[Illustration: Socci, slippers, worn by a Mimus or Buffoon. (From an
ancient Painting.)]

SŎCĬI (σύμμαχοι). In the early times, when Rome formed equal
alliances with any of the surrounding nations, these nations were
called _Socii_. After the dissolution of the Latin league, when the
name _Latini_, or _Nomen Latinum_, was artificially applied to a
great number of Italians, only a few of whom were real inhabitants
of the old Latin towns, and the majority of whom had been made
Latins by the will and the law of Rome, there necessarily arose a
difference between these Latins and the Socii, and the expression
_Socii Nomen Latinum_ is one of the old asyndeta, instead of _Socii
et Nomen Latinum_. The Italian allies again must be distinguished
from foreign allies. The Italian allies consisted, for the most part,
of such nations as had either been conquered by the Romans, or had
come under their dominion through other circumstances. When such
nations formed an alliance with Rome, they generally retained their
own laws; or if they were not allowed this privilege at first, they
usually obtained it subsequently. The condition of the Italian allies
varied, and mainly depended upon the manner in which they had come
under the Roman dominion; but in reality they were always dependent
upon Rome. The following are the principal duties which the Italian
Socii had to perform towards Rome: they had to send subsidies in
troops, money, corn, ships, and other things, whenever Rome demanded
them. The number of troops requisite for completing or increasing the
Roman armies was decreed every year by the senate, and the consuls
fixed the amount which each allied nation had to send; in proportion
to its population capable of bearing arms, of which each nation was
obliged to draw up accurate lists, called _formulae_. The consul
also appointed the place and time at which the troops of the socii,
each part under its own leader, had to meet him and his legions.
The infantry of the allies in a consular army was usually equal in
numbers to that of the Romans; the cavalry was generally three times
the number of the Romans: but these numerical proportions were not
always observed. The consuls appointed twelve praefects as commanders
of the socii, and their power answered to that of the twelve military
tribunes in the consular legions. These praefects, who were probably
taken from the allies themselves, and not from the Romans, selected
a third of the cavalry, and a fifth of the infantry of the socii,
who formed a select detachment for extraordinary cases, and who were
called the _extraordinarii_. The remaining body of the socii was
then divided into two parts, called the right and the left wing. The
infantry of the wings was, as usual, divided into cohorts, and the
cavalry into turmae. In some cases also legions were formed of the
socii. Pay and clothing were given to the allied troops by the states
or towns to which they belonged, and which appointed quaestors or
paymasters for this purpose: but Rome furnished them with provisions
at the expense of the republic: the infantry received the same as
the Roman infantry, but the cavalry only received two-thirds of what
was given to the Roman cavalry. In the distribution of the spoil and
of conquered lands they frequently received the same share as the
Romans. They were never allowed to take up arms of their own accord,
and disputes among them were settled by the senate. Notwithstanding
all this, the socii fell gradually under the arbitrary rule of the
senate and the magistrates of Rome; and after the year B.C. 173, it
even became customary for magistrates, when they travelled through
Italy, to demand of the authorities of allied towns to pay homage
to them, to provide them with a residence, and to furnish them
with beasts of burden when they continued their journey. The only
way for the allies to obtain any protection against such arbitrary
proceedings, was to enter into a kind of clientela with some
influential and powerful Roman. Socii who revolted against Rome were
frequently punished with the loss of their freedom, or of the honour
of serving in the Roman armies. Such punishments however varied
according to circumstances. After the civitas had been granted to all
the Italians by the Lex Julia de Civitate (B.C. 90), the relation of
the Italian socii to Rome ceased. But Rome had long before this event
applied the name Socii to foreign nations also which were allied
with Rome, though the meaning of the word in this case differed
from that of the Socii Italici. There were two principal kinds of
alliances with foreign nations: 1. _foedus aequum_, such as might
be concluded either after a war in which neither party had gained a
decisive victory, or with a nation with which Rome had never been at
war; 2. a _foedus iniquum_, when a foreign nation conquered by the
Romans was obliged to form the alliance on any terms proposed by the
conquerors. In the latter case the foreign nation was to some extent
subject to Rome, and obliged to comply with anything that Rome might
demand. But all foreign socii, whether they had an equal or unequal
alliance, were obliged to send subsidies in troops when Rome demanded
them; these troops, however, did not, like those of the Italian
socii, serve in the line, but were employed as light-armed soldiers,
and were called _milites auxiliares_, _auxiliarii_, _auxilia_, or
sometimes _auxilia externa_. Towards the end of the republic all the
Roman allies, whether they were nations or kings, sank down to the
condition of mere subjects or vassals of Rome, whose freedom and
independence consisted in nothing but a name. [Compare FOEDERATAE
CIVITATES.]

SŎDĀLĬTĬUM. [AMBITUS.]

SŌLĀRIUM. [HOROLOGIUM.]

SŎLĔA was the simplest kind of sandal [SANDALIUM], consisting of a
sole with little more to fasten it to the foot than a strap across
the instep.

SŎLĬDUS. [AURUM.]

SOLĬTAURĪLĬA. [SACRIFICIUM; LUSTRATIO; and woodcut on p. 343.]

SOPHRŌNISTAE. [GYMNASIUM.]

SORTES, lots. It was a frequent practice among the Italian nations
to endeavour to ascertain a knowledge of future events by drawing
lots (_sortes_): in many of the ancient Italian temples the will
of the gods was consulted in this way, as at Praeneste, Caere, &c.
These sortes or lots were usually little tablets or counters, made
of wood or other materials, and were commonly thrown into a sitella
or urn, filled with water, as is explained under SITULA. The lots
were sometimes thrown like dice. The name of sortes was in fact given
to anything used to determine chances, and was also applied to any
verbal response of an oracle. Various things were written upon the
lots according to circumstances, as for instance the names of the
persons using them, &c.: it seems to have been a favourite practice
in later times to write the verses of illustrious poets upon little
tablets, and to draw them out of the urn like other lots, the verses
which a person thus obtained being supposed to be applicable to him.

SPĔCŬLĀRĬA. [DOMUS.]

SPĔCŬLĀTŌRES, or EXPLŌRĀTŌRES, were scouts or spies sent before
an army, to reconnoitre the ground and observe the movements of
the enemy. Under the emperors there was a body of troops called
Speculatores, who formed part of the praetorian cohorts, and had the
especial care of the emperor’s person.

SPĔCŬLUM (κάτοπτρον, ἔσοπτρον, ἔνοπτρον), a mirror, a looking-glass.
The looking-glasses of the ancients were usually made of metal,
at first of a composition of tin and copper, but afterwards more
frequently of silver. The ancients seem to have had glass mirrors
also like ours, consisting of a glass plate covered at the back with
a thin leaf of metal. They were manufactured as early as the time of
Pliny at the celebrated glass-houses of Sidon, but they must have
been inferior to those of metal, since they never came into general
use, and are never mentioned by ancient writers among costly pieces
of furniture, whereas metal mirrors frequently are. Looking-glasses
were generally small, and such as could be carried in the hand.
Instead of their being fixed so as to be hung against the wall or to
stand upon the table or floor, they were generally held by female
slaves before their mistresses when dressing.

[Illustration: Looking-glass held by a Nymph. (From a Painting at
Herculaneum.)]

SPĔCUS. [AQUAE DUCTUS.]

SPHAERISTĒRIUM. [GYMNASIUM.]

SPĪCŬLUM. [HASTA.]

SPĪRA (σπεῖρα), _dim._ SPĪRŬLA, the base of a column. This member did
not exist in the Doric order of Greek architecture, but was always
present in the Ionic and Corinthian, and, besides the bases properly
belonging to those orders, there was one called the Attic, which may
be regarded as a variety of the Ionic [ATTICURGES]. In the Ionic
and Attic the base commonly consisted of two tori (_torus superior_
and _torus inferior_) divided by a _scotia_ (τρόχιλος), and in the
Corinthian of two tori divided by two scotiae. The upper torus was
often fluted (ῥαβδωτός), and surmounted by an astragal [ASTRAGALUS],
as in the left-hand figure of the annexed woodcut, which shows the
form of the base in the Ionic temple of Panops on the Ilissus. The
right-hand figure in the same woodcut shows the corresponding part
in the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. In this the upper torus
is wrought with a plaited ornament, perhaps designed to represent a
rope or cable. In these two temples the spira rests not upon a plinth
(_plinthus_, πλίνθος), but on a podium.

[Illustration: Spirae (bases) of Columns. (From ancient Columns.)]

SPŎLĬA. Four words are commonly employed to denote booty taken in
war, _Praeda, anubiae_, _Exuviae_, _Spolia_. Of these _Praeda_ bears
the most comprehensive meaning, being used for plunder of every
description. _Manubiae_ would seem strictly to signify that portion
of the spoil which fell to the share of the commander-in-chief,
the proceeds of which were frequently applied to the erection of
some public building. _Exuviae_ indicates anything stripped from
the person of a foe, while _Spolia_, properly speaking, ought to
be confined to armour and weapons, although both words are applied
loosely to trophies, such as chariots, standards, beaks of ships
and the like, which might be preserved and displayed. Spoils
collected on the battlefield after an engagement, or found in a
captured town, were employed to decorate the temples of the gods,
triumphal arches, porticoes, and other places of public resort, and
sometimes in the hour of extreme need served to arm the people; but
those which were gained by individual prowess were considered the
undoubted property of the successful combatant, and were exhibited
in the most conspicuous part of his dwelling, being hung up in the
atrium, suspended from the door-posts, or arranged in the vestibulum,
with appropriate inscriptions. They were regarded as peculiarly
sacred, so that even if the house was sold the new possessor was not
permitted to remove them. But while on the one hand it was unlawful
to remove spoils, so it was forbidden to _replace_ or _repair_ them
when they had fallen down or become decayed through age; the object
of this regulation being doubtless to guard against the frauds of
false pretenders. Of all spoils the most important were the _spolia
opima_, a term applied to those only which the commander-in-chief of
a Roman army stripped in a field of battle from the leader of the
foe. Plutarch expressly asserts that Roman history up to his own time
afforded but three examples of the _spolia opima_. The first were
said to have been won by Romulus from Acro, king of the Caeninenses,
the second by Aulus Cornelius Cossus from Lar Tolumnius, king of the
Veientes, the third by M. Claudius Marcellus from Viridomarus, king
of the Gaesatae. In all these cases, in accordance with the original
institution, the spoils were dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius.

SPONSA, SPONSUS, SPONSĀLĬA. [MATRIMONIUM.]

SPORTŬLA. In the days of Roman freedom, clients were in the habit
of testifying respect for their patron by thronging his atrium at
an early hour, and escorting him to places of public resort when he
went abroad. As an acknowledgment of these courtesies, some of the
number were usually invited to partake of the evening meal. After
the extinction of liberty, the presence of such guests, who had
now lost all political importance, was soon regarded as an irksome
restraint, while at the same time many of the noble and wealthy
were unwilling to sacrifice the pompous display of a numerous body
of retainers. Hence the practice was introduced under the empire of
bestowing on each client, when he presented himself for his morning
visit, a certain portion of food as a substitute and compensation
for the occasional invitation to a regular supper (_coena recta_),
and this dole, being carried off in a little basket provided for the
purpose, received the name of _sportula_. For the sake of convenience
it soon became common to give an equivalent in money, the sum
established by general usage being a hundred quadrantes. The donation
in money, however, did not entirely supersede the sportula given in
kind, for we find in Juvenal a lively description of a great man’s
vestibule crowded with dependents, each attended by a slave bearing
a portable kitchen to receive the viands and keep them hot while
they were carried home. Under the empire great numbers of the lower
orders derived their whole sustenance, and the funds for ordinary
expenditure, exclusively from this source, while even the highborn
did not scruple to increase their incomes by taking advantage of the
ostentatious profusion of the rich and vain.

STĂDĬUM (ὁ στάδιος and τὸ στάδιον), a Greek measure of length, and
the chief one used for itinerary distances. It was equal to 600
Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 125 Roman paces; and the Roman mile
contained 8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606 feet 9 inches
English. This standard prevailed throughout Greece, under the name
of the Olympic stadium, so called because it was the exact length
of the stadium or foot-race course at Olympia, measured between the
pillars at the two extremities of the course. The first use of the
measure seems to be contemporaneous with the formation of the stadium
at Olympia when the Olympic games were revived by Iphitus (B.C. 884
or 828). This distance doubled formed the δίαυλος, the ἱππικον was 4
stadia, and the δόλιχος is differently stated at 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, and
24 stadia. A day’s journey by land was reckoned at 200 or 180 stadia,
or for an army 150 stadia. The stadium at Olympia was used not only
for the foot-race, but also for the other contests which were added
to the games from time to time [OLYMPIA], except the horse-races,
for which a place was set apart, of a similar form with the stadium,
but larger; this was called the Hippodrome (ἱππόδρομος). The name
stadium was also given to all other places throughout Greece wherever
games were celebrated. The stadium was an oblong area terminated at
one end by a straight line, at the other by a semicircle having the
breadth of the stadium for its base. Round this area were ranges of
seats rising above one another in steps.

STĀTĒR (στατῆρ), which means simply _a standard_ (in this case
both of weight and more particularly of money), was the name of
the principal gold coin of Greece, which was also called _Chrysus_
(χρυσοῦς). The stater is said to have been first coined in Lydia by
Croesus, and probably did not differ materially from the stater which
was afterwards current in Greece, and which was equal _in weight_ to
_two_ drachmae, and _in value_ to _twenty_. The Macedonian stater,
which was the one most in use after the time of Philip and his son
Alexander the Great, was of the value of about 1_l._ 3_s._ 6_d._ In
calculating the value of the stater in our money the ratio of gold to
silver must not be overlooked. Thus the stater of Alexander, which we
have valued, according to the present worth of gold, at 1_l._ 3_s._
6_d._, passed for twenty drachmae, which, according to the present
value of silver, were worth only 16_s._ 3_d._ But the former is the
true worth of the stater, the difference arising from the greater
value of silver in ancient times than now.

STĂTĬŌNES. [CASTRA.]

STĂTOR, a public servant, who attended on the Roman magistrates in
the provinces. The Statores seem to have derived their name from
standing by the side of the magistrate, and thus being at hand to
execute all his commands; they appear to have been chiefly employed
in carrying letters and messages.

STĀTŬĀRĬA ARS is in its proper sense the art of making statues or
busts, whether they consist of stone or metal or other materials, and
includes the art of making the various kinds of reliefs (alto, basso,
and mezzo relievo). These arts in their infant state existed among
the Greeks from time immemorial. There is no material applicable to
statuary which was not used by the Greeks. As _soft clay_ is capable
of being shaped without difficulty into any form, and is easily
dried, either by being exposed to the sun or by being baked, we may
consider this substance to have been the earliest material of which
figures were made. The name plastic art (ἡ πλαστική), by which the
ancients sometimes designate the art of statuary, properly signifies
to form or shape a thing of clay. The second material was _wood_,
and figures made of wood were called ξόανα, from ξέω, “polish” or
“carve.” It was chiefly used for making images of the gods, and
probably more on account of the facility of working in it, than for
any other reason. _Stone_ was little used in statuary during the
early ages of Greece, though it was not altogether unknown, as we
may infer from the relief on the Lion-gate of Mycenae. In Italy,
where the soft peperino afforded an easy material for working, stone
appears to have been used at an earlier period and more commonly
than in Greece. But in the historical times the Greeks used all the
principal varieties of marble for their statues. Different kinds of
marble and of different colours were sometimes used in one and the
same statue, in which case the work is called Polylithic statuary.
_Bronze_ (χάλκος, _aes_), _silver_, and _gold_ were used profusely in
the state of society described in the Homeric poems. At that period,
however, and long after, the works executed in metal were made by
means of the hammer, and the different pieces were joined together by
pins, rivets, cramps, or other mechanical fastenings, and, as the art
advanced, by a kind of glue, cement, or solder. Iron came into use
much later, and the art of casting both bronze and iron is ascribed
to Rhoecus and to Theodoras of Samos. _Ivory_ was employed at a later
period than any of the before-mentioned materials, and then was
highly valued both for its beauty and rarity. In its application to
statuary, ivory was generally combined with gold, and was used for
the parts representing the flesh. The history of ancient art, and of
statuary in particular, may be divided into five periods.

I. _First Period, from the earliest times till about 580_ B.C.--Three
kinds of artists may be distinguished in the mythical period. The
first consists of gods and daemons; such as Athena, Hephaestus, the
Phrygian or Dardanian Dactyli, and the Cabiri. The second contains
whole tribes of men distinguished from others by the mysterious
possession of superior skill in the practice of the arts, such as
the Telchines and the Cyclopes. The third consists of individuals
who are indeed described as human beings, but yet are nothing
more than personifications of particular branches of art, or the
representatives of families of artists. Of the latter the most
celebrated is _Daedalus_, whose name indicates nothing but a smith,
or an artist in general, and who is himself the mythical ancestor
of a numerous family of artists (_Daedalids_), which can be traced
from the time of Homer to that of Plato, for even Socrates is said
to have been a descendant of this family. _Smilis_ (from σμίλη, a
carving-knife) exercised his art in Samos, Aegina, and other places,
and some remarkable works were attributed to him. _Endoeus_ of
Athens is called a disciple of Daedalus. According to the popular
traditions of Greece, there was no period in which the gods were not
represented in some form or other, and there is no doubt that for
a long time there existed no other statues in Greece than those of
the gods. The earliest representations of the gods, however, were
only symbolic. The presence of a god was indicated by the simplest
and most shapeless symbols, such as unhewn blocks of stone (λίθοι
ἀργοί), and by simple pillars or pieces of wood. The general name
for a representation of a god not consisting of such a rude symbol
was ἄγαλμα. In the Homeric poems there are sufficient traces of the
existence of statues of the gods; but they probably did not display
any artistic beauty. The only work of art which has come down to us
from the heroic age is the relief above the ancient gate of Mycenae,
representing two lions standing on their hind legs, with a sort of
pillar between them (woodcut under MURUS). The time which elapsed
between the composition of the Homeric poems and the beginning of the
fifth century before our aera may be termed the age of discovery;
for nearly all the inventions, upon the application of which the
development of the arts is dependent, are assigned to this period.
Glaucus of Chios or Samos is said to have invented the art of
soldering metal (σιδήρου κόλλησις). The two artists most celebrated
for their discoveries were the two brothers Telecles and Theodoras of
Samos, about the time of Polycrates. They invented the art of casting
figures of metal. During the whole of this period, though marble and
bronze began to be extensively applied, yet wood was more generally
used for representations of the gods. These statues were painted
[PICTURA], and in most cases dressed in the most gorgeous attire.
The style in which they are executed is called the _archaic_ or the
_hieratic_ style. The figures are stiff and clumsy, the countenances
have little or no individuality, the eyes long and small, and the
outer angles turned a little upwards; the mouth, which is likewise
drawn upwards at the two corners, has a smiling appearance. The hair
is carefully worked, but looks stiff and wiry, and hangs generally
down in straight lines, which are curled at the ends. The arms hang
down the sides of the body, unless the figure carries something in
its hands. The drapery is likewise stiff, and the folds are very
symmetrical and worked with little regard to nature.

II. _Second Period, from 580 to 480_ B.C.--The number of artists who
flourished during this period is truly astonishing. The Ionians of
Asia Minor and the islanders of the Aegean, who had previously been
in advance of the other Greeks in the exercise of the fine arts, had
their last flourishing period from 560 to 528 B.C. Works in metal
were produced in high perfection in Samos, in Aegina and Argos, while
Chios gained the greatest reputation from its possessing the earliest
great school of sculptors in marble, in which Bupalus and Anthermus
were the most distinguished about 540 B.C. Their works were scattered
over various parts of Greece, and their value may be inferred from
the fact that Augustus adorned with them the pediment of the temple
of Apollo on the Palatine. Sicyon also possessed a celebrated school
of sculptors in marble, and about 580 B.C. Dipoenus and Scyllis, who
had come from Crete, were at the head of it, and executed several
marble statues of gods. Respecting Magna Graecia and Sicily we
know few particulars, though it appears that the arts here went on
improving and continued to be in advance of the mother-country. The
most celebrated artists in southern Italy were Dameas of Croton,
and Pythagoras of Rhegium. In Athens the arts made great progress
under the patronage of the Pisistratids. The most celebrated among
the Athenian sculptors of this period were Critias and Hegias, or
Hegesias, both distinguished for their works in bronze. The former
of them made in 477 B.C. the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton.
Argos also distinguished itself, and it is a curious circumstance,
that the greatest Attic artists with whom the third period opens, and
who brought the Attic art to its culminating point, are disciples
of the Argive Ageladas (about 516 B.C.) In the statues of the gods
(ἀγάλματα), which were made for temples as objects of worship, the
hieratic style was more or less conscientiously retained, and it is
therefore not in these statues that we have to seek for proofs of
the progress of art. But even in temple-statues wood began to give
way to other and better materials. Besides bronze, marble also, and
ivory and gold were now applied to statues of the gods, and it was
not uncommon to form the body of a statue of wood, and to make its
head, arms, and feet of stone (ἀκρόλιθοι), or to cover the whole of
such a wooden figure with ivory and gold. From the statues of the
gods erected for worship we must distinguish those statues which were
dedicated in temples as ἀναθήματα, and which now became customary
instead of craters, tripods, &c. In these the artists were not only
not bound to any traditional or conventional forms, but were, like
the poets, allowed to make free use of mythological subjects, to
add, and to omit, or to modify the stories, so as to render them
more adapted for their artistic purposes. A third class of statues,
which were erected during this period in great numbers, were those
of the victors in the national games, and, though more rarely,
of other distinguished persons (ἀνδριάντες). Those of the latter
kind appear generally to have been portraits (εἰκόνες, _statuae
iconicae_). The first iconic statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton
were made by Antenor in 509 B.C., and in 477 B.C. new statues of the
same persons were made by _Critias_. It was also at the period we
are now describing that it became customary to adorn the pediments,
friezes, and other parts of temples with reliefs or groups of statues
of marble. We still possess two great works of this kind which are
sufficient to show their general character during this period. 1.
The _Selinuntine Marbles_, or the metopes of two temples on the
acropolis of Selinus in Sicily, which were discovered in 1823, and
are at present in the Museum of Palermo. 2. The _Aeginetan Marbles_,
which were discovered in 1812 in the island of Aegina, and are now at
Munich. They consist of eleven statues, which adorned two pediments
of a temple of Athena, and represent the goddess leading the Aeacids
against Troy, and contain manifest allusions to the war of the Greeks
with the Persians.

III. _Third Period, from 480 to 336_ B.C.--During this period Athens
was the centre of the fine arts in Greece. Statuary went hand in
hand with the other arts and with literature: it became emancipated
from its ancient fetters, from the stiffness and conventional forms
of former times, and reached its culminating point in the sublime
and mighty works of Phidias. His career begins about 452 B.C. The
genius of this artist was so great and so generally recognised,
that all the great works which were executed in the age of Pericles
were placed under his direction, and thus the whole host of artists
who were at that time assembled at Athens were engaged in working
out his designs and ideas. Of these we have still some remains:--1.
Parts of the eighteen sculptured metopes, together with the frieze
of the small sides of the cella of the temple of Theseus. Ten of the
metopes represent the exploits of Hercules, and the eight others
those of Theseus. The figures in the frieze are manifestly gods, but
their meaning is uncertain. Casts of these figures are in the British
Museum. 2. A considerable number of the metopes of the Parthenon,
which are all adorned with reliefs in marble, a great part of the
frieze of the cella, some colossal figures, and a number of fragments
of the two pediments of this temple. The greater part of these works
is now in the British Museum, where they are collected under the name
of the Elgin Marbles. Besides the sculptures of these temples, there
are also similar ornaments of other temples extant, which show the
influence which the school of Phidias exercised in various parts of
Greece. Of these the most important are, the Phigalian marbles, which
belonged to the temple of Apollo Epicurius, built about 436 B.C., by
Ictinus. They were discovered in 1812, and consist of twenty-three
plates of marble belonging to the inner frieze of the cella. They
are now in the British Museum. The subjects represented in them
are fights with Centaurs and Amazons, and one plate shows Apollo
and Artemis drawn in a chariot by stags. About the same time that
the Attic school rose to its highest perfection under Phidias, the
school of Argos was likewise raised to its summit by Polycletus. The
art of making bronze statues of athletes was carried by him to the
greatest perfection: ideal youthful and manly beauty was the sphere
in which he excelled. One of his statues, a youthful Doryphorus,
was made with such accurate observation of the proportions of the
parts of the body, that it was looked upon by the ancient artists
as a canon of rules on this point. Myron of Eleutherae, about 432
B.C., adhered to a closer imitation of nature than Polycletus, and
as far as the impression upon the senses was concerned, his works
were most pleasing. The cow of Myron in bronze was celebrated in all
antiquity. The change which took place after the Peloponnesian war
in the public mind at Athens could not fail to show its influence
upon the arts also. It was especially Scopas of Paros and Praxiteles
of Athens, about one generation after Myron and Polycletus, who gave
the reflex of their time in their productions. Their works expressed
the softer feelings and an excited state of mind, such as would make
a strong impression upon and captivate the senses of the beholders.
Both were distinguished as sculptors in marble, and both worked in
the same style; the legendary circles to which most of their ideal
productions belong are those of Dionysus and Aphrodite, a fact which
also shows the character of the age. Cephissodorus and Timarchus were
sons of Praxiteles. There were several works of the former at Rome
in the time of Pliny; he made his art subservient to passions and
sensual desires. Most of the above-mentioned artists, however widely
their works differed from those of the school of Phidias, may yet be
regarded as having only continued and developed its principles of art
in a certain direction; but towards the end of this period Euphranor
and Lysippus of Sicyon carried out the principles of the Argive
school of Polycletus. Their principal object was to represent the
highest possible degree of physical beauty and of athletic and heroic
power. The chief characteristic of Lysippus and his school is a close
imitation of nature, which even contrived to represent bodily defects
in some interesting manner, as in his statues of Alexander.

IV. _Fourth Period, from 336 to 146_ B.C.--During the first fifty
years of this period the schools of Praxiteles and Lysippus continued
to flourish, especially in works of bronze; but after this time
bronze statues were seldom made, until the art was carried on with
new vigour at Athens about the end of the period. The school of
Lysippus gave rise to that of Rhodes, where his disciple Chares
formed the most celebrated among the hundred colossal statues of
the sun. It was seventy cubits high, and partly of metal. It stood
near the harbour, and was thrown down by an earthquake about 225
B.C. Antiquarians assign to this part of the fourth period several
very beautiful works still extant, as the magnificent group of
Laocoon and his sons, which was discovered in 1506 near the baths of
Titus, and is at present at Rome. This is, next to the Niobe, the
most beautiful group among the extant works of ancient art; it was
according to Pliny the work of three Rhodian artists: Agesander,
Polydorus, and Athenodorus. The celebrated Farnesian bull is likewise
the work of two Rhodian artists, Apollonius and Tauriscus. In the
various kingdoms which arose out of the conquests of Alexander
the arts were more or less cultivated. Not only were the great
master-works of former times copied to adorn the new capitals, but
new schools of artists sprang up in several of them. At Pergamus
the celebrated groups were composed which represented the victories
of Attalus and Eumenes over the Gauls. It is believed by some that
the so-called dying gladiator at Rome is a statue of a Gaul, which
originally belonged to one of these groups. The Borghese gladiator
in the Louvre is supposed to be the work of an Ephesian Agasias,
and to have originally formed a part of such a battle-scene. About
the close of this period, and for more than a century afterwards,
the Romans, in the conquest of the countries where the arts had
flourished, made it a regular practice to carry away the works of
art. The triumphs over Philip, Antiochus, the Aetolians, the Gauls in
Asia, Perseus, Pseudo-Philip, and above all the taking of Corinth,
and subsequently the victories over Mithridates and Cleopatra, filled
the Roman temples and porticoes with the greatest variety of works
of art. The sacrilegious plunder of temples and the carrying away
of the sacred statues from the public sanctuaries became afterwards
a common practice. The manner in which Verres acted in Sicily is
but one of many instances of the extent to which these robberies
were carried on. The emperors, especially Augustus, Caligula, and
Nero, followed these examples, and the immense number of statues
which, notwithstanding all this, remained at Rhodes, Delphi, Athens,
and Olympia, is truly astonishing.--We can only briefly advert to
the history of statuary among the Etruscans and Romans down to the
year 146 B.C. The Etruscans were on the whole an industrious and
enterprising people. With the works of Grecian art they must have
become acquainted at an early time through their intercourse with
the Greeks of southern Italy, whose influence upon the art of the
Etruscans is evident in numerous cases. The whole range of the fine
arts was cultivated by the Etruscans at an early period. Statuary in
clay (which here supplied the place of wood, ξόανα, used in Greece)
and in bronze appears to have acquired a high degree of perfection.
In 267 B.C. no fewer than 2000 bronze statues are said to have
existed at Volsinii, and numerous works of Etruscan art are still
extant, which show great vigour and life, though they do not possess
a very high degree of beauty. Some of their statues are worked in
a Greek style; others are of a character peculiar to themselves,
and entirely different from works of Grecian art, being stiff and
ugly: others again are exaggerated and forced in their movements
and attitudes, and resemble the figures which we meet with in the
representations of Asiatic nations. The Romans previously to the
time of the first Tarquin are said to have had no images of the
gods; and for a long time afterwards their statues of gods in clay
or wood were made by Etruscan artists. During the early part of the
republic the works executed at Rome were altogether of a useful and
practical, and not of an ornamental character; and statuary was in
consequence little cultivated. But in the course of time the senate
and the people, as well as foreign states which desired to show
their gratitude to some Roman, began to erect bronze statues to
distinguished persons in the Forum and other places.

V. _Fifth Period, from_ B.C. _146 to the fall of the Western
Empire._--During this period Rome was the capital of nearly the whole
of the ancient world, not through its intellectual superiority, but
by its military and political power. But it nevertheless became the
centre of art and literature, as the artists resorted thither from
all parts of the empire for the purpose of seeking employment in the
houses of the great. The mass of the people, however, had as little
taste for and were as little concerned about the arts as ever. In
the time of Nero, who did much for the arts, we meet with Zenodorus,
a founder of metal statues, who was commissioned by the emperor to
execute a colossal statue of 110 feet high, representing Nero as
the Sun. In the reign of Hadrian the arts seem to begin a new aera.
He himself was undoubtedly a real lover of art, and encouraged it
not only at Rome, but in Greece and Asia Minor. The great Villa of
Hadrian below Tivoli, the ruins of which cover an extent of ten
Roman miles in circumference, was richer in works of art than any
other place in Italy. Here more works of art have been dug out of
the ground than anywhere else within the same compass. Some statues
executed at this time are worthy of the highest admiration. Foremost
among these stand the statues and busts of Antinous, for whom the
emperor entertained a passionate partiality, and who was represented
in innumerable works of art. The colossal bust of Antinous in the
Louvre is reckoned one of the finest works of ancient art, and is
placed by some critics on an equality with the best works that Greece
has produced. There are also some very good works in red marble which
are referred to this period, as that material is not known to have
been used before the age of Hadrian. As the arts had received such
encouragement and brought forth such fruits in the reign of Hadrian,
the effects remained visible for some time during the reigns of the
Antonines. The frieze of a temple, which the senate caused to be
erected to Antoninus Pius and Faustina, is adorned with griffins
and vessels of very exquisite workmanship. The best among the
extant works of this time are the equestrian statue of M. Aurelius
of gilt bronze, which stands on the Capitol, and the column of M.
Aurelius with reliefs representing scenes of his war against the
Marcomanni. After the time of the Antonines the symptoms of decline
in the arts became more and more visible. The most numerous works
continued to be busts and statues of the emperors, but the best
among them are not free from affectation and mannerism. In the time
of Caracalla many statues were made, especially of Alexander the
Great. Alexander Severus was a great admirer of statues, not from a
genuine love of art, but because he delighted in the representations
of great and good men. The reliefs on the triumphal arch of Septimius
Severus, representing his victories over the Parthians, Arabs, and
Adiabenians, have scarcely any artistic merits. Art now declined
with great rapidity: busts and statues were more seldom made than
before, and are awkward and poor; the hair is frequently indicated
by nothing else but holes bored in the stone. The reliefs on the
sarcophagi gradually become monotonous and lifeless. The reliefs on
the arch of Constantine, which are not taken from that of Trajan, are
perfectly rude and worthless, and those on the column of Theodosius
were not better. Before concluding, it remains to say a few words on
the destruction of ancient works of art. During the latter part of
the reign of Constantine many statues of the gods were destroyed,
and not long after his time a systematic destruction began, which
under Theodosius spread to all parts of the empire. The spirit of
destruction, however, was not directed against works of art in
general and as such, but only against the pagan idols. The opinion,
therefore, which is entertained by some, that the losses we have
sustained in works of ancient art, are mainly attributable to the
introduction of Christianity, is too sweeping and general. Of the
same character is another opinion, according to which the final decay
of ancient art was a consequence of the spiritual nature of the new
religion. The coincidence of the general introduction of Christianity
with the decay of the arts is merely accidental. That the early
Christians did not despise the arts as such, is clear from several
facts. We know that they erected statues to their martyrs, of which
we have a specimen in that of St. Hippolytus in the Vatican library.
The numerous works, lastly, which have been found in the Christian
catacombs at Rome, might alone be a sufficient proof that the early
Christians were not hostile towards the representation of the heroes
of their religion in works of art. In fact, Christianity during the
middle ages became as much the mother of the arts of modern times, as
the religion of Greece was the mother of ancient art. Another very
general and yet incorrect notion is, that the northern barbarians
after the conquest of Rome intentionally destroyed works of art.
This opinion is not supported by any of the contemporary historians,
nor is it at all probable. The barbarians were only anxious to carry
with them the most precious treasures in order to enrich themselves;
a statue must have been an object of indifference to them. What
perished, perished naturally by the circumstances and calamities of
the times. In times of need bronze statues were melted down and the
material used for other purposes; marble statues were frequently
broken to pieces and used for building materials. If we consider
the history of Rome during the first centuries after the conquest of
Italy by the Germans, we have every reason to wonder that so many
specimens of ancient art have come down to our times. The greatest
destruction, at one time, of ancient works of art is supposed to have
occurred at the taking of Constantinople, in the beginning of the
thirteenth century. Among the few works saved from this devastation
are the celebrated bronze horses which now decorate the exterior of
St. Mark’s church at Venice. They have been ascribed, but without
sufficient authority, to Lysippus.

STĬLUS or STỸLUS is in all probability the same word with the Greek
στύλος, and conveys the general idea of an object tapering like
an architectural column. It signifies, (1) An iron instrument,
resembling a pencil in size and shape, used for writing upon waxed
tablets. At one end it was sharpened to a point for scratching
the characters upon the wax, while the other end, being flat and
circular, served to render the surface of the tablets smooth again,
and so to obliterate what had been written. Thus, _vertere stilum_
means _to erase_, and hence _to correct_. The stylus was also termed
_graphium_, and the case in which it was kept _graphiarium_.--(2) A
sharp stake or spike placed in pitfalls before an entrenchment, to
embarrass the progress of an attacking enemy.

[Illustration: Stilus. (Museo Borbonico, vol. vi. tav. 35.)]

STIPENDĬĀRĬI. The stipendiariae urbes of the Roman provinces
were so denominated, as being subject to the payment of a fixed
money-tribute, _stipendium_, in contradistinction to the vectigales,
who paid a certain portion as a tenth or twentieth of the produce
of their lands, their cattle, or customs. The word _stipendium_
was used to signify the tribute paid, as it was originally imposed
for and afterwards appropriated to the purpose of furnishing the
Roman soldiers with pay. The condition of the urbes stipendiariae
is generally thought to have been more honourable than that of the
vectigales, but the distinction between the two terms was not always
observed. The word stipendiarius is also applied to a person who
receives a fixed salary or pay, as a _stipendiarius miles_.

STĪPENDĬUM, a pension or pay, from _stipem_ and _pendo_, because
before silver was coined at Rome the copper-money in use was paid by
weight and not by tale. According to Livy, the practice of giving
pay to the Roman soldiers was not introduced till B.C. 405, on
the occasion of the taking of Tarracina or Anxur. It is probable,
however, that they received pay before this time, but, since it was
not paid regularly, its first institution was referred to this year.
In B.C. 403 a certain amount of pay was assigned to the knights
also, or EQUITES, p. 156, _b_. This, however, had reference to the
citizens who possessed an equestrian fortune, but had no horse
(_equus publicus_) assigned to them by the state, for it had always
been customary for the knights of the 18 centuries to receive pay out
of the common treasury, in the shape of an allowance for the purchase
of a horse, and a yearly pension of 2000 asses for its keep. [AES
EQUESTRE; AES HORDEARIUM.] In the time of the republic the pay of a
legionary soldier amounted to two oboli, or 3⅓ asses; a centurion
received double, and an eques or horseman triple. Polybius states
that foot soldiers also received in corn every month an allowance
(_demensum_) of ⅔ of an Attic medimnus, or about 2 bushels of wheat:
the horsemen 7 medimni of barley and 2 of wheat. The infantry of the
allies received the same allowance as the Roman: the horsemen 1⅓
medimni of wheat and 5 of barley. But there was this difference, that
the allied forces received their allowances as a gratuity; the Roman
soldiers, on the contrary, had deducted from their pay the money
value of whatever they received in corn, armour, or clothes. There
was indeed a law passed by C. Gracchus, which provided that besides
their pay the soldiers should receive from the treasury an allowance
for clothes; but this law seems either to have been repealed or to
have fallen into disuse. The pay was doubled for the legionaries by
Julius Caesar before the civil war. He also gave them corn whenever
he had the means, without any restrictions. Under Augustus it appears
to have been raised to 10 asses a day (three times the original sum).
It was still further increased by Domitian. The praetorian cohorts
received twice as much as the legionaries.

STŎLA, a female dress worn over the tunic; it came as low as the
ankles or feet, and was fastened round the body by a girdle, leaving
above the breast broad folds. The tunic did not reach much below
the knee, but the essential distinction between the tunic and stola
seems to have been that the latter always had an _instita_ or flounce
sewed to the bottom and reaching to the instep. Over the stola the
palla or pallium was worn [PALLIUM], as we see in the cut annexed.
The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons, as the
toga was of the Roman men. Hence the meretrices were not allowed to
wear it, but only a dark-coloured toga; and accordingly Horace speaks
of the _matrona_ in contradistinction to the _togata_. For the same
reason, women who had been divorced from their husbands on account of
adultery, were not allowed to wear the stola, but only the toga.

[Illustration: Stola, female dress. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iii. tav.
37.)]

STRĂTĒGUS (στρατηγός), general. This office and title seems to
have been more especially peculiar to the democratic states of
ancient Greece: we read of them, for instance, at Athens, Tarentum,
Syracuse, Argos, and Thurii; and when the tyrants of the Ionian
cities in Asia Minor were deposed by Aristagoras, he established
strategi in their room, to act as chief magistrates. The strategi
at Athens were instituted after the remodelling of the constitution
by Clisthenes, to discharge the duties which had in former times
been performed either by the king or the archon polemarchus. They
were ten in number, one for each of the ten tribes, and chosen by
the suffrages (χειροτονία) of the people. Before entering on their
duties they were required to submit to a _docimasia_, or examination
of their character; and no one was eligible to the office unless
he had legitimate children, and was possessed of landed property
in Attica. They were, as their name denotes, entrusted with the
command on military expeditions, with the superintendence of all
warlike preparations, and with the regulation of all matters in any
way connected with the war department of the state. They levied and
enlisted the soldiers, either personally or with the assistance of
the taxiarchs. They were entrusted with the collection and management
of the property-taxes (εἰσφοραί) raised for the purposes of war;
and also presided over the courts of justice in which any disputes
connected with this subject or the trierarchy were decided. They
nominated from year to year persons to serve as trierarchs. They had
the power of convening extraordinary assemblies of the people in
cases of emergency. But their most important trust was the command
in war, and it depended upon circumstances to how many of the number
it was given. At Marathon all the ten were present, and the chief
command came to each of them in turn. The archon polemarchus also was
there associated with them, and, according to the ancient custom, his
vote in a council of war was equal to that of any of the generals.
Usually, however, three only were sent out; one of these (τρίτος
αὐτός) was considered as the commander-in-chief, but his colleagues
had an equal voice in a council of war. The military chiefs of the
Aetolian and Achaean leagues were also called _strategi_. The Achaean
_strategi_ had the power of convening a general assembly of the
league on extraordinary occasions. Greek writers on Roman affairs
give the name of _strategi_ to the praetors.

STRĒNA, a present given on a festive day, and for the sake of good
omen. It was chiefly applied to a new year’s gift, to a present made
on the calends of January. In accordance with a senatusconsultum, new
year’s gifts had to be presented to Augustus in the Capitol, even
when he was absent.

STRĬGIL. [BALNEUM.]

STRŎPHĬUM (ταινία, ταινίδιον, ἀπόδεσμος), a girdle or belt worn
by women round the breast and over the inner tunic or chemise. It
appears to have been usually made of leather.

STUPRUM. [ADULTERIUM.]

SUBSIGNĀNI, privileged soldiers in the time of the empire, who fought
under a standard by themselves, and did not form part of the legion.
They seem to have been the same as the _vexillarii_.

SUFFRĀGĬA SEX. [EQUITES.]

SUFFRĀGĬUM, a vote. At Athens the voting in the popular assemblies
and the courts of justice was either by show of hands (χειροτονία)
or by ballot (ψῆφος). Respecting the mode of voting at Rome, see
COMITIA, p. 107, and LEGES TABELLARIAE.

SUGGESTUS, means in general any elevated place made of materials
heaped up (_sub_ and _gero_), and is specially applied: (1) To the
stage or pulpit from which the orators addressed the people in
the comitia. [ROSTRA.]--(2) To the elevation from which a general
addressed the soldiers.--(3) To the elevated seat from which the
emperor beheld the public games, also called _cubiculum_. [CUBICULUM.]

SUOVĔTAURĪLĬA. [SACRIFICIUM, p. 325; LUSTRATIO; and woodcut on p.
343.]

SUPPĂRUM. [NAVIS, p. 267, _b_.]

SUPPLĬCĀTĬO, a solemn thanksgiving or supplication to the gods,
decreed by the senate, when all the temples were opened, and the
statues of the gods frequently placed in public upon couches
(_pulvinaria_), to which the people offered up their thanksgivings
and prayers. [LECTISTERNIUM.] A _supplicatio_ was decreed for two
different reasons. 1. As a thanksgiving, when a great victory had
been gained: it was usually decreed as soon as official intelligence
of the victory had been received by a letter from the general
in command. The number of days during which it was to last was
proportioned to the importance of the victory. Sometimes it was
decreed for only one day, but more commonly for three or five days. A
supplication of ten days was first decreed in honour of Pompey at the
conclusion of the war with Mithridates, and one of fifteen days after
the victory over the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which had never been
granted to any one before. Subsequently a supplicatio of twenty days
was decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. A supplicatio was
usually regarded as a prelude to a triumph, but it was not always
followed by one. This honour was conferred upon Cicero on account
of his suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline, which had never
been decreed to any one before in a civil capacity (_togatus_).--2.
A _supplicatio_, a solemn supplication and humiliation, was also
decreed in times of public danger and distress, and on account of
prodigies, to avert the anger of the gods.

SȲCŎPHANTĒS (συκοφάντης). At an early period in Attic history a law
was made prohibiting the exportation of figs. Whether it was made
in a time of dearth, or through the foolish policy of preserving to
the natives the most valuable of their productions, we cannot say.
It appears, however, that the law continued in force long after the
cause of its enactment, or the general belief of its utility, had
ceased to exist; and Attic fig-growers exported their fruit in
spite of prohibitions and penalties. To inform against a man for
so doing was considered harsh and vexatious; as all people are apt
to think that obsolete statutes may be infringed with impunity.
Hence the term συκοφαντεῖν, which originally signified _to lay an
information against another for exporting figs_, came to be applied
to all ill-natured, malicious, groundless, and vexatious accusations.
_Sycophantes_ in the time of Aristophanes and Demosthenes designated
a person of a peculiar class, not capable of being described by any
single word in our language, but well understood and appreciated by
an Athenian. He had not much in common with our _sycophant_, but was
a happy compound of the _common barrator, informer, pettifogger,
busybody, rogue, liar, and slanderer_. The Athenian law permitted
any citizen (τὸν βουλόμενον) to give information against public
offenders, and prosecute them in courts of justice. It was the
policy of the legislator to encourage the detection of crime, and
a reward (such as half the penalty) was frequently given to the
successful accuser. Such a power, with such a temptation, was likely
to be abused, unless checked by the force of public opinion, or the
vigilance of the judicial tribunals. Unfortunately, the character
of the Athenian democracy and the temper of the judges furnished
additional incentives to the informer. Eminent statesmen, orators,
generals, magistrates, and all persons of wealth and influence
were regarded with jealousy by the people. The more causes came
into court, the more fees accrued to the judges, and fines and
confiscations enriched the public treasury. The prosecutor therefore
in public causes, as well as the plaintiff in civil, was looked
on with a more favourable eye than the defendant, and the chances
of success made the employment a lucrative one. It was not always
necessary to go to trial, or even to commence legal proceedings. The
timid defendant was glad to compromise the cause, and the conscious
delinquent to avert the threat of a prosecution, by paying a sum of
money to his opponent. Thriving informers found it not very difficult
to procure witnesses, and the profits were divided between them.

SȲLAE (σῦλαι). When a Greek state, or any of its members, had
received an injury or insult from some other state or some of its
members, and the former was unwilling, or not in a condition, to
declare open war, it was not unusual to give a commission, or grant
public authority to individuals to make reprisals. This was called
σύλας, or σῦλα, διδόναι. This ancient practice may be compared with
the modern one of granting letters of marque and reprisal.

SYLLOGEIS (συλλογεῖς), usually called Συλλογεῖς τοῦ δήμου, or the
Collectors of the People, were special commissioners at Athens, who
made out a list of the property of the oligarchs previously to its
confiscation.

SYMBOLAEON, SỸNALLAGMA, SYNTHĒCĒ (συμβόλαιον, συνάλλαγμα, συνθήκη),
are all words used to signify a contract, but are distinguishable
from one another. Συμβόλαιον is used of contracts and bargains between
private persons, and peculiarly of loans of money. Thus, συμβαλεῖν
εἰς ἀνδράποδον is, to lend upon the security of a slave. Συνάλλαγμα
signifies any matter negotiated or transacted between two or more
persons, whether a contract or anything else. Συνθήκη is used of
more solemn and important contracts, not only of those made between
private individuals, but also of treaties and conventions between
kings and states.

SYMPŎSĬUM (συμπόσιον, _comissatio_, _convivium_), a drinking-party.
The _symposium_ must be distinguished from the _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον),
for though drinking almost always followed a dinner-party, yet
the former was regarded as entirely distinct from the latter, was
regulated by different customs, and frequently received the addition
of many guests, who were not present at the dinner. For the Greeks
did not usually drink at their dinner, and it was not till the
conclusion of the meal that wine was introduced. Symposia were very
frequent at Athens. Their enjoyment was heightened by agreeable
conversation, by the introduction of music and dancing, and by games
and amusements of various kinds: sometimes, too, philosophical
subjects were discussed at them. The symposia of Plato and Xenophon
give us a lively idea of such entertainments at Athens. The name
itself shows, that the enjoyment of drinking was the main object of
the symposia: wine from the juice of the grape (οἴνος ἀμπέλινος)
was the only drink partaken of by the Greeks, with the exception
of water. The wine was almost invariably mixed with water, and
to drink it unmixed (ἄκρατον) was considered a characteristic of
barbarians. The mixture was made in a large vessel called the CRATER,
from which it was conveyed into the drinking-cups. The guests at a
symposium reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of
flowers. A master of the revels (ἄρχων τῆς πόσεως, συμποσίαρχος,
or βασιλεύς) was usually chosen to conduct the symposium, whose
commands the whole company had to obey, and who regulated the whole
order of the entertainment, proposed the amusements, &c. The same
practice prevailed among the Romans, and their symposiarch was
called _Magister_, or _Rex Convivii_, or the _Arbiter Bibendi_.
The choice was generally determined by the throwing of astragali
or tali. The proportion in which the wine and water were mixed was
fixed by him, and also how much each of the company was to drink,
for it was not usually left to the option of each of the company
to drink as much or as little as he pleased. The cups were always
carried round from right to left (ἐπὶ δεξιά), and the same order
was observed in the conversation, and in everything that took place
in the entertainment. The company frequently drank to the health
of one another, and each did it especially to the one to whom he
handed the same cup. Respecting the games and amusements by which
the symposia were enlivened, it is unnecessary to say much here,
as most of them are described in separate articles in this work.
Enigmas or riddles (αἰνίγματα or γρῖφοι) were among the most usual and
favourite modes of diversion. Each of the company proposed one in
turn to his right-hand neighbour; if he solved it, he was rewarded
with a crown, a garland, a cake, or something of a similar kind, and
sometimes with a kiss; if he failed, he had to drink a cup of unmixed
wine, or of wine mixed with salt water, at one draught. The cottabos
was also another favourite game at symposia, and was played at in
various ways. [COTTABUS.] Representations of symposia are very common
on ancient vases. Two guests usually reclined on each couch (κλίνη),
as is explained on p. 95, but sometimes there were five persons on
one couch. A drinking-party among the Romans was sometimes called
_convivium_, but the word _comissatio_ more nearly corresponds to the
Greek symposium. [COMISSATIO.] The Romans, however, usually drank
during their dinner (_coena_), which they frequently prolonged during
many hours, in the later times of the republic and under the empire.
Their customs connected with drinking differed little from those of
the Greeks, and have been incidentally noticed above.

[Illustration: Symposium (From a Painting on a Vase.)]

SYNDĬCUS (σύνδικος), _an advocate_, is frequently used as synonymous
with the word _synegorus_ (συνήγορος), to denote any one who pleads
the cause of another, whether in a court of justice or elsewhere,
but was peculiarly applied to those orators who were sent by the
state to plead the cause of their countrymen before a foreign
tribunal. Aeschines, for example, was appointed to plead before
the Amphictyonic council on the subject of the Delian temple; but
a certain discovery having been made, not very creditable to his
patriotism, the court of Arciopagus took upon themselves to remove
him, and appoint Hyperides in his stead. There were other _syndici_,
who acted rather as magistrates or judges than as advocates, though
they probably derived their name from the circumstance of their
being appointed to protect the interests of the state. These were
extraordinary functionaries, created from time to time to exercise a
jurisdiction in disputes concerning confiscated property.

SỸNĔDRI (σύνεδροι), a name given to the members of any council,
or any body of men who sat together to consult or deliberate. The
congress of Greeks at Salamis is called συνέδριον. Frequent reference
is made to the general assembly of the Greeks, τὸ κοινὸν τῶν Ἑλλήνων
συνέδριον, at Corinth, Thermopylae, or elsewhere. The congress of
the states belonging to the new Athenian alliance, formed after B.C.
377, was called συνέδριον, and the deputies σύνεδροι, and the sums
furnished by the allies συντάξεις, in order to avoid the old and
hateful name of φόρος or tribute. The name of συνέδριον was given
at Athens to any magisterial or official body, as to the court of
Areiopagus, or to the place where they transacted business, their
board or council-room.

SỸNĒGŎRUS (συνήγορος). In causes of importance, wherein the state was
materially interested, more especially in those which were brought
before the court upon an εἰσαγγελία, it was usual to appoint public
advocates (called συνήγοροι, σύνδικοι, or κατήγοροι) to manage the
prosecution. In ordinary cases however the accuser or prosecutor
(κατήγορος) was a distinct person from the συνήγορος, who acted
only as auxiliary to him. It might be, indeed, that the συνήγορος
performed the most important part at the trial, or it might be that
he performed a subordinate part, making only a short speech in
support of the prosecution, which was called ἐπίλογος. But however
this might be, he was in point of law an auxiliary only, and was
neither entitled to a share of the reward (if any) given by the law
to a successful accuser, nor liable, on the other hand, to a penalty
of a thousand drachms, or the ἀτιμία consequent upon a failure to
get a fifth part of the votes. The fee of a drachm (τὸ συνηγορικόν)
mentioned by Aristophanes was probably the sum paid to the public
advocate whenever he was employed on behalf of the state. There
appears to have been (at least at one period) a regular appointment
of συνήγοροι, ten in number. For what purpose they were appointed, is
a matter about which we have no certain information: but it is not
unreasonable to suppose that these ten συνήγοροι were no other than
the public advocates who were employed to conduct state prosecutions.

SYNGRĂPHĒ (συγγραφή), signifies a written contract: whereas συνθήκη
and συμβόλαιον do not necessarily import that the contract is in
writing; and ὁμολογία is, strictly speaking, a verbal agreement. At
Athens important contracts were usually reduced to writing; such as
leases (μισθώσεις), loans of money, and all executory agreements,
where certain conditions were to be performed. The whole was
contained in a little tablet of wax or wood (βιβλίον or γραμματεῖον,
sometimes double, δίπτυχον), which was sealed, and deposited with
some third person, mutually agreed on between the parties.

SỸNOIKĬA (συνοίκια).--(1) A festival celebrated every year at Athens
on the 16th of Hecatombaeon in honour of Athena. It was believed to
have been instituted by Theseus to commemorate the concentration of
the government of the various towns of Attica at Athens.--(2) A house
adapted to hold several families, a lodging-house, _insula_, as the
Romans would say. The lodging-houses were let mostly to foreigners
who came to Athens on business, and especially to the μέτοικοι, whom
the law did not allow to acquire real property, and who therefore
could not purchase houses of their own. The rent was commonly paid
by the month. Lodging-houses were frequently taken on speculation
by persons called ναύκληροι or σταθμοῦχοι, who made a profit by
underletting them.

SYNTHĔSIS, a garment frequently worn at dinner, and sometimes also on
other occasions. As it was inconvenient to wear the toga at table,
on account of its many folds, it was customary to have dresses
especially appropriated to this purpose, called _vestes coenatoriae_,
or _coenatoria_, _accubitoria_, or _syntheses_. The synthesis
appears to have been a kind of tunic, an _indumentum_ rather than an
_amictus_. [AMICTUS.] That it was, however, an easy and comfortable
kind of dress, as we should say, seems to be evident from its use at
table above mentioned, and also from its being worn by all classes at
the SATURNALIA, a season of universal relaxation and enjoyment. More
than this respecting its form we cannot say; it was usually dyed with
some colour, and was not white, like the toga.

SȲRINX (σύριγξ), the Pan’s pipe, or Pandean pipe, was the appropriate
musical instrument of the Arcadian and other Grecian shepherds, and
was regarded by them as the invention of Pan, their tutelary god.
When the Roman poets had occasion to mention it, they called it
_fistula_. It was formed in general of seven hollow stems of cane or
reed, fitted together by means of wax, having been previously cut
to the proper lengths, and adjusted so as to form an octave; but
sometimes nine were admitted, giving an equal number of notes. A
syrinx of eight reeds is represented on p. 278.

[Illustration: Pan with a Syrinx. (Mus. Worsleyanum, pl. 9.)]

SYRMA (σύρμα), which properly means that which is drawn or dragged
(from σύρω), is applied to a dress with a train. It was more
especially the name of the dress worn by the tragic actors, which had
a train to it trailing upon the ground. Hence we find _syrma_ used
metaphorically for tragedy itself.

SYSSĪTĬA (συσσίτια). The custom of taking the principal meal of the
day in public prevailed extensively amongst the Greeks from very
early ages, but more particularly in Crete and at Sparta. The Cretan
name for the syssitia was _Andreia_ (ἀνδρεῖα), the singular of which
is used to denote the building or public hall where they were given.
This title affords of itself a sufficient indication that they were
confined to men and youths only. All the adult citizens partook of
the public meals amongst the Cretans, and were divided into companies
or “messes,” called _hetaeriae_ (ἑταιρίαι), or sometimes _andreia_.
The syssitia of the Cretans were distinguished by simplicity and
temperance. They always _sat_ at their tables, even in later times,
when the custom of reclining had been introduced at Sparta. In most
of the Cretan cities, the expenses of the syssitia were defrayed
out of the revenues of the public lands, and the tribute paid by
the perioeci, the money arising from which was applied partly to
the service of the gods, and partly to the maintenance of all the
citizens, both male and female; so that in this respect there might
be no difference between the rich and the poor. The Spartan syssitia
were in the main so similar to those of Crete, that one was said to
be borrowed from the other. They differed from the Cretan in the
following respects. The expenses of the tables at Sparta were not
defrayed out of the public revenues, but every head of a family was
obliged to contribute a certain portion at his own cost and charge;
those who were not able to do so were excluded from the public
tables. The guests were divided into companies, generally of fifteen
persons each, and all vacancies were filled up by ballot, in which
unanimous consent was indispensable for election. No persons, not
even the kings, were excused from attendance at the public tables,
except for some satisfactory reason, as when engaged in a sacrifice,
or a chase, in which latter case the individual was required to send
a present to his table. Each person was supplied with a cup of mixed
wine, which was filled again when required: but drinking to excess
was prohibited at Sparta as well as in Crete. The repast was of a
plain and simple character, and the contribution of each member of
a mess (φειδίτης) was settled by law. The principal dish was the
black broth (μέλας ζωμός), with pork. Moreover, the entertainment
was enlivened by cheerful conversation, though on public matters.
Singing also was frequently introduced. The arrangements were under
the superintendence of the polemarchs.

TĂBELLA, _dim._ of TĂBŬLA, a billet or tablet, with which each
citizen and judex voted in the comitia and courts of justice. For
details see pp. 107, 236.

TĂBELLĀRĬUS, a letter-carrier. As the Romans had no public post,
they were obliged to employ special messengers, who were called
_tabellarii_, to convey their letters (_tabellae_, _literae_), when
they had not an opportunity of sending them otherwise.

TĂBERNĀCŬLUM. [TEMPLUM.]

TABLĪNUM. [DOMUS.]

TĂBŬLAE. This word properly means planks or boards, whence it is
applied to several objects, as gaming-tables, pictures, but more
especially to tablets used for writing. Generally, _tabulae_ and
_tabellae_ signify waxen tablets (_tabulae ceratae_), which were
thin pieces of wood, usually of an oblong shape, covered over with
wax (_cera_). The wax was written on by means of the stilus. These
tabulae were sometimes made of ivory and citron-wood, but generally
of the wood of a more common tree, as the beech, fir, &c. The outer
sides of the tablets consisted merely of the wood; it was only the
inner sides that were covered over with wax. They were fastened
together at the back by means of wires, which answered the purpose of
hinges, so that they opened and shut like our books; and to prevent
the wax of one tablet nibbing against the wax of the other, there
was a raised margin around each, as is clearly seen in the woodcut
on p. 354. There were sometimes two, three, four, five, or even
more, tablets fastened together in the above-mentioned manner. Two
such tablets were called _diptycha_ (δίπτυχα), which merely means
“twice-folded” (from πτύσσω, “to fold”), whence we have πτυκτίον, or
with the τ omitted, πυκτίον. The Latin word _pugillares_, which is
the name frequently given to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps
be connected with the same root, though it is usually derived from
_pugillus_, because they were small enough to be held in the hand.
Three tablets fastened together were called _triptycha_; in the
same way we also read of _pentaptycha_, and of _polyptycha_ or
_multiplices_ (_cerae_). The pages of these tablets were frequently
called by the name of cerae alone; thus we read of _prima cera_,
_altera cera_, “first page,” “second page.” In tablets containing
important legal documents, especially wills, the outer edges were
pierced through with holes (_foramina_), through which a triple
thread (_linum_) was passed, and upon which a seal was then placed.
This was intended to guard against forgery, and if it was not done
such documents were null and void. Waxen tablets were used among the
Romans for almost every species of writing, where great length was
not required. Thus letters were frequently written upon them, which
were secured by being fastened together with packthread and sealed
with wax. Legal documents, and especially wills, were almost always
written on waxen tablets. Such tablets were also used for accounts,
in which a person entered what he received and expended (_tabulae_ or
_codex accepti et expensi_), whence _novae tabulae_ mean an abolition
of debts either wholly or in part. The tablets used in voting in the
comitia and the courts of justice were also called tabulae, as well
as tabellae. [TABELLA.]

TĂBŬLĀRĬI were notaries or accountants, who are first mentioned under
this name in the time of the empire. Public notaries, who had the
charge of public documents, were also called tabularii. They were
first established by M. Antoninus in the provinces, who ordained that
the births of all children were to be announced to the tabularii
within thirty days from the birth.

TĂBŬLĀRĬUM, a place where the public records (_tabulae publicae_)
were kept. These records were of various kinds, as for instance
senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers of births, deaths,
of the names of those who assumed the toga virilis, &c. There were
various tabularia at Rome, all of which were in temples; we find
mention made of tabularia in the temples of the Nymphs, of Lucina,
of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres, and more especially in that of
Saturn, which was also the public treasury.

TAGUS (ταγός), a leader or general, was more especially the name of
the military leader of the Thessalians. He is sometimes called _king_
(βασιλεύς). His command was of a military rather than of a civil
nature, and he seems only to have been appointed when there was a war
or one was apprehended. We do not know the extent of the power which
the Tagus possessed constitutionally, nor the time for which he held
the office; probably neither was precisely fixed, and depended on the
circumstances of the times and the character of the individual.

TĀLĀRĬA, small wings, fixed to the ancles of Hermes and reckoned
among his attributes (πέδιλα, πτηνοπέδιλος). In many works of ancient
art they are represented growing from his ancles (see cut, p. 63);
but more frequently he is represented with sandals, which have wings
fastened to them on each side over the ancles.

[Illustration: Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)]

TĂLASSĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.]

TĂLENTUM (τάλαντον) meant originally _a balance_ [LIBRA], then
the substance weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain weight,
_the talent_. The Greek system of money, as well as the Roman
[AS], was founded on a reference to weight. A certain weight of
silver among the Greeks, as of copper among the Romans, was used
as a representative of a value, which was originally and generally
that of the metal itself. The talent therefore and its divisions
are denominations of money as well as of weight. The Greek system
of weights contained four principal denominations, which, though
different in different times and places, and even at the same place
for different substances, always bore the same relation _to each
other_. These were the talent (τάλαντον), which was the largest,
then the mina (μνᾶ), the drachma (δραχμή), and the obolus (ὀβολός).
[See Tables.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the two standards of
money most in use in Greece. The Attic mina was 4_l._ 1_s._ 3_d._,
and the talent 243_l._ 15_s._ The Aeginetan mina was 5_l._ 14_s._
7_d._, and the talent 343_l._ 15_s._ The Euboic talent was of nearly
the same weight as the Attic. A much smaller talent was in use for
gold. It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about ¾ oz. and 71 grs.
It was called the _gold talent_, or the _Sicilian talent_, from
its being much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily. This is the
talent always meant when the word occurs in Homer. This small talent
explains the use of the term _great talent_ (_magnum talentum_),
which we find in Latin authors, for the silver Attic talent was
_great_ in comparison with this. But the use of the word by the
Romans is altogether very inexact. Where talents are mentioned in the
classical writers without any specification of the standard, we must
generally understand the Attic.

TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent, but it is used only in
the sense of a punishment or penalty the same in kind and degree as
the mischief which the guilty person has done to the body of another.
Talio, as a punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law.

TĀLUS (ἀστράγαλος), a huckle-bone. The huckle-bones of sheep and
goats were used to play with from the earliest times, principally by
women and children, occasionally by old men. To play at this game was
sometimes called πενταλιθίζειν, because five bones or other objects
of a similar kind were employed; and this number is retained among
ourselves. When the sides of the bone were marked with different
values, the game became one of chance. [ALEA; TESSERA.] The two ends
were left blank, because the bone could not rest upon either of them
on account of its curvature. The four remaining sides were marked
with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6; 1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and
3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides. The Greek and Latin names
of the numbers were as follows:--1. Μονάς, εἶς, κύων, Χῖος; Ion.
Οἴνη: _Unio_, _Vulturius_, _canis_: 3. Τρίας, _Ternio_; 4. Τετράς,
_Quaternio_; 6. Ἑξάς, ἑξίτης, Κῷος; _Senio_. Two persons played
together at this game, using four bones, which they threw up into
the air, or emptied out of a dice-box, and observing the numbers on
the uppermost sides. The numbers on the four sides of the four bones
admitted of thirty-five different combinations. The lowest throw of
all was four aces (_jacere vultorios quatuor_). But the value of a
throw was not in all cases the sum of the four numbers turned up.
The highest in value was that called _Venus_, or _jactus Venereus_,
in which the numbers cast up were all different, the sum of them
being only fourteen. It was by obtaining this throw that the king
of the feast was appointed among the Romans [SYMPOSIUM], and hence
it was also called _Basilicus_. Certain other throws were called by
particular names, taken from gods, illustrious men and women, and
heroes. Thus the throw, consisting of two aces and two trays, making
eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus, could be obtained only
once, was denominated _Stesichorus_.

[Illustration: Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)]

TĂMĬAE (ταμίαι), the treasurers of the temples and the revenue at
Athens. The wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was that of
Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures of which were under the
guardianship of ten _tamiae_, who were chosen annually by lot from
the class of pentacosiomedimni, and afterwards, when the distinction
of classes had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest of Athenian
citizens. The treasurers of the other gods were chosen in like
manner; but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all united into one
board, while those of Athena remained distinct. Their treasury,
however, was transferred to the same place as that of Athena, viz.,
to the opisthodomus of the Parthenon, where were kept not only all
the treasures belonging to the temples, but also the state treasure
(ὅσια χρήματα, as contra-distinguished from ἱερά), under the
care of the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of the state were
considered as being in a manner consecrated to Athena; while on the
other hand the people reserved to themselves the right of making
use of the sacred monies, as well as the other property of the
temples, if the safety of the state should require it. Payments
made to the temples were received by the treasurers in the presence
of some members of the senate, just as public monies were by the
Apodectae; and then the treasurers became responsible for their
safe custody.--The treasurer of the revenue (ταμίας or ἐπιμελητής
τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου) was a more important personage than those last
mentioned. He was not a mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a mere
receiver, like the apodectae; but a general paymaster, who received
through the apodectae all money which was to be disbursed for the
purposes of the administration (except the property-taxes, which were
paid into the war-office, and the tribute from the allies, which was
paid to the hellenotamiae [HELLENOTAMIAE]), and then distributed
it in such manner as he was required to do by the law; the surplus
(if any) he paid into the war-office or the theoric fund. As this
person knew all the channels in which the public money had to flow,
and exercised a general superintendence over the expenditure, he
was competent to give advice to the people upon financial measures,
with a view to improve the revenue, introduce economy, and prevent
abuses; he is sometimes called ταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως, or ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς
διοικήσεως, and may be regarded as a sort of minister of finance.
He was elected by vote (χειροτονία), and held his office for four
years, but was capable of being re-elected. A law, however, was
passed during the administration of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting
re-election; so that Lycurgus, who is reported to have continued
in office for twelve years, must have held it for the last eight
years under fictitious names. The power of this officer was by no
means free from control; inasmuch as any individual was at liberty
to propose financial measures, or institute criminal proceedings
for malversation or waste of the public funds; and there was an
ἀντιγραφεὺς τῆς διοικήσεως appointed to check the accounts of his
superior. Anciently there were persons called _Poristae_ (πορίσται),
who appear to have assisted the tamiae in some part of their duties.
The money disbursed by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes
paid directly to the various persons in the employ of the government,
sometimes through subordinate pay offices. Many public functionaries
had their own paymasters, who were dependent on the treasurer of
the revenue, receiving their funds from him, and then distributing
them in their respective departments. Such were the τριηροποιοί,
τειχοποιοί, ὁδοποιοί, ταφροποιοί, ἐπεμεληταὶ νεωρίων, who received
through their own tamiae such sums as they required from time to time
for the prosecution of their works. The payment of the judicial fees
was made by the _Colacretae_ (κωλακρέται), which, and the providing
for the meals in the Prytaneium, were the only duties that remained
to them after the establishment of the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The
tamiae of the sacred vessels (τῆς Παράλου and τῆς Σαλαμινίας) acted
not only as treasurers, but as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting
for the two ships together to about sixteen talents) being provided
by the state. They were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had their
own private tamiae.--The war fund at Athens (independently of the
tribute) was provided from two sources: first, the property-tax
(εἰσφορά), and secondly, the surplus of the yearly revenue, which
remained after defraying the expenses of the civil administration.
Of the ten strategi, who were annually elected to preside over the
war department, one was called στρατηγὸς ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως, to
whom the management of the war fund was entrusted. He had under him
a treasurer, called the ταμίας τῶν στρατιωτικῶν, who gave out the
pay of the troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident to the
service. So much of the surplus revenue as was not required for the
purposes of war, was to be paid by the treasurer of the revenue into
the theoric fund; of which, after the archonship of Euclides, special
managers were created. [THEORICA.]--Lastly, we have to notice the
treasurers of the demi (δήμων ταμίαι), and those of the tribes (φυλῶν
ταμίαι), who had the care of the funds belonging to their respective
communities, and performed duties analogous to those of the state
treasurers. The demi, as well as the tribes, had their common lands,
which were usually let to farm. The rents of these formed the
principal part of their revenue.

TAXIARCHI (ταξίαρχοι), military officers at Athens, next in rank
to the strategi. They were ten in number, like the strategi, one
for each tribe, and were elected by vote (χειροτονία). In war each
commanded the infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently
called to assist the strategi with their advice at the war-council.
In peace they assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting
soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the _strategi_ in the
discharge of many of their other duties. The taxiarchs were so called
from their commanding _taxeis_ (τάξεις), which were the principal
divisions of the hoplites in the Athenian army. Each tribe (φυλή)
formed a _taxis_. As there were ten tribes, there were consequently
in a complete Athenian army ten _taxeis_, but the number of men
contained in each would of course vary according to the importance of
the war. Among the other Greeks, the _taxis_ was the name of a much
smaller division of troops. The _lochus_ (λόχος) among the Athenians
was a subdivision of the _taxis_, and the _lochagi_ (λοχαγοί) were
probably appointed by the taxiarchs.

TĒGŬLA (κέραμος, _dim._ κεραμίς), a roofing-tile. Roofing-tiles were
originally made, like bricks, of baked clay (γῆς ὀπτῆς). Byzes of
Naxos first introduced tiles of marble about the year 620 B.C. A
still more expensive and magnificent method of roofing consisted in
the use of tiles made of bronze and gilt. At Rome the houses were
originally roofed with shingles, and continued to be so down to the
time of the war with Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the old
roofing material.

TEICHŎPOII (τειχοποιοί), magistrates at Athens, whose business it was
to build and keep in repair the public walls. They appear to have
been elected by vote (χειροτονία), one from each tribe, and probably
for a year. Funds were put at their disposal, for which they had
their treasurer (ταμίας) dependent on the treasurer of the revenue.
They were liable to render an account (εὐθύνη) of their management
of these funds, and also of their general conduct, like other
magistrates. This office has been invested with peculiar interest in
modern times, on account of its having been held by Demosthenes, and
its having given occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon, who
proposed that Demosthenes should receive the honour of a crown before
he had rendered his account according to law.

TĒLA (ἱστός), a loom. Although weaving was among the Greeks and
Romans a distinct trade, carried on by a separate class of persons
(ὑφάνται, _textores_ and _textrices_, _linteones_), yet every
considerable domestic establishment, especially in the country,
contained a loom, together with the whole apparatus necessary for the
working of wool (_lanificium_, ταλασία, ταλασιουργία). [CALATHUS.]
These occupations were all supposed to be carried on under the
protection of Athena or Minerva, specially denominated _Ergane_
(Ἐργάνη). When the farm or the palace was sufficiently large to admit
of it, a portion of it called the _histon_ (ἱστῶν) or _textrinum_
was devoted to this purpose. The work was there principally carried
on by female slaves (_quasillariae_), under the superintendence
of the mistress of the house. Every thing woven consists of two
essential parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin _stamen_ and
_subtegmen_, _subtemen_, or _trama_; in Greek στήμων and κροκή. The
warp was called _stamen_ in Latin (from _stare_) on account of its
erect posture in the loom. The corresponding Greek term στήμων, and
likewise ἱστός, have evidently the same derivation. For the same
reason, the very first operation in weaving was to set up the loom
(ἱστὸν στήσασθαι); and the web or cloth, before it was cut down or
“descended” from the loom, was called _vestis pendens_ or _pendula
tela_, because it hung from the transverse beam, or _jugum_. These
particulars are all clearly exhibited in the picture of Circe’s
loom given in the annexed cut. We observe in the preceding woodcut,
about the middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod passing through
the warp. A straight cane was well adapted to be so used, and its
application is clearly expressed by Ovid in the words _stamen
secernit arundo_. In plain weaving it was inserted between the
threads of the warp so as to divide them into two portions, the
threads on one side of the rod alternating with those on the other
side throughout the whole breadth of the warp. In a very ancient
form of the loom there was a roller underneath the jugum, turned
by a handle, and on which the web was wound as the work advanced.
The threads of the warp, besides being separated by a transverse
rod or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels, to each of
which a stone was suspended for the purpose of keeping the warp in
a perpendicular position, and allowing the necessary play to the
strokes of the spatha. Whilst the comparatively coarse, strong,
and much-twisted thread designed for the warp was thus arranged in
parallel lines, the woof remained upon the spindle [FUSUS], forming a
_spool_, _bobbin_, or _pen_ (πήνη). This was either conveyed through
the warp without any additional contrivance, or it was made to
revolve in a shuttle (_radius_). This was made of box brought from
the shores of the Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities, that
it might easily force its way through the warp. All that is effected
by the shuttle is the conveyance of the woof across the warp. To
keep every thread of the woof in its proper place, it is necessary
that the threads of the warp should be decussated. This was done by
the leashes, called in Latin _licia_, in Greek μίτοι. By a leash we
are to understand a thread having at one end a loop, through which
a thread of the warp was passed, the other end being fastened to a
straight rod called _liciatorium_, and in Greek κανών. The warp,
having been divided by the arundo, as already mentioned, into two
sets of threads, all those of the same set were passed through the
loops of the corresponding set of leashes, and all these leashes were
fastened at their other end to the same wooden rod. At least one set
of leashes was necessary to decussate the warp, even in the plainest
and simplest weaving. The number of sets was increased according to
the complexity of the pattern, which was called _bilix_ or _trilix_,
δίμιτος, τρίμιτος, or πολύμιτος, according as the number was two,
three, or more. The process of annexing the leashes to the warp was
called _ordiri telam_, also _licia telae addere_, or _adnectere_.
It occupied two women at the same time, one of whom took in regular
succession each separate thread of the warp, and handed it over to
the other (παραφέρειν, παραδίδοναι, or προσφωρεῖσθαι); the other,
as she received each thread, passed it through the loop in proper
order; an act which we call “entering,” in Greek διάζεσθαι. Supposing
the warp to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or the shuttle to
have been carried through it, it was then decussated by drawing
forwards the proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads of
the warp across the rest, after which the woof was shot back again,
and by the continual repetition of this process the warp and woof
were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally used to fix the rods
in such a position as was most convenient to assist the weaver in
drawing her woof across her warp. After the woof had been conveyed
by the shuttle through the warp, it was driven sometimes downwards,
as is represented in the woodcut, but more commonly upwards. Two
different instruments were used in this part of the process. The
simplest, and probably the most ancient, was in the form of a large
wooden sword (_spatha_, σπάθη). The spatha was, however, in a
great degree superseded by the comb (_pecten_, κερκίς), the teeth
of which were inserted between the threads of the warp, and thus
made by a forcible impulse to drive the threads of the woof close
together.--The lyre, the favourite musical instrument of the Greeks,
was only known to the Romans as a foreign invention. Hence they
appear to have described its parts by a comparison with the loom,
with which they were familiar. The terms _jugum_ and _stamina_ were
transferred by an obvious resemblance from the latter to the former
object; and, although they adopted into their own language the Greek
word _plectrum_, they used the Latin _pecten_ to denote the same
thing, not because the instrument used in striking the lyre was at
all like a comb in shape and appearance, but because it was held in
the right hand, and inserted between the stamina of the lyre, as the
comb was between the stamina of the loom.

[Illustration: Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)]

TĔLAMŌNES. [ATLANTES.]

TĔLŌNES (τελώνης), a farmer of the public taxes at Athens. The taxes
were let by auction to the highest bidder. Companies often took them
in the name of one person, who was called ἀρχώνης or τελωνάρχης, and
was their representative to the state. Sureties were required of
the farmer for the payment of his dues. The office was frequently
undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not liking it, on account of
the vexatious proceedings to which it often led. The farmer was armed
with considerable powers: he carried with him his books, searched
for contraband or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, markets,
and other places, to prevent smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine
sales; brought a _phasis_ (φάσις) or other legal process against
those whom he suspected of defrauding the revenue; or even seized
their persons on some occasions, and took them before the magistrate.
To enable him to perform these duties, he was exempted from military
service. Collectors (ἐκλογεῖς) were sometimes employed by the
farmers; but frequently the farmer and the collector were the same
person. The taxes were let by the commissioners (πωλῆται), acting
under the authority of the senate. The payments were made by the
farmer on stated prytaneias in the senate-house. There was usually
one payment made in advance, προκαταβολή, and one or more afterwards,
called προσκατάβλημα. Upon any default of payment, the farmer became
_atimus_, if a citizen, and he was liable to be imprisoned at the
discretion of the court, upon an information laid against him. If the
debt was not paid by the expiration of the ninth prytaneia, it was
doubled; and if not then paid, his property became forfeited to the
state, and proceedings to confiscation might be taken forthwith. Upon
this subject, see the speech of Demosthenes against Timocrates.

TĔLOS (τέλος), a tax. The taxes imposed by the Athenians, and
collected at home, were either ordinary or extraordinary. The
former constituted a regular or permanent source of income; the
latter were only raised in time of war or other emergency. The
ordinary taxes were laid mostly upon _property_, and upon citizens
_indirectly_, in the shape of toll or customs; though the resident
aliens paid a poll-tax (called μετοίκιον), for the liberty of
residing at Athens under protection of the state. There was a duty
of two per cent. (πεντηκοστή), levied upon all exports and imports.
An excise was paid on all sales in the market (called ἐπωνία),
though we know not what the amount was. Slave-owners paid a duty
of three obols for every slave they kept; and slaves who had been
emancipated paid the same. This was a very productive tax before
the fortification of Deceleia by the Lacedaemonians. The justice
fees (πρυτανεῖα, παραστασις, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time
of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the property-tax, and the
compulsory services called _liturgies_ (λειτουργίαι). Some of these
last were regular, and recurred annually; the most important, the
_trierarchia_, was a war-service, and performed as occasion required.
As these services were all performed, wholly or partly, at the
expense of the individual, they may be regarded as a species of tax.
[EISPHORA; LEITOURGIA; TRIERARCHIA.] The tribute (φόρος) paid by the
allied states to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing period of
the republic, a regular and most important source of revenue. In
Olymp. 91 2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty of
five per cent. (εἰκοστή) on all commodities exported or imported by
the subject states, thinking to raise by this means a larger income
than by direct taxation. This was terminated by the issue of the
Peloponnesian war, though the tribute was afterwards revived, on more
equitable principles, under the name of σύνταξις. Other sources of
revenue were derived by the Athenians from their mines and public
lands, fines, and confiscations. The public demesne lands, whether
pasture or arable, houses or other buildings, were usually let by
auction to private persons. The conditions of the lease were engraven
on stone. The rent was payable by prytaneias. These various sources
of revenue produced, according to Aristophanes, an annual income
of two thousand talents in the most flourishing period of Athenian
empire. Τελεῖν signifies “to settle, complete, or perfect,” and hence
“to settle an account,” and generally “to pay.” Thus Τέλος comes
to mean any payment in the nature of a tax or duty. The words are
connected with _zahlen_ in German, and the old sense of _tale_ in
English, and the modern word _toll_. Though τέλος may signify any
payment in the nature of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of
the ordinary taxes, as customs, &c. Ἰσοτέλεια signifies the right of
being taxed on the same footing, and having other privileges, the
same as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to resident aliens.
Ἀτέλεια signifies an exemption from taxes, or other duties and
services; an honour very rarely granted by the Athenians. As to the
farming of the taxes, see TELONES.

TEMPLUM is the same word as the Greek _Temenos_ (τέμενος, from τέμνω,
to cut off); for _templum_ was any place which was circumscribed
and separated by the augurs from the rest of the land by a certain
solemn formula. The technical terms for this act of the augurs are
_liberare_ and _effari_, and hence a templum itself is a _locus
liberatus et effatus_. A place thus set apart and hallowed by the
augurs was always intended to serve religious purposes, but chiefly
for taking the auguries. The place in the heavens within which the
observations were to be made was likewise called templum, as it was
marked out and separated from the rest by the staff of the augur.
When the augur had defined the templum within which he intended
to make his observations, he fixed his tent in it (_tabernaculum
capere_), and this tent was likewise called _templum_, or, more
accurately, _templum minus_. The place chosen for a templum was
generally an eminence, and in the city it was the _arx_, where the
fixing of a tent does not appear to have been necessary, because here
a place called _auguraculum_ was once for all consecrated for this
purpose. Besides this meaning of the word templum in the language of
the augurs, it also had that of a temple in the common acceptation.
In this case, however, the sacred precinct within which a temple
was built, was always a _locus liberatus et effatus_ by the augurs,
that is, a _templum_ or a _fanum_; the consecration was completed
by the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and consecration had
taken place, could sacra be performed or meetings of the senate be
held in it. It was necessary then for a temple to be sanctioned
by the gods, whose will was ascertained by the augurs, and to be
consecrated or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs). Where the
sanction of the gods had not been obtained, and where the mere act
of man had consecrated a place to the gods, such a place was only
a _sacrum_, _sacrarium_, or _sacellum_. The ceremony performed
by the augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration by
the pontiffs took place also in other sanctuaries which were not
templa, but mere _sacra_ or _aedes sacrae_. Thus the sanctuary of
Vesta was not a templum, but an aedes sacra, and the various curiae
(Hostilia, Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa by the augurs
before senatusconsulta could be made in them. It is impossible to
determine with certainty in what respects a templum differed from
a _delubrum_.--Temples appear to have existed in Greece from the
earliest times. They were separated from the profane land around them
(τόπος βέβηλος or τὰ βέβηλα), because every one was allowed to walk
in the latter. This separation was in early times indicated by very
simple means, such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, however,
they were surrounded by more efficient fences, or even by a wall
(ἕρκος, περίβολος). The whole space enclosed in such a περίβολος
was called τέμενος, or sometimes ἱερόν; and contained, besides the
temple itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred ground planted with
groves, &c. Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure no dead were
generally allowed to be buried, though there were some exceptions
to this rule, and we have instances of persons being buried in or
at least near certain temples. The religious laws of the island of
Delos did not allow any corpses to be buried within the whole extent
of the island, and when this law had been violated, a part of the
island was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently the whole
island by the Athenian people. The temple itself was called ναός
or νεώς, and at its entrance fonts (περιῤῥαντήρια) were generally
placed, that those who entered the sanctuary to pray or to offer
sacrifices might first purify themselves. The act of consecration,
by which a temple was dedicated to a god, was called ἵδρυσις. The
character of the early Greek temples was dark and mysterious, for
they had no windows, and they received light only through the door,
which was very large, or from lamps burning in them. Architecture
in the construction of magnificent temples, however, made great
progress even at an earlier time than either painting or statuary,
and long before the Persian wars we hear of temples of extraordinary
grandeur and beauty. All temples were built either in an oblong or
round form, and were mostly adorned with columns. Those of an oblong
form had columns either in the front alone, in the fore and back
fronts, or on all the four sides. Respecting the original use of
these porticoes see PORTICUS. The friezes and metopes were adorned
with various sculptures, and no expense was spared in embellishing
the abodes of the gods. The light, which was formerly let in at the
door, was now frequently let in from above through an opening in the
middle. Most of the great temples consisted of three parts: 1. the
πρόναος or πρόδομος, the vestibule; 2. the cella (ναός, σηκός); and
3. the ὀπισθόδομος. The cella was the most important part, as it was,
properly speaking, the temple or the habitation of the deity whose
statue it contained. In one and the same cella there were sometimes
the statues of two or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at
Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus, and Butas. The statues
always faced the entrance, which was in the centre of the prostylus.
The place where the statue stood was called ἕδος, and was surrounded
by a balustrade or railings. Some temples also had more than one
cella, in which case the one was generally behind the other, as in
the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples where oracles
were given, or where the worship was connected with mysteries, the
cella was called ἄδυτον, μέγαρον, or ἀνάκτορον, and to it only the
priests and the initiated had access. The ὀπισθόδομος was a building
which was sometimes attached to the back front of a temple, and
served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept,
and thus supplied the place of θησαυροί, which were attached to some
temples.--_Quadrangular Temples_ were described by the following
terms, according to the number and arrangement of the columns on
the fronts and sides. 1. Ἄστυλος, _astyle_, without any columns.
2. Ἐν παραστάσι, _in antis_, with two columns in front between the
antae. 3. Πρόστυλος, _prostyle_, with four columns in front. 4.
Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, _amphiprostyle_, with four columns at each end. 5.
Περίπτερος or ἀμφικίων, _peripteral_, with columns at each end and
along each side. 6. Δίπτερος, _dipteral_, with two ranges of columns
(πτερά) all round, the one within the other. 7. Ψευδοδίπτερος,
_pseudodipteral_, with one range only, but at the same distance
from the walls of the _cella_ as the outer range of a δίπτερος. To
these must be added a sort of sham invented by the Roman architects,
namely: 8. Ψευδοπερίπτερος, _pseudoperipteral_, where the sides had
only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter columns), attached to
the walls of the _cella_, the object being to have the _cella_ large
without enlarging the whole building, and yet to keep up something
of the splendour of a peripteral temple. Names were also applied to
the temples, as well as to the porticoes themselves, according to
the number of columns in the portico at either end of the temple:
namely, τετράστυλος, _tetrastyle_, when there were _four_ columns in
front, ἑξάστυλος, _hexastyle_, when there were _six_, ὀκτάστυλος,
_octastyle_, when there were _eight_, δεκάστυλος, _decastyle_, when
there were _ten_. There were never more than ten columns in the end
portico of a temple; and when there were only two, they were always
arranged in that peculiar form called _in antis_ (ἐν παραστάσι).
The number of columns in the end porticoes was never uneven, but
the number along the sides of a temple was generally uneven. The
number of the side columns varied: where the end portico was
tetrastyle, there were never any columns at the sides, except false
ones, attached to the walls: where it was hexastyle or octastyle,
there were generally 13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in
the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle temple had only eleven
columns on the sides. The last arrangement resulted from the rule
adopted by the Roman architects, who counted by intercolumniations
(the spaces between the columns), and whose rule was to have _twice
as many intercolumniations along the sides of the building as in
front_. The Greek architects on the contrary, counted by columns,
and their rule was to have _twice as many columns along the sides
as in front, and one more_, counting the corner columns in each
case. Another set of terms, applied to temples and other buildings
having porticoes, as well as to the porticoes themselves, was derived
from the distances between the columns as compared with the lower
diameters of the columns. They were the following:--1. Πυκνόστυλος,
_pycnostyle_, the distance between the columns a diameter of a column
and half a diameter. 2. Σύστυλος, _systyle_, the distance between
the columns two diameters of a column. 3. Εὔστυλος, _eustyle_, the
distance between the columns two diameters and a quarter, except
in the centre of the front and back of the building, where each
intercolumniation (_intercolumnium_) was three diameters; called
eustyle, because it was best adapted both for beauty and convenience.
4. Διάστυλος, _diastyle_, the intercolumniation, or distance between
the columns, three diameters. 5. Ἀραιόστυλος, _araeostyle_, the
distances excessive, so that it was necessary to make the epistyle
(ἐπιστύλιον), or architrave, not of stone, but of timber. These five
kinds of intercolumniation are illustrated by the following diagram.

⬤ 1½ ⬤
⬤ 2 ⬤
⬤ 2¼ ⬤
⬤ 3 ⬤
⬤ { 4 } ⬤
{or more }

Independently of the immense treasures contained in many of the
Greek temples, which were either utensils or ornaments, and of
the tithes of spoils, &c., the property of temples, from which
they derived a regular income, consisted of lands (τεμένη), either
fields, pastures, or forests. These lands were generally let out to
farm, unless they were, by some curse which lay on them, prevented
from being taken into cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted
with the superintendence, keeping, cleaning, &c., see AEDITUI. In
the earliest times there appear to have been very few temples at
Rome, and on many spots the worship of a certain divinity had been
established from time immemorial, while we hear of the building of
a temple for the same divinity at a comparatively late period. Thus
the foundation of a temple to the old Italian divinity Saturnus, on
the Capitoline, did not take place till B.C. 498. In the same manner,
Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them at a late period. Jupiter
also had no temple till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one then
built was certainly very insignificant. We may therefore suppose
that the places of worship among the earliest Romans were in most
cases simple altars or sacella. The Roman temples of later times were
constructed in the Greek style. As regards the property of temples,
it is stated that in early times lands were assigned to each temple,
but these lands were probably intended for the maintenance of the
priests alone. [SACERDOS.] The supreme superintendence of the temples
of Rome, and of all things connected with them, belonged to the
college of pontiffs. Those persons who had the immediate care of the
temples were the AEDITUI.

TĔPĬDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM, p. 56.]

TERMĬNĀLĬA, a festival in honour of the god Terminus, who presided
over boundaries. His statue was merely a stone or post stuck in the
ground to distinguish between properties. On the festival the two
owners of adjacent property crowned the statue with garlands, and
raised a rude altar, on which they offered up some corn, honeycombs,
and wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a sucking-pig. They concluded with
singing the praises of the god. The public festival in honour of
this god was celebrated at the sixth mile-stone on the road towards
Laurentum, doubtless because this was originally the extent of the
Roman territory in that direction. The festival of the Terminalia was
celebrated on the 23rd of February, on the day before the Regifugium.
The Terminalia was celebrated on the last day of the old Roman
year, whence some derive its name. We know that February was the
last month of the Roman year, and that when the intercalary month
Mercedonius was added, the last five days of February were added to
the intercalary month, making the 23rd of February the last day of
the year.

TĔRUNCĬUS. [AS.]

TESSĔRA (κύβος), a square or cube; a die; a token. The dice used
in games of chance were tesserae, small squares or cubes, and were
commonly made of ivory, bone, or wood. They were numbered on all
the six sides, like the dice still in use; and in this respect
as well as in their form they differed from the _tali_. [TALUS.]
Whilst four tali were used in playing, only three tesserae were
anciently employed. Objects of the same materials with dice, and
either formed like them, or of an oblong shape, were used as tokens
for different purposes. The _tessera hospitalis_ was the token of
mutual hospitality, and is spoken of under HOSPITIUM. This token was
probably in many cases of earthenware, having the head of Jupiter
Hospitalis stamped upon it. _Tesserae frumentariae_ and _nummariae_
were tokens given at certain times by the Roman magistrates to the
poor, in exchange for which they received a fixed amount of corn or
money. From the application of this term to tokens of various kinds,
it was transferred to _the word_ used as a token among soldiers.
This was the _tessera militaris_, the σύνθημα of the Greeks. Before
joining battle it was given out and passed through the ranks, as a
method by which the soldiers might be able to distinguish friends
from foes.

TESTĀMENTUM, a will. In order to be able to make a valid Roman will,
the Testator must have the Testamentifactio, which term expresses
the legal capacity to make a valid will. The testamentifactio was
the privilege only of Roman citizens who were patresfamilias. The
following persons consequently had not the testamentifactio: those
who were in the Potestas or Manus of another, or in Mancipii causa,
as sons and daughters, wives In manu and slaves: Latini Juniani,
Dediticii: Peregrini could not dispose of their property according
to the form of a Roman will: an Impubes could not dispose of his
property by will even with the consent of his Tutor; when a male was
fourteen years of age, he obtained the testamentifactio, and a female
obtained the power, subject to certain restraints, on the completion
of her twelfth year: muti, surdi, furiosi, and prodigi “quibus lege
bonis interdictum est” had not the testamentifactio. In order to
constitute a valid will, it was necessary that a heres should be
instituted, which might be done in such terms as follow:--Titius
heres esto, Titium heredem esse jubeo. [HERES (ROMAN.)] Originally
there were two modes of making wills; either at Calata Comitia, which
were appointed twice a year for that purpose; or _in procinctu_, that
is, when a man was going to battle. A third mode of making wills was
introduced, which was effected _per aes et libram_, whence the name
of Testamentum per aes et libram. If a man had neither made his will
at Calata Comitia nor In procinctu, and was in imminent danger of
death, he would mancipate (_mancipio dabat_) his Familia, that is,
his Patrimonium to a friend and would tell him what he wished to
be given to each after his death. There seems to have been no rule
of law that a testament must be written. The heres might either be
made by oral declaration (_nuncupatio_) or by writing. Written wills
however were the common form among the Romans at least in the later
republican and in the imperial periods. They were written on tablets
of wood or wax, whence the word “cera” is often used as equivalent to
“tabella;” and the expressions prima, secunda cera are equivalent to
prima, secunda pagina. The will must have been in some way so marked
as to be recognized, and the practice of the witnesses (_testes_)
sealing and signing the will at last became common. It was necessary
for the witnesses both to seal (_signare_), that is, to make a mark
with a ring (_annulus_) or something else on the wax and to add their
names (_adscribere_). Wills were to be tied with a triple thread
(_linum_) on the upper part of the margin which was to be perforated
at the middle part, and the wax was to be put over the thread and
sealed. Tabulae which were produced in any other way had no validity.
A man might make several copies of his will, which was often done for
the sake of caution. When sealed, it was deposited with some friend,
or in a temple, or with the Vestal Virgins; and after the testator’s
death it was opened (_resignare_) in due form. The witnesses or the
major part were present, and after they had acknowledged their seals,
the thread (_linum_) was broken and the will was opened and read, and
a copy was made; the original was then sealed with the public seal
and placed in the archium, whence a fresh copy might be got, if the
first copy should ever be lost.

TESTIS, a witness.--(1) GREEK. [MARTYRIA.]--(2) ROMAN. [JUSJURANDUM.]

TESTŪDO (χελώνη), a tortoise, was the name given to several other
objects.--(1) To the Lyra, because it was sometimes made of a
tortoise-shell.--(2) To an arched or vaulted roof.--(3) To a military
machine moving upon wheels and roofed over, used in besieging
cities, under which the soldiers worked in undermining the walls
or otherwise destroying them. It was usually covered with raw
hides, or other materials which could not easily be set on fire.
The battering-ram [ARIES] was frequently placed under a testudo of
this kind, which was then called _Testudo Arietaria_.--(4) The name
of testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close body
of soldiers who placed their shields over their heads to secure
themselves against the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so
closely together as to present one unbroken surface without any
interstices between them, and were also so firm that men could walk
upon them, and even horses and chariots be driven over them. A
testudo was formed (_testudinem facere_) either in battle to ward
off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy, or, which was more
frequently the case, to form a protection to the soldiers when they
advanced to the walls or gates of a town for the purpose of attacking
them. Sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make
the testudo slope. The soldiers in the first line stood upright,
those in the second stooped a little, and each line successively
was a little lower than the preceding down to the last, where the
soldiers rested on one knee. Such a disposition of the shields was
called _fastigata testudo_, on account of their sloping like the roof
of a building. The advantages of this plan were obvious: the stones
and missiles thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from
a roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently advanced upon them
to attack the enemy upon the walls. The Romans were accustomed to
form this kind of testudo, as an exercise, in the games of the circus.

[Illustration: Testudo. (From the Antonine Column.)]

TĔTRARCHĒS or TĔTRARCHA (τετράρχης). This word was originally used,
according to its etymological meaning, to signify the governor of
the fourth part of a country (τετραρχία or τετραδαρχία). We have an
example in the ancient division of Thessaly into four tetrarchies,
which was revived by Philip. Each of the three Gallic tribes which
settled in Galatia was divided into four tetrarchies, each ruled by
a tetrarch. Some of the tribes of Syria were ruled by tetrarchs, and
several of the princes of the house of Herod ruled in Palestine with
this title. In the later period of the republic and under the empire,
the Romans seem to have used the title (as also those of _ethnarch_
and _phylarch_) to designate those tributary princes who were not of
sufficient importance to be called kings.

TETTĂRĂKONTA, HOI (οἱ τετταράκοντα), _the Forty_, were certain
officers chosen by lot, who made regular circuits through the demi of
Attica, whence they are called δικασταὶ κατὰ δήμους, to decide all
cases of αἰκία and τὰ περὶ τῶν βιαίων, and also all other private
causes, where the matter in dispute was not above the value of ten
drachmae. Their number was originally thirty, but was increased to
forty after the expulsion of the thirty tyrants, and the restoration
of the democracy by Thrasybulus, in consequence, it is said, of the
hatred of the Athenians to the number of thirty.

THARGĒLĬA (θαργήλια), a festival celebrated at Athens on the 6th
and 7th of Thargelion, in honour of Apollo and Artemis. The real
festival, or the Thargelia in a narrower sense of the word, appears
to have taken place on the 7th; and on the preceding day, the city
of Athens or rather its inhabitants were purified. The manner in
which this purification was effected is very extraordinary, and is
certainly a remnant of very ancient rites, for two persons were
put to death on that day, and the one died on behalf of the men
and the other on behalf of the women of Athens. The name by which
these victims were designated was _pharmaci_ (φαρμακοί). It appears
probable, however, that this sacrifice did not take place annually,
but only in case of a heavy calamity having befallen the city,
such as the plague, a famine, &c. The victims appear to have been
criminals sentenced to death. The second day of the thargelia was
solemnized with a procession and an agon, which consisted of a cyclic
chorus, performed by men at the expense of a choragus. The prize of
the victor in this agon was a tripod, which he had to dedicate in
the temple of Apollo which had been built by Pisistratus. On this
day it was customary for persons who were adopted into a family to
be solemnly registered, and received into the genos and the phratria
of the adoptive parents. This solemnity was the same as that of
registering one’s own children at the Apaturia.

[Illustration: Plan of Greek Theatre.]

THĔĀTRUM (θέατρον), a theatre. The Athenians before the time of
Aeschylus had only a wooden scaffolding on which their dramas were
performed. Such a wooden theatre was only erected for the time of
the Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pulled down. The first
drama that Aeschylus brought upon the stage was performed upon such
a wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a singular and ominous
coincidence that on that occasion (500 B.C.) the scaffolding broke
down. To prevent the recurrence of such an accident, the building
of a stone theatre was forthwith commenced on the south-eastern
descent of the Acropolis, in the Lenaea; for it should be observed,
that throughout Greece theatres were always built upon eminences, or
on the sloping side of a hill. The new Athenian theatre was built
on a very large scale, and appears to have been constructed with
great skill in regard to its acoustic and perspective arrangements.
Subsequently theatres were erected in all parts of Greece and Asia
Minor, although Athens was the centre of the Greek drama, and the
only place which produced great masterworks in this department
of literature. All the theatres, however, which were constructed
in Greece were probably built after the model of that of Athens,
and, with slight deviations and modifications, they all resembled
one another in the main points, as is seen in the numerous ruins
of theatres in various parts of Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily.
The Attic theatre was, like all the Greek theatres, placed in
such a manner that the place for the spectators formed the upper
or north-western, and the stage with all that belonged to it the
south-eastern part, and between these two parts lay the orchestra.
The annexed plan has been made from the remains of Greek theatres
still extant, and from a careful examination of the passages in
ancient writers which describe the whole or parts of a theatre.--1.
The place for the spectators was in a narrower sense of the word
called _theatrum_. The seats for the spectators, which were in
most cases cut out of the rock, consisted of rows of benches rising
one above another; the rows themselves (_a_) formed parts (nearly
three-fourths) of concentric circles, and were at intervals divided
into compartments by one or more broad passages (_b_) running
between them, and parallel with the benches. These passages were
called διαζώματα, or κατατομαί, Lat. _praecinctiones_, and when
the concourse of people was very great in a theatre, many persons
might stand in them. Across the rows of benches ran stairs, by which
persons might ascend from the lowest to the highest. But these stairs
ran in straight lines only from one praecinctio to another; and the
stairs in the next series of rows were just between the two stairs of
the lower series of benches. By this course of the stairs the seats
were divided into a number of compartments, resembling cones from
which the tops are cut off; hence they were termed κεοκίδες, and in
Latin _cunei_. The whole of the place for the spectators (θέατρον)
was sometimes designated by the name κοῖλον, Latin _cavea_, it being
in most cases a real excavation of the rock. Above the highest row
of benches there rose a covered portico (_c_), which of course far
exceeded in height the opposite buildings by which the stage was
surrounded, and appears to have also contributed to increase the
acoustic effect. The entrances to the seats of the spectators were
partly underground, and led to the lowest rows of benches, while the
upper rows must have been accessible from above.--2. The orchestra
(ὀρχήστρα) was a circular level space extending in front of the
spectators, and somewhat below the lowest row of benches. But it was
not a complete circle, one segment of it being appropriated to the
stage. The orchestra was the place for the chorus, where it performed
its evolutions and dances, for which purpose it was covered with
boards. As the chorus was the element out of which the drama arose,
so the orchestra was originally the most important part of a theatre:
it formed the centre around which all the other parts of the building
were grouped. In the centre of the circle of the orchestra was the
_thymele_ (θυμέλη), that is, the altar of Dionysus (_d_), which was
of coarse nearer to the stage than to the seats of the spectators,
the distance from which was precisely the length of a radius of the
circle. In a wider sense the orchestra also comprised the broad
passages (πάροδοι, _e_) on each side, between the projecting wings of
the stage and the seats of the spectators, through which the chorus
entered the orchestra. The chorus generally arranged itself in the
space between the thymele and the stage. The thymele itself was of
a square form, and was used for various purposes, according to the
nature of the different plays, such as a funeral monument, an altar,
&c. It was made of boards, and surrounded on all sides with steps.
It thus stood upon a raised platform, which was sometimes occupied
by the leader of the chorus, the flute-player, and the rhabdophori.
The orchestra as well as the _theatrum_ lay under the open sky; a
roof is nowhere mentioned.--3. The stage. Steps led from each side
of the orchestra to the stage, and by them the chorus probably
ascended the stage whenever it took a real part in the action itself.
The back side of the stage was closed by a wall called the _scena_
(σκηνή), from which on each side a wing projected which was called
the _parascenium_ (παρασκήνιον). The whole depth of the stage was
not very great, as it only comprised a segment of the circle of the
orchestra. The whole space from the scena to the orchestra was termed
the _proscenium_ (προσκήνιον), and was what we should call the real
stage. That part of it which was nearest to the orchestra, and where
the actors stood when they spoke, was the _logeium_ (λογείον), also
called _ocribas_ (ὀκρίβας), in Latin _pulpitum_, which was of course
raised above the orchestra, and probably on a level with the thymele.
The _scena_ was, as we have already stated, the wall which closed
the stage (_proscenium_ and _logeium_) from behind. It represented a
suitable background, or the locality in which the action was going
on. Before the play began it was covered with a curtain (παραπέτασμα,
προσκήνιον, αὐλαίαι), Latin _aulaea_ or _siparium_. When the play
began this curtain was let down, and was rolled up on a roller
underneath the stage. The proscenium and logeium were never concealed
from the spectators. As regards the scenery represented on the
_scena_, it was different for tragedy, comedy, and the satyric drama,
and for each of these kinds of poetry the scenery must have been
capable of various modifications, according to the character of each
individual play; at least that this was the case with the various
tragedies, is evident from the scenes described in the tragedies
still extant. In the latter however the back-ground (_scena_) in
most cases represented the front of a palace with a door in the
centre (_i_) which was called the _royal door_. This palace generally
consisted of two stories, and upon its flat roof there appears to
have been some elevated place from which persons might observe
what was going on at a distance. The palace presented on each side
a projecting wing, each of which had its separate entrance. These
wings generally represented the habitations of guests and visitors.
All the three doors must have been visible to the spectators. The
protagonistes always entered the stage through the middle or royal
door, the deuteragonistes and tritagonistes through those on the
right and left wings. In tragedies like the Prometheus, the Persians,
Philoctetes, Oedipus in Colonus, and others, the back-ground did
not represent a palace. There are other pieces again in which the
scena must have been changed in the course of the performance, as in
the Eumenides of Aeschylus and the Ajax of Sophocles. The dramas of
Euripides required a great variety of scenery; and if in addition
to this we recollect that several pieces were played in one day,
it is manifest that the mechanical parts of stage performance, at
least in the days of Euripides, must have been brought to great
perfection. The scena in the satyric drama appears to have always
represented a woody district with hills and grottos; in comedy the
scena represented, at least in later times, the fronts of private
dwellings or the habitations of slaves. The art of scene-painting
must have been applied long before the time of Sophocles, although
Aristotle ascribes its introduction to him. The whole of the cavea
in the Attic theatre must have contained about 50,000 spectators.
The places for generals, the archons, priests, foreign ambassadors,
and other distinguished persons, were in the lowest rows of benches,
and nearest to the orchestra, and they appear to have been sometimes
covered with a sort of canopy. The rows of benches above these were
occupied by the senate of 500, those next in succession by the
ephebi, and the rest by the people of Athens. But it would seem that
they did not sit indiscriminately, but that the better places were
let at a higher price than the others, and that no one had a right to
take a place for which he had not paid. The usual fee for a place was
two obols, which was subsequently given to the poorer classes by a
law of Pericles. [THEORICA.] Women were allowed to be present during
the performance of tragedies, but not of comedies.--The Romans must
have become acquainted with the theatres of the Italian Greeks at
an early period, whence they erected their own theatres in similar
positions upon the sides of hills. This is still clear from the
ruins of very ancient theatres at Tusculum and Faesulae. The Romans
themselves, however, did not possess a regular stone theatre until
a very late period, and although dramatic representations were very
popular in earlier times, it appears that a wooden stage was erected
when necessary, and was afterwards pulled down again, and the plays
of Plautus and Terence were performed on such temporary scaffoldings.
In the mean while, many of the neighbouring towns of Rome had their
stone theatres, as the introduction of Greek customs and manners
was less strongly opposed in them than in the city of Rome itself.
Wooden theatres, adorned with the most profuse magnificence, were
erected at Rome even during the last period of the republic. In
B.C. 55 Cn. Pompey built the first stone theatre at Rome, near the
Campus Martius. It was of great beauty, and is said to have been
built after the model of that of Mytilene; it contained 40,000
spectators. The construction of a Roman theatre resembled, on the
whole, that of a Greek one. The principal differences are, that the
seats of the spectators, which rose in the form of an amphitheatre
around the orchestra, did not form more than a semicircle; and
that the whole of the orchestra likewise formed only a semicircle,
the diameter of which formed the front line of the stage. The Roman
orchestra contained no thymele, and was not destined for a chorus,
but contained the seats for senators and other distinguished persons,
such as foreign ambassadors, which are called _primus subselliorum
ordo_. In B.C. 68 the tribune L. Roscius Otho carried a law which
regulated the places in the theatre to be occupied by the different
classes of Roman citizens: it enacted that fourteen ordines of
benches were to be assigned as seats to the equites. Hence these
quatuordecim ordines are sometimes mentioned without any further
addition, as the honorary seats of the equites. They were undoubtedly
close behind the seats of the senators and magistrates, and thus
consisted of the rows of benches immediately behind the orchestra.

[Illustration: Plan of Roman Theatre.]

THENSAE or TENSAE, highly ornamented sacred vehicles, which, in the
solemn pomp of the Circensian games, conveyed the statues of certain
deities with all their decorations to the pulvinaria, and after the
sports were over bore them back to their shrines. We are ignorant
of their precise form. We know that they were drawn by horses, and
escorted (_deducere_) by the chief senators in robes of state,
who, along with pueri patrimi [PATRIMI], laid hold of the bridles
and traces, or perhaps assisted to drag the carriage by means of
thongs attached for the purpose (and hence the proposed derivation
from _tendo_). So sacred was this duty considered, that Augustus,
when labouring under sickness, deemed it necessary to accompany the
tensae in a litter. If one of the horses knocked up, or the driver
took the reins in his left hand, it was necessary to recommence the
procession, and for one of the attendant boys to let go the thong,
or to stumble, was profanation. The only gods distinctly named as
carried in tensae are Jupiter and Minerva, though others appear to
have had the same honour paid them.

THĔŎPHĂNĬA (θεοφάνια), a festival celebrated at Delphi, on the
occasion of which the Delphians filled the huge silver crater which
had been presented to the Delphic god by Croesus.

THĔŌRĬA. [THEORI.]

THĔŌRĬCA (θεωρικά). Under this name at Athens were comprised the
monies expended on festivals, sacrifices, and public entertainments
of various kinds; and also monies distributed among the people in
the shape of largesses from the state. There were, according to
Xenophon, more festivals at Athens than in all the rest of Greece.
At the most important of the public festivals, such as the Dionysia,
Panathenaea, Eleusinia, Thargelia, and some others, there were not
only sacrifices, but processions, theatrical exhibitions, gymnastic
contests, and games, celebrated with great splendour and at a great
expense. A portion of the expense was defrayed by the individuals
upon whom the burden of the liturgies devolved; but a considerable,
and perhaps the larger, part was defrayed by the public treasury.
Demosthenes complains, that more money was spent on a single
Panathenaic or Dionysiac festival than on any military expedition.
The religious embassies to Delos and other places, and especially
those to the Olympian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Pythian games, drew
largely upon the public exchequer, though a part of the cost fell
upon the wealthier citizens who conducted them. The largesses
distributed among the people had their origin at an early period,
and in a measure apparently harmless, though from a small beginning
they afterwards rose to a height most injurious to the commonwealth.
The Attic drama used to be performed in a wooden theatre, and the
entrance was free to all citizens who chose to go. It was found,
however, that the crushing to get in led to much confusion and even
danger. On one occasion, about B.C. 500, the wooden scaffolding of
the theatre fell down, and caused great alarm. It was then determined
that the entrance should no longer be gratuitous. The fee for a place
was fixed at two obols, which was paid to the lessee of the theatre,
(called θεατρώνης, θεατροπώλης, or ἀρχιτέκτων), who undertook to
keep it in repair, and constantly ready for use, on condition of
being allowed to receive the profits. This payment continued to be
exacted after the stone theatre was built. Pericles, to relieve the
poorer classes, passed a law which enabled them to receive the price
of admission from the state; after which all those citizens who were
too poor to pay for their places applied for the money in the public
assembly, which was then frequently held in the theatre. In process
of time this donation was extended to other entertainments besides
theatrical ones; the sum of two oboli being given to each citizen who
attended; if the festival lasted two days, four oboli; and if three,
six oboli; but not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses received the
name of _diobelia_ (διωβελία). It is calculated that from 25 to 30
talents were spent upon them annually. So large an expenditure of the
public funds upon shows and amusements absorbed the resources, which
were demanded for services of a more important nature. By the ancient
law, the whole surplus of the annual revenue which remained after
the expense of the civil administration (τὰ περίοντα χρήματα τῆς
διοικήσεως) was to be carried to the military fund, and applied to
the defence of the commonwealth. Since the time of Pericles various
demagogues had sprung up, who induced the people to divert all that
could be spared from the other branches of civil expenditure into the
theoric fund, which at length swallowed up the whole surplus, and the
supplies needed for the purpose of war or defence were left to depend
upon the extraordinary contributions, or property-tax (εἰσφοραί). An
attempt was made by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuate this system.
He passed a law, which made it a capital offence to propose that
the theoric fund should be applied to military service. The law of
Eubulus was a source of great embarrassment to Demosthenes, in the
prosecution of his schemes for the national defence; and he seems at
last, but not before B.C. 339, to have succeeded in repealing it. In
the earlier times there was no person, or board of persons, expressly
appointed to manage the theoric fund. The money thus appropriated
was disbursed by the Hellenotamiae. After the anarchy, the largess
system having been restored by Agyrrhius, a board of managers was
appointed. They were elected by show of hands at the period of the
great Dionysia, one from each tribe.

THĔŌRI (θεωροί), persons sent on special missions (θεωρίαι) to
perform some religious duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer
a sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were among some of the
Dorian states, as the Aeginetans, Troezenians, Messenians, and
Mantineans, official priests called _Theori_, whose duty it was to
consult oracles, interpret the responses, &c., as among the Spartans
there were men called _Pythii_, chosen by the kings to consult
the oracle at Delphi. At Athens there were no official persons
called _Theori_, but the name was given to those citizens who were
appointed from time to time to conduct religious embassies to various
places; of which the most important were those that were sent to the
Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, those that went to
consult the God at Delphi, and those that led the solemn procession
to Delos, where the Athenians established a quadriennial festival, in
revival of the ancient Ionian one, of which Homer speaks. The expense
of these embassies was defrayed partly by the state, and partly by
wealthy citizens, to whom the management of them was entrusted,
called _Architheori_ (ἀρχιθέωροι), chiefs of the embassy. This was
a sort of liturgy, and frequently a very costly one; as the chief
conductor represented the state, and was expected to appear with a
suitable degree of splendour; for instance, to wear a golden crown,
to drive into the city with a handsome chariot, retinue, &c. The
Salaminian, or Delian, ship was also called θεωρὶς ναῦς, and was
principally used for conveying embassies to Delos, though, like the
Paralus, it was employed on other expeditions besides.

THERMAE. [BALNEUM.]

THĒSAURUS (θησαυρός), a treasure-house. Tradition points to
subterranean buildings in Greece, of unknown antiquity and of
peculiar formation, as having been erected during the heroic period,
for the purpose of preserving precious metals, arms, and other
property (κειμήλια). Such are the treasury of Minyas, at Orchomenus,
of which some remains still exist, and those of Atreus and his
sons at Mycenae, the chief one of which, the so-called Treasury of
Atreus, still exists almost in a perfect state. It is, however,
very questionable whether these edifices were treasuries at all:
some of the best archaeologists maintain that they were tombs. In
the historical times, the public treasury was either in a building
attached to the _agora_, or in the _opisthodomus_ of some temple.
Respecting the public treasury at Rome, see AERARIUM.

THĒSEIA (θησεῖα), a festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour
of their national hero Theseus, whom they believed to have been the
author of their democratical form of government. In consequence of
this belief donations of bread and meat were given to the poor people
at the Theseia, which was thus for them a feast at which they felt no
want, and might fancy themselves equal to the wealthiest citizens.
The day on which this festival was held was the eighth of every
month (ὀγδόαι), but more especially the eighth of Pyanepsion, whence
the festival was sometimes called ὀγδόδιον. It is probable that the
festival of the Theseia was not instituted till B.C. 469, when Cimon
brought the remains of Theseus from Scyrus to Athens.

THESMŎPHŎRĬA (θεσμοφόρια), a great festival and mysteries, celebrated
in honour of Demeter in various parts of Greece, and only by women,
though some ceremonies were also performed by maidens. It was
intended to commemorate the introduction of the laws and regulations
of civilised life, which was universally ascribed to Demeter. The
Attic thesmophoria probably lasted only three days, and began on
the 11th of Pyanepsion, which day was called ἄνοδος or κάθοδος,
because the solemnities were opened by the women with a procession
from Athens to Eleusis. In this procession they carried on their
heads sacred laws (νόμιμοι βίβλοι or θεσμοί), the introduction of
which was ascribed to Demeter (Θεσμοφόρος), and other symbols of
civilised life. The women spent the night at Eleusis in celebrating
the mysteries of the goddess. The second day, called νηστεία, was a
day of mourning, during which the women sat on the ground around the
statue of Demeter, and took no other food than cakes made of sesame
and honey. On this day no meetings either of the senate or the people
were held. It was probably in the afternoon of this day that the
women held a procession at Athens, in which they walked barefooted
behind a waggon, upon which baskets with mystical symbols were
conveyed to the thesmophorion. The third day, called καλλιγένεια,
from the circumstance that Demeter was invoked under this name,
was a day of merriment and raillery among the women themselves, in
commemoration of Iambe, who was said to have made the goddess smile
during her grief.

THESMŎTHĔTAE. [ARCHON.]

THĒTES. [CENSUS.]

THOLOS (θόλος, also called σκιάς), a name given to any round building
which terminated at the top in a point, whatever might be the purpose
for which it was used. At Athens the name was in particular applied
to the new round prytaneium near the senate-house, which should not
be confounded with the old prytaneium at the foot of the acropolis.
It was therefore the place in which the prytanes took their common
meals and offered their sacrifices. It was adorned with some small
silver statues, and near it stood the ten statues of the Attic
Eponymi.

THŌRAX. [LORICA.]

THRĀCES. [GLADIATORES.]

THRANĪTAE. [NAVIS.]

THRŎNUS (θρόνος), a throne, is a Greek word, for which the proper
Latin term is _Solium_. This did not differ from a chair (καθέδρα)
[CATHEDRA; SELLA] except in being higher, larger, and in all
respects more magnificent. On account of its elevation it was always
necessarily accompanied by a foot-stool (_subsellium_, ὑποπόδιον,
θράνιον). The accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones with cushions
and drapery, intended to be the thrones of Mars and Venus, which is
expressed by the helmet on the one and the dove on the other.

[Illustration: Throni. (From an ancient Painting.)]

THỸMĔLĒ. [THEATRUM.]

THỸRSUS (θύρσος), a pole carried by Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades,
and others who engaged in Bacchic festivities and rites. [DIONYSIA.]
It was sometimes terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir-cone,
that tree (πεύκη) being dedicated to Bacchus in consequence of the
use of the turpentine which flowed from it, and also of its cones,
in making wine. The monuments of ancient art, however, most commonly
exhibit, instead of the pine-apple, a bunch of vine or ivy-leaves,
with grapes or berries, arranged into the form of a cone. The
fabulous history of Bacchus relates that he converted the thyrsi
carried by himself and his followers into dangerous weapons, by
concealing an iron point in the head of the leaves. Hence his thyrsus
is called “a spear enveloped in vine-leaves,” and its point was
thought to incite to madness.

[Illustration: Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)]

TĬĀRA or TĬĀRAS (τιάρα or τιάρας: _Att._ κυρβασία), a hat with a
large high crown. This was the head-dress which characterised the
north-western Asiatics, and more especially the Armenians, Parthians,
and Persians, as distinguished from the Greeks and Romans, whose hats
fitted the head, or had only a low crown. The king of Persia wore an
erect tiara, whilst those of his subjects were soft and flexible,
falling on one side. The Persian name for this regal head-dress was
_cidaris_.

[Illustration: Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)]

TĪBĬA (αὐλός), a pipe, the commonest musical instrument of the Greeks
and Romans. It was very frequently a hollow cane, perforated with
holes in the proper places. In other instances it was made of some
kind of wood, especially box, and was bored with a gimblet. When a
single pipe was used by itself, the performer upon it, as well as
the instrument, was called _monaulos_. Among the varieties of the
single pipe the most remarkable were the bagpipe, the performer on
which was called _utricularius_ or ἀσκαύλης; and the ἀυλὸς πλάγιος or
πλαγίαυλος, which, as its name implies, had a mouth-piece inserted
into it at right angles. Pan was the reputed inventor of this kind of
tibia as well as of the _fistula_ or _syrinx_ [SYRINX]. But among
the Greeks and Romans it was much more usual to play on two pipes at
the same time. Hence a performance on this instrument (_tibicinium_),
even when executed by a single person, was called _canere_ or
_cantare tibiis_. This act is exhibited in very numerous works of
ancient art, and often in such a way as to make it manifest that the
two pipes were perfectly distinct, and not connected, as some have
supposed, by a common mouth-piece. The mouth-pieces of the two pipes
often passed through a capistrum. Three different kinds of pipes were
originally used to produce music in the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian
modes. It appears, also, that to produce the Phrygian mode the pipe
had only two holes above, and that it terminated in a horn bending
upwards. It thus approached to the nature of a trumpet, and produced
slow, grave, and solemn tunes. The Lydian mode was much quicker,
and more varied and animating. Horace mentions “Lydian pipes” as a
proper accompaniment, when he is celebrating the praise of ancient
heroes. The Lydians themselves used this instrument in leading
their troops to battle; and the pipes employed for the purpose are
distinguished by Herodotus as “male and female,” i.e. probably bass
and treble, corresponding to the ordinary sexual difference in the
human voice. The corresponding Latin terms are _tibia dextra_ and
_sinistra_: the respective instruments are supposed to have been so
called, because the former was more properly held in the right hand
and the latter in the left. The “tibia _dextra_” was used to lead
or commence a piece of music, and the “sinistra” followed it as an
accompaniment. The comedies of Terence having been accompanied by
the pipe, the following notices are prefixed to explain the kind of
music appropriate to each: _tibiis paribus_, i.e. with pipes in the
same mode; _tib. imparibus_, pipes in different modes; _tib. duabus
dextris_, two pipes of low pitch; _tib. par. dextris et sinistris_,
pipes in the same mode, and of both low and high pitch. The use
of the pipe among the Greeks and Romans was three-fold, viz. at
sacrifices (_tibiae sacrificae_), entertainments (_ludicrae_), and
funerals. The pipe was not confined anciently, as it is with us, to
the male sex, but αὐλητρίδες, or female tibicines were very common.

[Illustration: Woman Playing on two Pipes, Tibiae. (From a Vase in
the British Museum.)]

TIMĒMA (τίμημα). The penalty imposed in a court of criminal justice
at Athens, and also the damages awarded in a civil action, received
the name of Τίμημα, because they were _estimated_ or _assessed_
according to the injury which the public or the individual might
respectively have sustained. The penalty was either fixed by the
judge, or merely declared by him according to some estimate made
before the cause came into court. In the first case the trial was
called ἀγὼν τιμητὸς, in the second case ἀγὼν ἀτίμητος, a distinction
which applies to civil as well as to criminal trials. Where a man
sought to recover an estate in land, or a house, or any specific
thing, as a ring, a horse, a slave, nothing further was required,
than to determine to whom the estate, the house, or the thing
demanded, of right belonged. The same would be the case in an action
of debt, χρέους δίκη, where a sum certain was demanded. In these
and many other similar cases the trial was ἀτίμητος. On the other
hand, wherever the damages were in their nature _unliquidated_, and
no provision had been made concerning them either by the law or
by the agreement of the parties, they were to be assessed by the
dicasts. The following was the course of proceeding in the τιμητοὶ
ἀγῶνες. The bill of indictment (ἔγκλημα) was always superscribed
with some penalty by the person who preferred it. He was said
ἐπιγράφεσθαι τίμημα, and the penalty proposed is called ἐπίγραμμα.
If the defendant was found guilty, the prosecutor was called upon to
support the allegation in the indictment, and for that purpose to
mount the platform and address the dicasts (ἀναβαίνειν εἰς τίμημα).
If the accused submitted to the punishment proposed on the other
side, there was no further dispute; if he thought it too severe,
he made a counter proposition. He was then said ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι, or
ἑαυτῷ τιμᾶσθαι. He was allowed to address the court in mitigation
of punishment. After both parties had been heard, the dicasts were
called upon to give their verdict. Sometimes the law expressly
empowered the jury to impose an additional penalty (προστίμημα)
besides the ordinary one. Here the proposition emanated from the jury
themselves, any one of whom might move that the punishment allowed by
the law should be awarded. He was said προστιμᾶσθαι, and the whole
dicasts, if (upon a division) they adopted his proposal, were said
προστιμᾷν.

TINTINNĀBŬLUM (κώδων), a bell. Bells were of various forms among the
Greeks and Romans, as among us.

TĪRO, the name given by the Romans to a newly enlisted soldier, as
opposed to _veteranus_, one who had had experience in war. The mode
of levying troops is described under EXERCITUS. The age at which the
liability to military service commenced was 17. From their first
enrolment the Roman soldiers, when not actually serving against an
enemy, were perpetually occupied in military exercises. They were
exercised every day, the tirones twice, in the morning and afternoon,
and the veterani once. The state of a tiro was called _tirocinium_;
and a soldier who had attained skill in his profession was then
said _tirocinium ponere_, or _deponere_. In civil life the terms
_tiro_ and _tirocinium_ were applied to the assumption of the toga
virilis, which was called _tirocinium fori_ [TOGA], and to the first
appearance of an orator at the rostrum, _tirocinum eloquentiae_.

TĪRŌCĬNĬUM. [TIRO.]

TĬTĬI SODĀLES, a sodalitas or college of priests at Rome, who
represented the second tribe of the Romans, or the Tities, that
is, the Sabines, who, after their union with the Ramnes or Latins,
continued to perform their own ancient Sabine sacra. To superintend
and preserve these, T. Tatius is said to have instituted the Titii
sodales. During the time of the republic the Titii sodales are no
longer mentioned, as the sacra of the three tribes became gradually
united into one common religion. Under the empire we again meet with
a college of priests bearing the name of Sodales Titii or Titienses,
or Sacerdotes Titiales Flaviales; but they had nothing to do with the
sacra of the ancient tribe of the Tities, but were priests instituted
to conduct the worship of an emperor, like the Augustales.

TĬTĬES or TĬTĬENSES. [PATRICII.]

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Form of the Toga spread out.]

TŎGA (τήβεννος), a gown, the name of the principal outer garment
worn by the Romans, seems to have been received by them from the
Etruscans. The toga was the peculiar distinction of the Romans, who
were thence called _togati_ or _gens togata_. It was originally worn
only in Rome itself, and the use of it was forbidden alike to exiles
and to foreigners. Gradually, however, it went out of common use,
and was supplanted by the pallium and lacerna, or else it was worn
in public under the lacerna. [LACERNA.] But it was still used by
the upper classes, who regarded it as an honourable distinction, in
the courts of justice, by clients when they received the SPORTULA,
and in the theatre or at the games, at least when the emperor was
present. The exact form of the toga, and the manner of wearing it,
have occasioned much dispute; but the following account, for which
the writer is indebted to his friend Mr. George Scharf, jun., will
set these matters in a clearer light than has hitherto been the case.
The complete arrangement of this dress may be seen in many antique
statues, but especially in that of Didius Julianus, in the Louvre,
and a bronze figure of the elder Drusus discovered at Herculaneum.
(See figs. 2, 3.)

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Statue of Didius Julianus. (From the Louvre.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Bronze of the elder Drusus. (From
Herculaneum.)]

The letters upon particular parts of the illustrations correspond
with each other, and refer to the same places upon the general form
of the toga given above. The method of adjusting the toga is simply
this: the straight edge (_a b g d_) being kept towards the neck, and
the rounded towards the hand, the first part of the toga hangs in
front over the left shoulder to the ground (_a_, fig. 4), so as to
cover that entire half of the figure viewed in front. The remainder
falling behind is wrapped round the body, being carried _under_
the right arm, and brought upwards, like a belt, across the chest,
covering the left arm and shoulder for a second time. It again falls
behind, and terminates in the point _d_ (fig. 5), somewhat higher
than the front portion (_a_).

[Illustration: Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

Mode of putting on the Toga.]

So far any mantle of sufficient length might be folded, but two
distinctive features of Roman dress, the umbo (_f_) and the sinus
(_c e_), have yet to be considered. The sinus (_c e_) is that
upper hanging portion with the curved edge downwards which shows
conspicuously upon the right thigh. When the toga has been brought
round to the front of the right leg, it has attained its greatest
width (_e c e_), although on the figure less space is required for
it. It is therefore folded over at the top, the upper part falling
forward, down almost to the knee. It may be easily raised (see fig.
5) and used as a lap--hence the name sinus--to carry fruits and
flowers, so often represented in ancient art. The fold at _c_ thus
becomes the upper edge, and forms the balteus, which may be made
still more effective by being rolled round and slightly twisted, as
in figs. 2 and 5. A variety again was sometimes produced by lifting
the hanging edge (_e_) of this sinus up on to the shoulder, so as to
cover the right arm with that alone, and Quintilian hints that it
is not ungraceful to throw back the extreme edge of that again, an
effect still to be admired in some of the ancient sculptures. Fig.
5 is in the act of raising the edge. The umbo (_f_), a projecting
mass of folds in front of the body, like the boss of a shield, was
formed _after_ the rest of the dress had been put on in a very simple
manner: a part of the front upright line (_a b_), almost covered up
by the adjustment of the upper shoulder portion (_g_), was pulled out
and made to hang down over the balteus or belt-like part (fig. 6). It
is clearly traceable in both statues here given (figs. 2 and 3), and
fig. 4 is intended to show the formation of the umbo more clearly by
the right hand holding the edge, which falls over the fingers instead
of the balteus. In proportion as the umbo (_f_) projects, so of
course the end (_a_) is raised from the ground. The smaller figures
(4 and 5) are both drawn without under-garments in order to avoid
confusion. During sacrifice, when necessary to cover the head, the
edge (_b_) nearest the neck was pulled up and made to cover the head,
as in fig. 3, where the entire length of the edge, passing from the
umbo into the sinus, is very clearly visible. The dress here is very
ample, and can spare an extra length, but in the statue of a priest
in the Louvre the head is covered at the expense of the umbo, which
has entirely disappeared. Fig. 6 is intended to show the interlacing
and arrangement of the toga by following the course of the straight
edge alone from _a_ to _d_.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.]

In many ancient statues the sleeves and folds of the tunic, being
very full, are apt to be confounded with the rest, but in the best
style of art this is not the case. Quintilian cautions his orators
against these incumbrances. A difference in size and fulness of the
toga, modified according to the rank of the wearer, may be detected
in coins and sculpture, but in all cases the mode of adjustment
appears to be the same.--One mode of wearing the toga was the Cinctus
Gabinus. It consisted in forming a part of the toga itself into a
girdle, by drawing its outer edge round the body and tying it in a
knot in front, and at the same time covering the head with another
portion of the garment. It was worn by persons offering sacrifices,
by the consul when he declared war, and by devoted persons, as in the
case of Decius. Its origin was Etruscan, as its name implies. Persons
wearing this dress were said to be _procincti_ (or _incincti_)
_cinctu_ (or _ritu_) _Gabino_.--The colour of the toga worn by men
(_toga virilis_) was generally white, that is, the natural colour of
white wool. Hence it was called _pura_ or _vestimentum purum_, in
opposition to the _praetexta_ mentioned below. A brighter white was
given to the toga of candidates for offices (_candidati_ from their
_toga candida_) by rubbing it with chalk. There is an allusion to
this custom in the phrase _cretata ambitio_. White togas are often
mentioned as worn at festivals, which does not imply that they were
not worn commonly, but that new or fresh-cleaned togas were first put
on at festivals. The toga was kept white and clean by the fuller.
When this was neglected, the toga was called _sordida_, and those who
wore such garments _sordidati_. This dress (with disarranged hair
and other marks of disorder about the person) was worn by accused
persons, as in the case of Cicero. The _toga pulla_, which was of
the natural colour of black wool, was worn in private mourning, and
sometimes also by artificers and others of the lower orders.--The
_toga picta_, which was ornamented with Phrygian embroidery, was
worn by generals in triumphs [TRIUMPHUS], and under the emperors by
the consuls, and by the praetors when they celebrated the games.
It was also called _Capitolina_. The _toga palmata_ was a kind of
toga picta.--The _toga praetexta_ had a broad purple border. It was
worn with the BULLA, by children of both sexes. It was also worn
by magistrates, both those of Rome, and those of the colonies and
municipia; by the sacerdotes, and by persons engaged in sacred rites
or paying vows. Among those who possessed the _jus togae praetextae
habendae_, the following may be more particularly mentioned: the
dictator, the consuls, the praetors (who laid aside the praetexta
when about to condemn a Roman citizen to death), the augurs (who,
however, are supposed by some to have worn the trabea), the decemviri
sacris faciundis, the aediles, the triumviri epulones, the senators
on festival days, the magistri collegii, and the magistri vicorum
when celebrating games. In the case of the tribuni plebis, censors,
and quaestors, there is some doubt upon the subject. The toga
praetexta is said to have been derived from the Etruscans, and to
have been first adopted, with the latus clavus [CLAVUS LATUS], by
Tullus Hostilius as the royal robe, whence its use by the magistrates
in the republic. The toga praetexta and the bulla aurea were first
given to boys in the case of the son of Tarquinius Priscus, who,
at the age of fourteen, in the Sabine war, slew an enemy with his
own hand. Respecting the leaving off of the toga praetexta, and the
assumption of the toga virilis, see IMPUBES and CLAVUS LATUS. The
occasion was celebrated with great rejoicings by the friends of the
youth, who attended him in a solemn procession to the Forum and
Capitol. This assumption of the toga virilis was called _tirocinium
fori_, as being the young man’s introduction to public life. Girls
wore the praetexta till their marriage.--The _trabea_ was a toga
ornamented with purple horizontal stripes. There were three kinds
of trabeae; one wholly of purple, which was sacred to the gods,
another of purple and white, and another of purple and saffron,
which belonged to augurs. The purple and white trabea was a royal
robe, and is assigned to the Latin and early Roman kings, especially
to Romulus. It was worn by the consuls in public solemnities,
such as opening the temple of Janus. The equites wore it at the
_transvectio_, and in other public solemnities. Hence the _trabea_
is mentioned as the badge of the equestrian order. Lastly, the toga
worn by the Roman emperors was wholly of purple. It appears to have
been first assumed by Julius Caesar.--The material of which the toga
was commonly made was wool. It was sometimes thick and sometimes
thin. The former was the _toga densa_, _pinguis_, or _hirta_. A new
toga, with the nap neither worn off nor cut close, was called pexa,
to which is opposed the _trita_ or _rasa_, which was used as a summer
dress. The toga was originally worn by both sexes; but when the stola
came to be worn by matrons, the toga was only worn by the meretrices,
and by women who had been divorced on account of adultery. [STOLA.]
In war the toga was laid aside, and replaced by the PALUDAMENTUM and
SAGUM. Hence _togatus_ is opposed to _miles_.

TONSOR. [BARBA.]

TORCŬLAR, TORCŬLUM. [VINUM.]

TORMENTUM (ἀφετήρια ὄργανα), a military engine, so called from the
twisting (_torquendo_) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibres. The
principal military engines were the _balista_ and _catapulta_. The
_balista_ (πετροβόλος) was used to shoot stones; the _catapulta_
(καταπέλτης, καταπελτική) to project darts, especially the falarica
[HASTA], and a kind of missile, 4½ feet long, called _trifax_. Whilst
in besieging a city the ram [ARIES] was employed in destroying
the lower part of the wall, the balista was used to overthrow the
battlements (_propugnacula_, ἐπαλξεῖς), and the catapult to shoot
any of the besieged who appeared between them: the forms of these
machines being adapted to the objects which they were intended to
throw; the catapult was long, the balista nearly square. Instances
are recorded in which the balista threw stones to the distance of
a quarter of a mile. Some balistae threw stones weighing three
hundredweight. Of the _scorpio_ or _onager_, which was also a species
of tormentum, we know next to nothing.

TORMENTUM (βάσανος), torture. (1) GREEK.--By a decree of Scamandrius
it was ordained that no free Athenian could be put to the torture,
and this appears to have been the general practice. The evidence
of slaves was, however, always taken with torture, and their
testimony was not otherwise received. From this circumstance their
testimony appears to have been considered of more value than that
of freemen. Any person might offer his own slave to be examined by
torture, or demand that of his adversary, and the offer or demand
was equally called πρόκλησις εἰς βάσανον. The parties interested
either superintended the torture themselves, or chose certain persons
for this purpose, hence called βασανισταὶ, who took the evidence
of the slaves. (2) ROMAN.--During the time of the republic freemen
were never put to the torture, and slaves only were exposed to this
punishment. Slaves, moreover, could not be tortured to prove the
guilt of their own master, except in the case of incestus, which was
a crime against the gods, or unless the senate made an exception in
some special instance. At a later time slaves might be tortured to
bear witness against their masters in cases of majestas and adultery.
Under the emperors even free persons were put to the torture to
extract evidence from them in cases of majestas; and although this
indignity was confined for the most part to persons in humble
circumstances, we read of cases in which even Roman senators and
equites were exposed to it.

TORQUES or TORQUIS (στρεπτός), an ornament of gold, twisted spirally
and bent into a circular form, which was worn round the neck by men
of distinction among the Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and
northern nations. It was by taking a collar from a Gallic warrior
that T. Manlius obtained the cognomen of _Torquatus_. Such collars
were among the rewards of valour bestowed after an engagement upon
those who had most distinguished themselves.

TŎRUS, a bed covered with sheets or blankets, called _Toralia_.

TRĂBEA. [TOGA.]

TRĂGOEDIA (τραγῳδία), tragedy. (1) GREEK. The tragedy of the ancient
Greeks as well as their comedy confessedly originated in the
worship of the god Dionysus. The peculiarity which most strikingly
distinguishes the Greek tragedy from that of modern times, is the
lyrical or choral part. This was the offspring of the dithyrambic and
choral odes from which, as applied to the worship of Dionysus, Greek
tragedy took its rise. The name of Tragedy (τραγῳδία) is probably
derived from the goatlike appearance of the Satyrs who sang or acted
with mimetic gesticulations (ὄρχησις) the old Bacchic songs, with
Silenus, the constant companion of Dionysus, for their leader. The
Dionysian dithyrambs were sometimes of a gay and at other times
of a mournful character: it was from the latter that the stately
and solemn tragedy of the Greeks arose. Great improvements were
introduced in the dithyramb by Arion, a contemporary of Periander.
Before his time the dithyramb was sung in a wild and irregular
manner; but he is said to have invented the Cyclic chorus, by which
we are to understand that the Dithyramb was danced by a chorus of
fifty men round an altar. The choral Dithyrambic songs prevailed
to some extent, as all choral poetry did, amongst the Dorians of
the Peloponnesus; whence the choral element of the Attic tragedy
was always written in the Dorian dialect, thus showing its origin.
The lyrical poetry was, however, especially popular at Sicyon and
Corinth. In the latter city Arion made his improvements; in the
former “tragic choruses,” i.e. dithyrambs of a sad and plaintive
character, were very ancient. From the more solemn Dithyrambs then,
as improved by Arion, ultimately sprang the dramatic tragedy of
Athens, somewhat in the following manner. The choruses were under
the direction of a leader or exarchus, who, it may be supposed,
came forward separately, and whose part was sometimes taken by
the poet himself. We may also conjecture that the exarchus in
each case led off by singing or reciting his part in a solo, and
that the chorus dancing round the altar then expressed their
feelings of joy or sorrow at his story, representing the perils and
sufferings of Dionysus, or some hero, as it might be. The subjects
of this Dithyrambic tragedy were not, however, always confined
to Dionysus. Even Arion wrote Dithyrambs, relating to different
heroes, a practice in which he was followed by succeeding poets.
It is easy to conceive how the introduction of an actor or speaker
independent of the chorus might have been suggested by the exarchs
coming forward separately and making short off-hand speeches,
whether learnt by heart beforehand, or made on the spur of the
moment. [CHORUS.] But it is also possible, if not probable, that
it was suggested by the rhapsodical recitations of the epic and
gnomic poets formerly prevalent in Greece: the gnomic poetry being
generally written in Iambic verse, the metre of the Attic dialogue.
This however is certain, that the union of the Iambic dialogue with
the lyrical chorus took place at Athens under Pisistratus, and
that it was attributed to Thespis, a native of Icaria, one of the
country demes or parishes of Attica where the worship of Dionysus
had long prevailed. The alteration made by him, and which gave to
the old tragedy a new and dramatic character, was very simple but
very important. He introduced an actor, as it is recorded, for the
sake of giving rest to the chorus, and independent of it, in which
capacity he probably appeared himself, taking various parts in the
same piece, under various disguises, which he was enabled to assume
by means of linen masks, the invention of which is attributed to
him. Now as a chorus, by means of its leader, could maintain a
dialogue with the actor, it is easy to see how with one actor only a
dramatic action might be introduced, continued, and concluded, by the
speeches between the choral songs expressive of the joy or sorrow of
the chorus at the various events of the drama. With respect to the
character of the drama of Thespis there has been much doubt: some
writers, and especially Bentley, have maintained that his plays were
all satyrical and ludicrous, i.e. the plot of them was some story
of Bacchus, the chorus consisted principally of satyrs, and the
argument was merry. But perhaps the truth is that in the early part
of his career Thespis retained the satyrical character of the older
tragedy, but afterwards inclined to more serious compositions, which
would almost oblige him to discard the Satyrs from his choruses.
That he did write serious dramas is intimated by the titles of the
plays ascribed to him, as well as by the character of the fragments
of Iambic verse quoted by ancient writers as his. It is evident that
the introduction of the dialogue must also have caused an alteration
in the arrangement of the chorus, which could not remain cyclic or
circular, but must have been drawn up in a rectangular form about the
thymele or altar of Bacchus in front of the actor, who was elevated
on a platform or table (ἐλεός), the forerunner of the stage. The
lines of Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 276):--

“Dicitur et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis,
Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora”--

are founded on a misconception of the origin of the Attic tragedy,
and the tale about the waggons of Thespis probably arose out of a
confusion of the waggon of the comedian Susarion with the _platform_
of the Thespian actor. The first representation of Thespis was in
B.C. 535. His immediate successors were the Athenian Choerilus
and Phrynichus, the former of whom represented plays as early as
B.C. 524. Phrynichus was a pupil of Thespis, and gained his first
victory in the dramatic contests B.C. 511. In his works, the lyric
or choral element still predominated over the dramatic, and he was
distinguished for the sweetness of his melodies, which in the time of
the Peloponnesian war were very popular with the admirers of the old
style of music. The first use of female masks is also attributed to
him, and he so far deviated from the general practice of the Attic
tragedians as to write a drama on a subject of contemporary history,
the capture of Miletus by the Persians, B.C. 494.--We now come to
the first writer of Satyrical dramas, Pratinas of Phlius, a town not
far from Sicyon, and which laid claim to the invention of tragedy
as well as comedy. For some time previously to this poet, and
probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had been gradually departing
more and more from its old characteristics, and inclining to heroic
fables, to which the chorus of Satyrs was not a fit accompaniment.
But the fun and merriment caused by them were too good to be lost.
Accordingly the Satyrical drama, distinct from the recent and
dramatic tragedy, but suggested by the sportive element of the old
Dithyramb, was founded by Pratinas, who however appears to have been
surpassed in his own invention by Choerilus. It was always written
by tragedians, and generally three tragedies and one Satyrical piece
were represented together, which in some instances at least formed a
connected whole, called a tetralogy (τετραλογία). The Satyrical piece
was acted last, so that the minds of the spectators were agreeably
relieved by a merry after-piece at the close of an earnest and
engrossing tragedy. The distinguishing feature of this drama was the
chorus of Satyrs, in appropriate dresses and masks, and its subjects
seem to have been taken from the same class of the adventures of
Bacchus and of the heroes as those of tragedy; but of course they
were so treated and selected, that the presence of rustic satyrs
would seem appropriate. In their jokes and drollery consisted the
merriment of the piece; for the kings and heroes who were introduced
into their company were not of necessity thereby divested of their
epic and legendary character, though they were obliged to conform to
their situation and suffer some diminution of dignity, from their
position. Hence Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 231) says:--

“Effutire leves indigna Tragoedia versus
Intererit Satyris paulum pudibunda protervis.”--

alluding in the first line to the mythic or epic element of
the Satyric drama, which he calls Tragoedia, and in the second
representing it as being rather ashamed of its company. The “Cyclops”
of Euripides is the only Satyric drama now extant.--The great
improvements in tragedy were introduced by Aeschylus. This poet added
a second actor, diminished the parts of the chorus, and made the
dialogue the principal part of the action. He also availed himself of
the aid of Agatharchus, the scene-painter, and improved the costume
of his actors by giving them thick-soled boots (ἐμβάται), as well as
the masks, which he made more expressive and characteristic. Horace
(_Ar. Poet._ 278) thus alludes to his improvements:--

“personae pallaeque repertor honestae
Aeschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis
Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno.”--

The custom of contending with trilogies (τριλογίαι), or with three
plays at a time, is said to have been also introduced by him. In
fact he did so much for tragedy, and so completely built it up to
its “towering height,” that he was considered the father of it.
The subjects of his dramas were not connected with the worship of
Dionysus; but rather with the great cycle of Hellenic legends and
some of the myths of the Homeric Epos. Accordingly, he said of
himself that his dramas were but scraps and fragments from the great
feasts of Homer. In the latter part of his life Aeschylus made use
of one of the improvements of Sophocles, namely the τριταγωνιστής,
or third actor. This was the finishing stroke to the dramatic
element of Attic tragedy, which Sophocles is said to have matured
by further improvements in costume and scene-painting. Under him
tragedy appears with less of sublimity and sternness than in the
hands of Aeschylus, but with more of calm grandeur and quiet dignity
and touching incident. The plays of Sophocles are the perfection of
the Grecian tragic drama, as a work of art and poetic composition in
a thoroughly chastened and classic style. In the hands of Euripides
tragedy deteriorated not only in dignity, but also in its moral
and religious significance. He introduces his heroes in rags and
tatters, and busies them with petty affairs, and makes them speak the
language of every-day life. As Sophocles said of him, he represented
men not as they ought to be, but as they are, without any ideal
greatness or poetic character. His dialogues too were little else
than the rhetorical and forensic language of his day cleverly put
into verse: full of sophistry and quibbling distinctions. One of the
peculiarities of his tragedies was the πρόλογος, an introductory
monologue, with which some hero or god opens the play, telling who
he is, what is the state of affairs, and what has happened up to
the time of his address, so as to put the audience in possession
of every fact which it might be necessary for them to know: a
very business-like proceeding no doubt, but a poor make-shift for
artistical skill. The “Deus ex machina,” also, though not always, in
a “nodus, tali vindice dignus,” was frequently employed by Euripides
to effect the _dénoûment_ of his pieces. The chorus too no longer
discharged its proper and high functions either as a representative
of the feelings of unprejudiced observers, or, as one of the actors,
and a part of the whole, joining in the development of the piece.
Many of his choral odes in fact are but remotely connected in subject
with the action of the play. Another novelty of Euripides was the
use of the monodies or lyrical songs, in which not the chorus,
but the principal persons of the drama, declare their emotions
and sufferings. Euripides was also the inventor of tragi-comedy.
A specimen of the Euripidean tragi-comedy is still extant in the
Alcestis, acted B.C. 438, as the last of four pieces, and therefore
as a substitute for a Satyrical drama. Though tragic in its form and
some of its scenes, it has a mixture of comic and satyric characters
(_e.g._ Hercules) and concludes happily.--The parts which constitute
a Greek tragedy, _as to its form_, are, the prologue, episode, exode,
and choral songs; the last divided into the parode and stasimon. The
πρόλογος is all that part of a tragedy which precedes the parodos
of the chorus, _i.e._ the first act. The ἐπεισόδιον is all the part
between whole choral odes. The ἔξοδος that part which has no choral
ode after it. Of the choral part the πάροδος is the first speech
of the whole chorus (not broken up into parts): the stasimon is
without anapaests and trochees. These two divisions were sung by
all the choreutae, but the “songs on the stage” and the κόμμοι by a
part only. The commus, which properly means a wailing for the dead,
was generally used to express strong excitement, or lively sympathy
with grief and suffering, especially by Aeschylus. It was common to
the actors and a portion only of the chorus. Again the πάροδος was
so named as being the passage-song of the chorus sung while it was
advancing to its proper place in the orchestra, and therefore in
anapaestic or marching verse: the στάσιμον, as being chaunted by the
chorus when standing still in its proper position.--The materials of
Greek tragedy were the national mythology,

“Presenting Thebes, or Pelop’s line,
Or the tale of Troy divine.”

The exceptions to this were the two historical tragedies, the
“Capture of Miletus” by Phrynichus, and the “Persians” of Aeschylus;
but they belong to an early period of the art. Hence the plot
and story of the Grecian tragedy were of necessity known to the
spectators, a circumstance which strongly distinguishes the ancient
tragedy from the modern.--The functions of the Chorus in Greek
Tragedy were very important, as described by Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 193),

“Actoris partes chorus officiumque virile
Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus,
Quod non proposito conducat, et haereat apte,” &c.

It often expresses the reflections of a dispassionate and
right-minded spectator, and inculcates the lessons of morality and
resignation to the will of heaven, taught by the occurrence of
the piece in which it is engaged. With respect to the number of
the chorus see CHORUS.--(2) ROMAN. The tragedy of the Romans was
borrowed from the Greek, but the construction of the Roman theatre
afforded no appropriate place for the chorus, which was therefore
obliged to appear on the stage, instead of in the orchestra. The
first tragic poet and actor at Rome was Livius Andronicus, a Greek
by birth, who began to exhibit in B.C. 240. In his monodies (or the
lyrical parts sung, not by a chorus, but by one person), it was
customary to separate the singing from the mimetic dancing, leaving
the latter only to the actor, while the singing was performed by a
boy placed near the flute-player (_ante tibicinem_); so that the
dialogue only (_diverbia_) was left to be spoken by the actors.
Livius Andronicus was followed by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, and
Attius. These five poets belong to the earlier epoch of Roman
tragedy, in which little was written but translations and imitations
of the Greek, with occasional insertions of original matter. How
they imitated the structure of the choral odes is doubtful--perhaps
they never attempted it. In the age of Augustus the writing of
tragedies, whether original or imitations, seems to have been quite
a fashionable occupation. The emperor himself attempted an Ajax, but
did not succeed. One of the principal tragedians of this epoch was
Asinius Pollio, to whom the line (Virg. _Eclog._ viii. 10) applies--

“Sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno.”

Ovid wrote a tragedy on the subject of Medea. Quintilian says of
Varius, who was distinguished in epic as well as tragic poetry, that
his Thyestes might be compared with any of the Greek tragedies. Some
fragments of this Thyestes are extant, but we have no other remains
of the tragedy of the Augustan age. The loss perhaps is not great.
The only complete Roman tragedies that have come down to us are the
ten attributed to the philosopher Seneca; but whether he wrote any
of them or not is a disputed point. To whatever age they belong,
they are beyond description bombastic and frigid, utterly unnatural
in character and action, full of the most revolting violations of
propriety, and barren of all theatrical effect. Still they have had
admirers: Heinsius calls the Hippolytus “divine,” and prefers the
Troades to the Hecuba of Euripides: even Racine has borrowed from
the Hippolytus in Phèdre. Roman tragedians sometimes wrote tragedies
on subjects taken from their national history. Pacuvius, _e.g._
wrote a _Paulus_, L. Accius a _Brutus_ and a _Decius_. Curiatius
Maternus, also a distinguished orator in the reign of Domitian, wrote
a Domitius and a Cato, the latter of which gave offence to the rulers
of the state.

TRĀGŬLA. [HASTA.]

TRANSTRA. [NAVIS.]

TRANSVECTĬO ĔQUĬTUM. [EQUITES, p. 157.]

TRIĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS.]

TRĪBŬLA or TRĪBŬLUM (τριβόλος), a corn-drag, consisting of a thick
and ponderous wooden board, which was armed underneath with pieces
of iron or sharp flints, and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen,
either the driver or a heavy weight being placed upon it, for the
purpose of separating the grain and cutting the straw.

TRĬBŬLUS (τρίβολος), a caltrop, also called _murex_. When a place was
beset with troops, the one party endeavoured to impede the cavalry
of the other party, either by throwing before them caltrops, which
necessarily lay with one of their four sharp points turned upwards,
or by burying the caltrops with one point at the surface of the
ground.

TRĬBŪNAL, a raised platform, on which the praetor and judices sat in
the Basilica. [BASILICA.] There was a tribunal in the camp, which
was generally formed of turf, but sometimes, in a stationary camp,
of stone, from which the general addressed the soldiers, and where
the consul and tribunes of the soldiers administered justice. When
the general addressed the army from the tribunal the standards were
planted in front of it, and the army placed round it in order. The
address itself was called _Allocutio_.

TRĬBŪNUS, a tribune. This word seems originally to have indicated
an officer connected with a tribe (_tribus_), or who represented a
tribe for certain purposes; and this is indeed the character of the
officers who were designated by it in the earliest times of Rome,
and may be traced also in the later officers of this name.--(1)
TRIBUNES OF THE THREE ANCIENT TRIBES.--At the time when all the
Roman citizens were contained in the three tribes of the Ramnes,
Tities, and Luceres, each of them was headed by a tribune, and these
three tribunes represented their respective tribes in all civil,
religious, and military affairs; that is to say, they were in the
city the magistrates of the tribes, and performed the sacra on their
behalf, and in times of war they were their military commanders.
The _tribunus celerum_ was the commander of the _celeres_, the
king’s body-guard, and not the tribune of the tribe of the Ramnes,
as is supposed by some modern writers. In what manner the tribunus
celerum was appointed is uncertain, but it is probable that he was
elected by the tribes; for we find that when the imperium was to be
conferred upon the king, the comitia were held under the presidency
of the tribunus celerum; and in the absence of the king, to whom
this officer was next in rank, he convoked the comitia: it was in
an assembly of this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive Tarquinius
of the imperium. A law passed under the presidency of the tribunus
celerum was called a _lex tribunicia_, to distinguish it from one
passed under the presidency of the king. The tribunes of the three
ancient tribes ceased to be appointed when these tribes themselves
ceased to exist as political bodies, and when the patricians became
incorporated in the local tribes of Servius Tullius. [TRIBUS.]--(2)
TRIBUNES OF THE SERVIAN TRIBES (φύλαρχοι, τριττυάρχοι).--When Servius
Tullius divided the commonalty into thirty local tribes, we again
find a tribune at the head of these tribes. The duties of these
tribunes, who were without doubt the most distinguished persons
in their respective districts, appear to have consisted at first
in keeping a register of the inhabitants in each district, and of
their property, for purposes of taxation, and for levying the troops
for the armies. When subsequently the Roman people became exempted
from taxes, the main part of their business was taken from them,
but they still continued to exist. The _tribuni aerarii_, who occur
down to the end of the republic, were perhaps only the successors
of the tribunes of the tribes. When (B.C. 406) the custom of giving
pay (_stipendium_) to the soldiers was introduced, each of the
tribuni aerarii had to collect the tributum in his own tribe, and
with it to pay the soldiers; and in case they did not fulfil this
duty, the soldiers had the right of pignoris capio against them. In
later times their duties appear to have been confined to collecting
the tributum, which they made over to the military quaestors who
paid the soldiers. [QUAESTOR.] The Lex Aurelia, B.C. 70, called
the tribuni aerarii to the exercise of judicial functions, along
with the senators and equites, as these tribunes represented the
body of the most respectable citizens. But of this distinction they
were subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar.--(3) TRIBUNI PLEBIS
(δήμαρχοι, the office δημαρχία).--The ancient tribunes of the
plebeian tribes had undoubtedly the right of convoking the meetings
of their tribes, and of maintaining the privileges granted to them
by king Servius, and subsequently by the Valerian laws. But this
protection was very inadequate against the insatiable ambition and
usurpations of the patricians. When the plebeians, impoverished by
long wars, and cruelly oppressed by the patricians, at last seceded
in B.C. 494 to the Mons Sacer, the patricians were obliged to grant
to the plebeians the right of appointing tribunes (_tribuni plebis_)
with more efficient powers to protect their own order than those
which were possessed by the heads of the tribes. The purpose for
which they were appointed was only to afford protection against
any abuse on the part of the patrician magistrates; and that they
might be able to afford such protection their persons were declared
sacred and inviolable, and it was agreed that whoever invaded this
inviolability should be an outlaw, and that his property should be
forfeited to the temple of Ceres. A subsequent law enacted that no
one should oppose or interrupt a tribune while addressing the people,
and that whoever should act contrary to this ordinance should give
bail to the tribunes for the payment of whatever fine they should
affix to his offence in arraigning him before the commonalty; if
he refused to give bail, his life and property were forfeited. The
tribunes were thus enabled to afford protection to any one who
appealed to the assembly of the commonalty or required any other
assistance. They were essentially the representatives and the organs
of the plebeian order, and their sphere of action was the comitia
tributa. With the patricians and their comitia they had nothing to
do. The tribunes themselves, however, were not judges, and could
inflict no punishments, but could only propose the imposition of a
fine to the commonalty (_multam irrogare_). The tribunes were thus
in their origin only a protecting magistracy of the plebs, but in
the course of time their power increased to such a degree that it
surpassed that of all other magistrates, and the tribunes then became
a magistracy for the whole Roman people, in opposition to the senate
and the oligarchical party in general, although they had nothing
to do with the administration or the government. During the latter
period of the republic they became true tyrants, and may be compared
to the national convention of France during the first revolution. At
first the number of the tribunes was only two, but soon afterwards
they were increased to five, one being taken from each of the five
classes, and subsequently to ten, two being taken from each of the
five classes. This last number appears to have remained unaltered
down to the end of the empire. The tribunes entered upon their office
on the 10th of December, but were elected, at least in the time of
Cicero, on the 17th of July. It is almost superfluous to state that
none but plebeians were eligible to the office of tribune; hence
when, towards the end of the republic, patricians wished to obtain
the office, they were obliged first to renounce their own order and
to become plebeians; hence also under the empire it was thought that
the princeps should not be tribune because he was a patrician. But
the influence which belonged to this office was too great for the
emperors not to covet it. Hence Augustus was made tribune for life.
During the republic, however, the old regulation remained in force,
even after the tribunes had ceased to be the protectors of the plebs
alone. There is only one instance recorded in which patricians were
elected to the tribuneship, and this was probably the consequence
of an attempt to divide the tribuneship between the two orders.
Although nothing appears to be more natural than that the tribunes
should originally have been elected by that body of Roman citizens
which they represented, yet the subject is involved in considerable
obscurity. Some writers state that they were elected by the comitia
of the curies; others suppose that they were elected in the comitia
of the centuries; but whether they were elected in the latter or in
the comitia of the tribes, it is certain that at first the sanction
of the curies to the election was at all events necessary. But after
the time of the Lex Publilia (B.C. 472) the sanction of the curies is
not heard of, and the election of the tribunes was left entirely to
the comitia tributa, which were convoked and held for this purpose
by the old tribunes previous to the expiration of their office. One
of the old tribunes was appointed by lot to preside at the election.
As the meeting could not be prolonged after sunset, and the business
was to be completed in one day, it sometimes happened that it was
obliged to break up before the election was completed, and then those
who were elected filled up the legitimate number of the college by
cooptatio. But in order to prevent this irregularity, the tribune L.
Trebonius, in 448 B.C., got an ordinance passed, according to which
the college of the tribunes should never be completed by cooptatio,
but the elections should be continued on the second day, if they were
not completed on the first, till the number ten was made up. The
place where the election of the tribunes was held was originally and
lawfully the Forum, afterwards also the Campus Martius, and sometimes
the area of the Capitol.--We now proceed to trace the gradual growth
of the tribunitian power. Although its original character was merely
protection (_auxilium_ or βοήθεια) against patrician magistrates,
the plebeians appear early to have regarded their tribunes also as
mediators or arbitrators in matters among themselves. The whole power
possessed by the college of tribunes was designated by the name
_tribunicia potestas_, and extended at no time farther than one mile
beyond the gates of the city; at a greater distance than this they
came under the imperium of the magistrates, like every other citizen.
As they were the public guardians, it was necessary that every one
should have access to them and at any time; hence the doors of their
houses were open day and night for all who were in need of help and
protection, which they were empowered to afford against any one, even
against the highest magistrates. For the same reason a tribune was
not allowed to be absent from the city for a whole day, except during
the Feriae Latinae, when the whole people were assembled on the
Alban Mount. In B.C. 456 the tribunes, in opposition to the consuls,
assumed the right of convoking the senate, in order to lay before it
a rogation, and discuss the same; for until that time the consuls
alone had had the right of laying plebiscita before the senate for
approbation. Some years after, B.C. 452, the tribunes demanded of
the consuls to request the senate to make a senatusconsultum for the
appointment of persons to frame a new legislation; and during the
discussions on this subject the tribunes themselves were present in
the senate. The written legislation which the tribunes then wished
can only have related to their own order; but as such a legislation
would only have widened the breach between the two orders, they
afterwards gave way to the remonstrances of the patricians, and
the new legislation was to embrace both orders. From the second
decemvirate the tribuneship was suspended, but was restored after
the legislation was completed, and now assumed a different character
from the change that had taken place in the tribes. [TRIBUS.] The
tribunes now had the right to be present at the deliberations of
the senate; but they did not sit among the senators themselves,
but upon benches before the opened doors of the senate house. The
inviolability of the tribunes, which had before only rested upon a
contract between the two estates, was now sanctioned and confirmed by
a law of M. Horatius. As the tribes now also included the patricians
and their clients, the tribunes might naturally be asked to interpose
on behalf of any citizen, whether patrician or plebeian. Hence the
patrician ex-decemvir, Appius Claudius, implored the protection of
the tribunes. About this time the tribunes also acquired the right
of taking the auspices in the assemblies of the tribes. They also
assumed again the right, which they had exercised before the time
of the decemvirate, of bringing patricians who had violated the
rights of the plebeians before the comitia of the tribes. By the Lex
Valeria passed in the Comitia Centuriata (B.C. 449), it was enacted
that a plebiscitum, which had been voted by the tribes, should bind
the patricians as well. While the college thus gained outwardly new
strength every day, a change took place in its internal organisation,
which to some extent paralysed its powers. Before B.C. 394, every
thing had been decided in the college by a majority; but about this
time, we do not know how, a change was introduced, which made the
opposition (_intercessio_) of one tribune sufficient to render a
resolution of his colleagues void. This new regulation does not
appear in operation till 394 and 393 B.C.; the old one was still
applied in B.C. 421 and 415. From their right of appearing in the
senate, and of taking part in its discussions, and from their being
the representatives of the whole people, they gradually obtained
the right of intercession against any action which a magistrate
might undertake during the time of his office, and this even without
giving any reason for it. Thus we find a tribune preventing a consul
from convoking the senate, and preventing the proposal of new laws
or elections in the comitia; they interceded against the official
functions of the censors; and even against a command issued by the
praetor. In the same manner a tribune might place his veto upon an
ordinance of the senate; and he could thus either compel the senate
to submit the subject to a fresh consideration, or could raise the
session. In order to propose a measure to the senate they might
themselves convene a meeting, or when it had been convened by a
consul they might make their proposal even in opposition to the
consul, a right which no other magistrates had in the presence of the
consuls. The senate, on the other hand, had itself, in certain cases,
recourse to the tribunes. Thus, in B.C. 431 it requested the tribunes
to compel the consuls to appoint a dictator, in compliance with a
decree of the senate, and the tribunes compelled the consuls, by
threatening them with imprisonment, to appoint A. Postumius Tubertus
dictator. From this time forward we meet with several instances in
which the tribunes compelled the consuls to comply with the decrees
of the senate, _si non essent in auctoritate senatus_, and to execute
its commands. In their relation to the senate a change was introduced
by the _Plebiscitum Atinium_, which ordained that a tribune, by
virtue of his office, should be a senator. When this plebiscitum was
made is uncertain; but we know that in B.C. 170 it was not yet in
operation. It probably originated with C. Atinius, who was tribune in
B.C. 132. But as the quaestorship, at least in later times, was the
office which persons held previously to the tribuneship, and as the
quaestorship itself conferred upon a person the right of a senator,
the law of Atinius was in most cases superfluous.--In their relation
to other magistrates we may observe, that the right of intercessio
was not confined to stopping a magistrate in his proceedings, but
they might even command their viatores to seize a consul or a censor,
to imprison him, or to throw him from the Tarpeian rock. When the
tribunes brought an accusation against any one before the people,
they had the right of _prehensio_, but not the right of _vocatio_,
that is, they might command a person to be dragged by their viatores
before the comitia, but they could not summon him. They might, as in
earlier times, propose a fine to be inflicted upon the person accused
before the comitia, but in some cases they dropped this proposal
and treated the case as a capital one. The college of tribunes had
also the power of making edicts. In cases in which one member of
the college opposed a resolution of his colleagues nothing could be
done, and the measure was dropped; but this useful check was removed
by the example of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precedent was given
for proposing to the people that a tribune obstinately persisting
in his veto should be deprived of his office. From the time of the
Hortensian law the power of the tribunes had been gradually rising
to such a height that at length it was superior to every other in
the state. They had acquired the right of proposing to the comitia
tributa or the senate measures on nearly all the important affairs of
the state, and it would be endless to enumerate the cases in which
their power was manifested. Their proposals were indeed usually made
ex auctoritate senatus, or had been communicated to and approved by
it; but cases in which the people itself had a direct interest, such
as a general legal regulation, granting of the franchise, a change in
the duties and powers of a magistrate, and others, might be brought
before the people, without their having been previously communicated
to the senate, though there are also instances of the contrary.
Subjects belonging to the administration could not be brought before
the tribes without the tribunes having previously received through
the consuls the auctoritas of the senate. This, however, was done
very frequently, and hence we have mention of a number of plebiscita
on matters of administration. It sometimes even occurs that the
tribunes brought the question concerning the conclusion of peace
before the tribes, and then compelled the senate to ratify the
resolution, as expressing the wish of the whole people. Sulla, in his
reform of the constitution on the early aristocratic principles, left
to the tribunes only the jus auxiliandi, and deprived them of the
right of making legislative or other proposals, either to the senate
or the comitia, without having previously obtained the sanction of
the senate. But this arrangement did not last, for Pompey restored to
them their former rights. During the latter period of the republic,
when the office of quaestor was in most cases held immediately
before that of tribune, the tribunes were generally elected from
among the senators, and this continued to be the case under the
empire. Sometimes, however, equites also obtained the office, and
thereby became members of the senate, where they were considered
of equal rank with the quaestors. Tribunes of the people continued
to exist down to the fifth century of our era, though their powers
became naturally much limited, especially in the reign of Nero. They
continued however to have the right of intercession against decrees
of the senate, and on behalf of injured individuals.--(4) TRIBUNI
MILITUM CUM CONSULARI POTESTATE. When in B.C. 445 the tribune C.
Canuleius brought forward the rogation that the consulship should not
be confined to either order, the patricians evaded the attempt by a
change in the constitution; the powers which had hitherto been united
in the consulship were now divided between two new magistrates,
viz. the _Tribuni militum cum consulari potestate_ and the censors.
Consequently, in B.C. 444, three military tribunes, with consular
power, were appointed, and to this office the plebeians were to
be equally eligible with the patricians. For the years following,
however, the people were to be at liberty, on the proposal of the
senate, to decide whether consuls were to be elected according to
the old custom, or consular tribunes. Henceforth, for many years,
sometimes consuls and sometimes consular tribunes were appointed,
and the number of the latter varied from three to four, until in
B.C. 405 it was increased to six, and as the censors were regarded
as their colleagues, we have sometimes mention of eight tribunes.
At last, however, in B.C. 367, the office of these tribunes was
abolished by the Licinian law, and the consulship was restored. These
consular tribunes were elected in the comitia of the centuries, and
undoubtedly with less solemn auspices than the consuls.--(5) TRIBUNI
MILITARES [EXERCITUS, p. 169.]

TRĬBUS (φῦλον, φυλή), a tribe. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times of
Greek history mention is made of people being divided into tribes
and clans. Homer speaks of such divisions in terms which seem to
imply that they were elements that entered into the composition of
every community. A person not included in any clan (ἀφρήτωρ), was
regarded as a vagrant or outlaw. These divisions were rather natural
than political, depending on family connection, and arising out of
those times, when each head of a family exercised a patriarchal sway
over its members. The bond was cemented by religious communion,
sacrifices and festivals, which all the family or clansmen attended,
and at which the chief usually presided.--Of the Dorian race
there were originally three tribes, traces of which are found in
all the countries which they colonised. Hence they are called by
Homer Δωριέες τριχάϊκες. These tribes were the _Hylleis_ (Ὑλλεῖς),
_Pamphyli_ (Πάμφυλοι), and _Dymanatae_ or _Dymanes_ (Δυμανάται or
Δυμᾶνες). The first derived their name from Hyllus, son of Hercules,
the two last from Pamphylus and Dymas, who are said to have fallen
in the last expedition when the Dorians took possession of the
Peloponnesus. The Hyllean tribe was perhaps the one of highest
dignity; but at Sparta there does not appear to have been much
distinction, for all the freemen there were by the constitution of
Lycurgus on a footing of equality. To these three tribes others
were added in different places, either when the Dorians were joined
by other foreign allies, or when some of the old inhabitants were
admitted to the rank of citizenship or equal privileges. Thus the
Cadmean Aegeids are said by Herodotus to have been a great tribe
at Sparta, descended (as he says) from Aegeus, grandson of Theras,
though others have thought they were incorporated with the three
Doric tribes. The subdivision of tribes into _phratriae_ (φρατρίαι)
or _patrae_ (πάτραι), _genē_ (γένη), _trittyes_ (τρίττυες), &c.
appears to have prevailed in various places. At Sparta each tribe
contained ten _obae_ (ὠβαί), a word denoting a local division
or district; each _obe_ contained ten _triacades_ (τριακάδες),
communities containing thirty families. But very little appears
to be known of these divisions, how far they were local, or how
far genealogical. After the time of Cleomenes the old system of
tribes was changed; new ones were created corresponding to the
different quarters of the town, and they seem to have been five in
number.--The first Attic tribes that we read of are said to have
existed in the reign, or soon after the reign, of Cecrops, and were
called _Cecropis_ (Κεκροπίς), _Autochthon_ (Αὐτόχθων), _Actaea_
(Ἀκταία), and _Paralia_ (Παραλία). In the reign of a subsequent king,
Cranaus, these names were changed to _Cranais_ (Κραναΐς), _Atthis_
(Ἀτθίς), _Mesogaea_ (Μεσόγαια), and _Diacris_ (Διακρίς). Afterwards
we find a new set of names; _Dias_ (Διάς), _Athenais_ (Ἀθηναΐς),
_Poseidonias_ (Ποσειδωνιάς), and _Hephaestias_ (Ἡφαιστιάς); evidently
derived from the deities who were worshipped in the country. Some
of those secondly mentioned, if not all of them, seem to have been
geographical divisions; and it is not improbable that, if not
independent communities, they were at least connected by a very
weak bond of union. But all these tribes were superseded by four
others, which were probably founded soon after the Ionic settlement
in Attica, and seem to have been adopted by other Ionic colonies out
of Greece. The names _Geleontes_ (Γελέοντες), _Hopletes_ (Ὅπλητες),
_Argades_ (Ἀργάδεις), _Aegicores_ (Αἰγικορεῖς), are said by Herodotus
to have been derived from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus. Upon
this, however, many doubts have been thrown by modern writers. The
etymology of the last three names would seem to suggest, that the
tribes were so called from the occupations which their respective
members followed; the _Hopletes_ being the armed men, or warriors;
the _Argades_, labourers or husbandmen; the _Aegicores_, goatherds
or shepherds. But whatever be the truth with respect to the origin
of these tribes, one thing is certain, that before the time of
Theseus, whom historians agree in representing as the great founder
of the Attic commonwealth, the various people who inhabited the
country continued to be disunited and split into factions.--Theseus
in some measure changed the relations of the tribes to each
other, by introducing a gradation of ranks in each; dividing the
people into _Eupatridae_ (Εὐπατρίδαι), _Geomori_ (Γεωμόροι), and
_Demiurgi_ (Δημιουργοί), of whom the first were nobles, the second
agriculturists or yeomen, the third labourers and mechanics. At the
same time, in order to consolidate the national unity, he enlarged
the city of Athens, with which he incorporated several smaller towns,
made it the seat of government, encouraged the nobles to reside
there, and surrendered a part of the royal prerogative in their
favour. The tribes or phylae were divided, either in the age of
Theseus or soon after, each into three _phratriae_ (φρατρίαι, a term
equivalent to fraternities, and analogous in its political relation
to the Roman _curiae_), and each _phratria_ into thirty _gene_ (γένη,
equivalent to the Roman _Gentes_), the members of a _genos_ (γένος)
being called _gennetae_ (γεννῆται) or _homogalactes_ (ὁμογαλάκτες).
Each _genos_ was distinguished by a particular name of a patronymic
form, which was derived from some hero or mythic ancestor. These
divisions, though the names seem to import family connection, were
in fact artificial; which shows that some advance had now been made
towards the establishment of a closer political union. The members of
the _phratriae_ and _gene_ had their respective religious rites and
festivals, which were preserved long after these communities had lost
their political importance, and perhaps prevented them from being
altogether dissolved.--After the age of Theseus, the monarchy having
been first limited and afterwards abolished, the whole power of the
state fell into the hands of the _Eupatridae_ or nobles, who held all
civil offices, and had besides the management of religious affairs,
and the interpretation of the laws. Attica became agitated by feuds,
and we find the people, shortly before the legislation of Solon,
divided into three parties, _Pediaei_ (Πεδιαῖοι) or lowlanders,
_Diacrii_ (Διάκριοι) or highlanders, and _Parali_ (Πάραλοι) or people
of the sea-coast. The first two remind us of the ancient division of
tribes, _Mesogaea_ and _Diacris_; and the three parties appear in
some measure to represent the classes established by Theseus, the
first being the nobles, whose property lay in the champaign and most
fertile part of the country; the second, the smaller landowners and
shepherds; the third, the trading and mining class, who had by this
time risen in wealth and importance. To appease their discords, Solon
was applied to; and thereupon framed his celebrated constitution and
code of laws. Here we have only to notice that he retained the four
tribes as he found them, but abolished the existing distinctions of
_rank_, or at all events greatly diminished their importance, by
introducing his property qualification, or division of the people
into _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς),
_Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), and _Thetes_ (Θῆτες). [CENSUS, GREEK.] The
enactments of Solon continued to be the _law_ at Athens, though in
great measure suspended by the tyranny, until the democratic reform
effected by Clisthenes. He abolished the old tribes, and created ten
new ones, according to a geographical division of Attica, and named
after ten of the ancient heroes: _Erechtheis_, _Aegeis_, _Pandionis_,
_Leontis_, _Acamantis_, _Oeneis_, _Cecropis_, _Hippothoontis_,
_Aeantis_, _Antiochis_. These tribes were divided each into ten
_demi_ (δῆμοι), the number of which was afterwards increased by
subdivision; but the arrangement was so made that several _demi_ not
contiguous or near to one another were joined to make up a tribe.
[DEMUS.] The object of this arrangement was, that by the breaking of
old associations a perfect and lasting revolution might be effected,
in the habits and feelings, as well as the political organisation of
the people. Solon allowed the ancient _phratriae_ to exist, but they
were deprived of all political importance. All foreigners admitted
to the citizenship were registered in a phyle and demus, but not in
a phratria or genos. The functions which had been discharged by the
old tribes were now mostly transferred to the _demi_. Among others,
we may notice that of the forty-eight _naucrariae_ into which the old
tribes had been divided for the purpose of taxation, but which now
became useless, the taxes being collected on a different system. The
reforms of Clisthenes were destined to be permanent. They continued
to be in force (with some few interruptions) until the downfall of
Athenian independence. The ten tribes were blended with the whole
machinery of the constitution. Of the senate of five hundred, fifty
were chosen from each tribe. The allotment of dicasts was according
to tribes; and the same system of election may be observed in most
of the principal offices of state, judicial and magisterial, civil
and military, &c. In B.C. 307, Demetrius Poliorcetes increased
the number of tribes to twelve by creating two new ones, namely,
_Antigonias_ and _Demetrias_, which afterwards received the names of
_Ptolemais_ and _Attalis_; and a thirteenth was subsequently added
by Hadrian, bearing his own name.--(2) ROMAN. The three ancient
Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or the Ramnenses,
Titienses, and Lucerenses, to which the patricians alone belonged,
must be distinguished from the thirty plebeian tribes of Servius
Tullius, which were entirely local, four for the city, and twenty-six
for the country around Rome. The history and organisation of the
three ancient tribes are spoken of under PATRICII. They continued
of political importance almost down to the period of the decemviral
legislation; but after this time they no longer occur in the history
of Rome, except as an obsolete institution. The institution and
organisation of the thirty plebeian tribes, and their subsequent
reduction to twenty by the conquests of Porsena, are spoken of
under PLEBES. The four city tribes were called by the same names
as the regions which they occupied, viz. _Suburana_, _Esquilina_,
_Collina_, and _Palatina_. The names of the sixteen country tribes
which continued to belong to Rome after the conquest of Porsena,
are in their alphabetical order as follows: _Aemilia_, _Camilia_,
_Cornelia_, _Fabia_, _Galeria_, _Horatia_, _Lemonia_, _Menemia_,
_Papiria_, _Pollia_, _Popillia, upinia_, _Romilia_, _Sergia_,
_Veturia_, and _Voltinia_. As Rome gradually acquired possession of
more of the surrounding territory, the number of tribes also was
gradually increased. When Appius Claudius, with his numerous train
of clients, emigrated to Rome, lands were assigned to them in the
district where the Anio flows into the Tiber, and a new tribe, the
_tribus Claudia_, was formed. This tribe was subsequently enlarged,
and was then designated by the name _Crustumina_ or _Clustumina_.
This name is the first instance of a country tribe being named after
a place, for the sixteen older ones all derived their name from
persons or heroes. In B.C. 387, the number of tribes was increased to
twenty-five by the addition of four new ones, viz. the _Stellatina_,
_Tromentina_, _Sabatina_, and _Arniensis_. In B.C. 358 two more, the
_Pomptina_ and _Publilia_, were formed of Volscians. In B.C. 332, the
censors Q. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius increased the number of
tribes to twenty-nine, by the addition of the _Maecia_ and _Scaptia_.
In B.C. 318 the _Ufentina_ and _Falerina_ were added. In B.C. 299 two
others, the _Aniensis_ and _Terentina_, were added by the censors,
and at last in B.C. 241, the number of tribes was augmented to
thirty-five, by the addition of the _Quirina_ and _Velina_. Eight
new tribes were added upon the termination of the Social War, to
include the Socii, who then obtained the Roman franchise; but they
were afterwards incorporated among the old 35 tribes, which continued
to be the number of the tribes to the end of the republic. When the
tribes, in their assemblies, transacted any business, a certain order
(_ordo tribuum_) was observed, in which they were called upon to give
their votes. The first in the order of succession was the Suburana,
and the last the Arniensis. Any person belonging to a tribe had in
important documents to add to his own name that of his tribe, in the
ablative case. Whether the local tribes, as they were established by
the constitution of Servius Tullius, contained only the plebeians,
or included the patricians also, is a point on which the opinions of
modern scholars are divided: but it appears most probable that down
to the decemviral legislation the tribes and their assemblies were
entirely plebeian. From the time of the decemviral legislation, the
patricians and their clients were undoubtedly incorporated in the
tribes. Respecting the assemblies of the tribes, see COMITIA TRIBUTA.

TRĬBŪTUM, a tax which was partly applied to cover the expenses of
war, and partly those of the fortifications of the city. The usual
amount of the tax was one for every thousand of a man’s fortune,
though in the time of Cato it was raised to three in a thousand. The
tributum was not a property-tax in the strict sense of the word, for
the accounts respecting the plebeian debtors clearly imply, that the
debts were not deducted in the valuation of a person’s property,
so that he had to pay the tributum upon property which was not his
own, but which he owed, and for which he had consequently to pay the
interest as well. It was a direct tax upon objects without any regard
to their produce, like a land or house-tax, which indeed formed the
main part of it. That which seems to have made it most oppressive,
was its constant fluctuation. It was raised according to the regions
or tribes instituted by Servius Tullius, and by the tribunes of these
tribes, subsequently called tribuni aerarii. It was not, like the
other branches of the public revenue, let out to farm, but being
fixed in money it was raised by the tribunes, unless (as was the case
after the custom of giving pay to the soldiers was introduced) the
soldiers, like the knights, demanded it from the persons themselves
who were bound to pay it. [AES EQUESTRE and HORDEARIUM.] When this
tax was to be paid, what sum was to be raised, and what portion of
every thousand asses of the census, were matters upon which the
senate alone had to decide. But when it was decreed, the people
might refuse to pay it when they thought it too heavy, or unfairly
distributed, or hoped to gain some other advantage by the refusal. In
later times the senate sometimes left its regulation to the censors,
who often fixed it very arbitrarily. No citizen was exempt from it,
but we find that the priests, augurs, and pontiffs made attempts to
get rid of it: but this was only an abuse, which did not last. After
the war with Macedonia (B.C. 147), when the Roman treasury was filled
with the revenues accruing from conquests and from the provinces,
the Roman citizens became exempted from paying the tributum, and
this state of things lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius and
Pansa (43 B.C.), when the tributum was again levied, on account of
the exhausted state of the aerarium. After this time it was imposed
according to the discretion of the emperors. Respecting the tributum
paid by conquered countries and cities, see VECTIGALIA.

TRICLĪNĬUM, the dining-room of a Roman house, the position of
which, relatively to the other parts of the house, is seen in the
“house of the Tragic poet” (see p. 144). It was of an oblong shape,
and was twice as long as it was broad. The superintendence of
the dining-room in a great house was intrusted to a slave called
_tricliniarcha_, who, through other slaves, took care that everything
was kept and proceeded in proper order. A _triclinium_ generally
contained three couches, and as the usual number of persons occupying
each couch was three, the triclinium afforded accommodation for a
party of nine. Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on each of the
couches. Each man in order to feed himself lay flat upon his breast
or nearly so, and stretched out his hand towards the table; but
afterwards, when his hunger was satisfied, he turned upon his left
side, leaning on his elbow. To this Horace alludes in describing a
person sated with a particular dish, and turning in order to repose
upon his elbow. (_Sat._ ii. 4, 39.) We find the relative positions
of two persons who lay next to one another, commonly expressed by
the prepositions _super_ or _supra_, and _infra_. A passage of Livy
(xxxix. 43), in which he relates the cruel conduct of the consul L.
Quintius Flamininus, shows that _infra aliquem cubare_ was the same
as _in sinu alicujus cubare_, and consequently that each person was
considered as _below_ him to whose breast his own head approached. On
this principle we are enabled to explain the denominations both of
the three couches, and of the three places on each couch.

[Illustration:
lectus medius
+-------------+
| m s |
| i e u |
| m d m |
| u i m |
| s u u |
| s s |
+---------+-------------+---------+
l | | 6 5 4 | | l s
e i | summus |7 3| imus | e u
c m | | | | c m
t u | medius |8 2| medius | t m
u s | | | | u u
s | imus |9 1| summus | s s
+---------+ +---------+
]

Supposing the annexed arrangement to represent the plan of a
triclinium, it is evident that, as each guest reclined on his left
side, the countenances of all when in this position were directed,
first, from No. 1 towards No. 3, then from No. 4 towards No. 6, and
lastly, from No. 7 towards No. 9; that the guest No. 1 lay, in the
sense explained, _above_ No. 2, No. 3 _below_ No. 2, and so of the
rest; and that, going in the same direction, the couch to the right
hand was _above_ the others, and the couch to the left hand _below_
the others. It will be found, that in a passage in the eighth satire
of the second book of Horace, the guests are enumerated in the order
of their accubation--an order exhibited in the annexed diagram.

[Illustration:
____________
| |
| V M S |
| i a e |
| b e r |
| i c v |
| d e i |
| i n l |
| u a i |
| s s u |
| s |
___________|____________|___________
| | ______ | |
|Nomentanus | / \ | Varius |
|Nasidienus | ( Mensa. ) | Viscus |
| Porcius | \ / | Fundanius |
|___________| ¯¯¯¯¯¯ |___________|
]

TRĬDENS. [FUSCINA.]

TRĬENS. [AS.]

TRIĒRARCHĬA (τριήραρχια), one of the extraordinary war services or
liturgies at Athens, the object of which was to provide for the
equipment and maintenance of the ships of war belonging to the
state. The persons who were charged with it were called trierarchs
(τριήραρχοι), as being the captains of triremes, though the name
was also applied to persons who bore the same charge in other
vessels. It existed from very early times in connection with the
forty-eight naucraries of Solon, and the fifty of Clisthenes: each
of which corporations appears to have been obliged to equip and man
a vessel. [NAUCRARIA.] Under the constitution of Clisthenes the
ten tribes were at first severally charged with five vessels. This
charge was of course superseded by the later forms of the hierarchy.
The state furnished the ship, and either the whole or part of the
ship’s rigging and furniture, and also pay and provisions for the
sailors. The trierarchs were bound to keep in repair the ship and its
furniture, and were frequently put to great expense in paying the
sailors and supplying them with provisions, when the state did not
supply sufficient money for the purpose. Moreover, some trierarchs,
whether from ambitious or patriotic motives, put themselves to
unnecessary expense in fitting out and rigging their ships, from
which the state derived an advantage. The average expense of the
trierarchy was 50 minae. In ancient times one person bore the whole
charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was customary for two persons
to share it, who were then called _syntrierarchs_ (συντριήραρχοι).
When this practice was first introduced is not known, but it was
perhaps about the year 412 B.C., after the defeat of the Athenians
in Sicily, when the union of two persons for the choregia was first
permitted. The syntrierarchy, however, did not entirely supersede
the older and single form, being only meant as a relief in case of
emergency, when there was not a sufficient number of wealthy citizens
to bear the expense singly. In the case of a syntrierarchy the two
trierarchs commanded their vessel in turn, six months each, according
as they agreed between themselves.--The third form of the trierarchy
was connected with, or suggested by, the syntrierarchy. In B.C. 358,
the Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient number of legally
appointed trierarchs, and accordingly they summoned volunteers. This,
however, was but a temporary expedient; and as the actual system
was not adequate to the public wants, they determined to manage the
trierarchy somewhat in the same way as the property-tax (_eisphora_),
namely, by classes or symmoriae, according to the law of Periander
passed in B.C. 358, and which was the primary and original enactment
on the subject. With this view 1200 _synteleis_ (συντελεῖς) or
partners were appointed, who were probably the wealthiest individuals
of the state, according to the census or valuation. These were
divided into 20 _symmoriae_ (συμμορίαι) or classes; out of which
a number of persons (σώματα) joined for the equipment or rather
the maintenance and management of a ship, under the title of a
_synteleia_ (συντέλεια) or union. To every ship there was generally
assigned a _synteleia_ of fifteen persons of different degrees of
wealth, as we may suppose, so that four ships only were provided
for by each symmoria of sixty persons. It appears, however, that
before Demosthenes carried a new law on this subject (B.C. 340), it
had been customary for _sixteen_ persons to unite in a synteleia or
company for a ship, who bore the burden in equal shares. This being
the case, it follows either that the members of the symmoriae had
been by that time raised from 1200 to 1280, or that some alterations
had taken place in their internal arrangements, of which no account
has come down to us. The superintendence of the whole system was in
the hands of the 300 wealthiest members, who were therefore called
the “leaders of the symmoriae” (ἡγεμόνες τῶν συμμοριῶν), on whom
the burdens of the trierarchy chiefly fell, or rather ought to have
fallen. The services performed by individuals under this system
appear to have been the same as before: the state still provided
the ship’s tackle, and the only duty then of the trierarchs under
this system was to keep their vessels in the same repair and order
as they received them. But even from this they managed to escape:
for the wealthiest members, who had to serve for their synteleia,
let out their trierarchies for a talent, and received that amount
from their partners (συντελεῖς), so that in reality they paid next
to nothing, or, at any rate, not what they ought to have done,
considering that the trierarchy was a ground of exemption from
other liturgies.--To remedy these abuses Demosthenes carried a law
when he was the ἐπιστάτης τοῦ ναυτικοῦ, or the superintendent of
the Athenian navy, thereby introducing the _Fourth form_ of the
trierarchy. The provisions of the law were as follows: The naval
services required from every citizen were to depend upon and be
proportional to his property, or rather to his taxable capital, as
registered for the symmoriae of the property-tax, the rate being
one trireme for every ten talents of taxable capital, up to three
triremes and one auxiliary vessel (ὑπηρέσιον) for the largest
properties; _i.e._ no person, however rich, could be required to
furnish more. Those who had not ten talents in taxable capital were
to club together in synteleiae till they had made up that amount.
By this law great changes were effected. All persons paying taxes
were rated in proportion to their property, so that the poor were
benefited by it, and the state likewise: for, as Demosthenes says,
those who had formerly contributed one-sixteenth to the trierarchy of
one ship were now trierarchs of two, in which case they must either
have served by proxy, or done duty in successive years. He adds, that
the consequences were highly beneficial. We do not know the amount
of property which rendered a man liable to serve a trierarchy or
syntrierarchy, but we read of no instance of liability arising from
a property of less value than 500 minae. The appointment to serve
under the first and second forms of the trierarchy was made by the
strategi, and in case any person was appointed to serve a trierarchy,
and thought that any one else (not called upon) was better able
to bear it than himself, he offered the latter an exchange of his
property [ANTIDOSIS] subject to the burden of the trierarchy. In
cases of extreme hardship, persons became suppliants to the people,
or fled to the altar of Artemis at Munychia. If not ready in time,
they were sometimes liable to imprisonment. On the contrary, whoever
got his ship ready first was to be rewarded with the “crown of
the trierarchy;” so that in this way considerable emulation and
competition were produced. Moreover, the trierarchs were ὑπεύθυνοι,
or liable to be called to account for their expenditure; though they
applied their own property to the service of the state. It has been
already stated that the trierarchy was a ground of exemption from the
other liturgies, any of which, indeed, gave an exemption, from all
the rest during the following year.

TRĬNUNDĬNUM. [NUNDINAE.]

TRIŌBŎLON (τριώβολον), the fee of three obols, which the Athenian
dicasts received. [DICASTAE.]

TRĬPOS (τρίπους), a tripod, _i.e._ any utensil or article of
furniture supported upon three feet. More especially (1) A
three-legged table.--(2) A pot or caldron, used for boiling meat,
and either raised upon a three-legged stand of bronze, or made
with its three feet in the same piece.--(3) A bronze altar, not
differing probably in its original form from the tall tripod caldron
already described. It was from a tripod that the Pythian priestess
at Delphi gave responses. [CORTINA.] The celebrity of this tripod
produced innumerable imitations of it, which were made to be used in
sacrifice, and still more frequently to be presented to the treasury
both in that place and in many other Greek temples.

[Illustration: Tripod of Apollo at Delphi. (Böttiger’s Amalthea, vol.
i. p. 119.)]

TRĬPŬDĬUM. [AUSPICIUM.]

TRIRĒMIS. [NAVIS.]

TRĬUMPHUS (θρίαμβος), a solemn procession, in which a victorious
general entered the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was
preceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, was followed by
his troops, and after passing in state along the Via Sacra, ascended
the Capitol to offer sacrifice in the temple of Jupiter. From the
beginning of the republic down to the extinction of liberty a regular
triumph (_justus triumphus_) was recognised as the summit of military
glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman
general. A triumph might be granted for successful achievements
either by land or sea, but the latter were comparatively so rare
that we shall for the present defer the consideration of the naval
triumph. After any decisive battle had been won, or a province
subdued by a series of successful operations, the imperator forwarded
to the senate a laurel-wreathed dispatch (_literae laureatae_),
containing an account of his exploits. If the intelligence
proved satisfactory, the senate decreed a public thanksgiving.
[SUPPLICATIO.] After the war was concluded, the general with his
army repaired to Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there on a
given day, but did not enter the city. A meeting of the senate was
held without the walls, usually in the temple either of Bellona or
Apollo, that he might have an opportunity of urging his pretensions
in person, and these were then scrutinised and discussed with the
most jealous care. The following rules were for the most part rigidly
enforced, although the senate assumed the discretionary power of
relaxing them in special cases. 1. That no one could be permitted
to triumph unless he had held the office of dictator, of consul,
or of praetor. The honours granted to Pompey, who triumphed in his
24th year (B.C. 81) before he had held any of the great offices of
state, and again ten years afterwards, while still a simple eques,
were altogether unprecedented. 2. That the magistrate should have
been actually in office both when the victory was gained and when
the triumph was to be celebrated. This regulation was insisted upon
only during the earlier ages of the commonwealth. Its violation
commenced with Q. Publilius Philo, the first person to whom the
senate ever granted a _prorogatio imperii_ after the termination
of a magistracy, and thenceforward proconsuls and propraetors were
permitted to triumph without question. 3. That the war should have
been prosecuted or the battle fought under the auspices and in the
province and with the troops of the general seeking the triumph.
Thus if a victory was gained by the legatus of a general who was
absent from the army, the honour of it did not belong to the former,
but to the latter, inasmuch as he had the auspices. 4. That at
least 5000 of the enemy should have been slain in a single battle,
that the advantage should have been positive, and not merely a
compensation for some previous disaster, and that the loss on the
part of the Romans should have been small compared with that of their
adversaries. But still we find many instances of triumphs granted
for general results, without reference to the numbers slain in any
one engagement. 5. That the war should have been a legitimate
contest against public foes, and not a civil contest. Hence Catulus
celebrated no triumph over Lepidus, nor Antonius over Catiline, nor
Cinna and Marius over their antagonists of the Sullan party, nor
Caesar after Pharsalia; and when he did subsequently triumph after
his victory over the sons of Pompey, it caused universal disgust. 6.
That the dominion of the state should have been extended, and not
merely something previously lost regained. The absolute acquisition
of territory does not appear to have been essential. 7. That the war
should have been brought to a conclusion and the province reduced to
a state of peace, so as to permit of the army being withdrawn, the
presence of the victorious soldiers being considered indispensable
in a triumph. The senate claimed the exclusive right of deliberating
upon all these points, and giving or withholding the honour sought,
and they for the most part exercised the privilege without question,
except in times of great political excitement. The sovereignty of the
people, however, in this matter was asserted at a very early date,
and a triumph is said to have been voted by the tribes to Valerius
and Horatius, the consuls of B.C. 446, in direct opposition to the
resolution of the fathers, and in a similar manner to C. Marcius
Rutilus the first plebeian dictator, while L. Postumius Megellus,
consul B.C. 294, celebrated a triumph, although resisted by the
senate and seven out of the ten tribunes. Nay, more, we read of a
certain Appius Claudius, consul B.C. 143, who having persisted in
celebrating a triumph in defiance of both the senate and people, was
accompanied by his daughter (or sister) Claudia, a vestal virgin,
and by her interposition saved from being dragged from his chariot
by a tribune. A disappointed general, however, seldom ventured to
resort to such violent measures, but satisfied himself with going
through the forms on the Alban Mount, a practice first introduced by
C. Papirius Maso. If the senate gave their consent, they at the same
time voted a sum of money towards defraying the necessary expenses,
and one of the tribunes _ex auctoritate senatus_ applied for a
plebiscitum to permit the imperator to retain his imperium on the day
when he entered the city. This last form could not be dispensed with
either in an ovation or a triumph, because the imperium conferred
by the comitia curiata did not include the city itself, and when a
general had once gone forth _paludatus_, his military power ceased
as soon as he re-entered the gates, unless the general law had been
previously suspended by a special enactment; and in this manner the
resolution of the senate was, as it were, ratified by the plebs. For
this reason no one desiring a triumph ever entered the city until
the question was decided, since by so doing he would ipso facto
have forfeited all claim. We have a remarkable example of this in
the case of Cicero, who after his return from Cilicia lingered in
the vicinity of Rome day after day, and dragged about his lictors
from one place to another, without entering the city, in the vain
hope of a triumph.--In later times these pageants were marshalled
with extraordinary pomp and splendour, and presented a most gorgeous
spectacle. Minute details would necessarily be different according
to circumstances, but the general arrangements were as follows. The
temples were all thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every
shrine and image, and incense smoked on every altar. Meanwhile the
imperator called an assembly of his soldiers, delivered an oration
commending their valour, and concluded by distributing rewards to
the most distinguished, and a sum of money to each individual, the
amount depending on the value of the spoils. He then ascended his
triumphal car and advanced to the Porta Triumphalis, where he was
met by the whole body of the senate headed by the magistrates. The
procession then defiled in the following order. 1. The senate headed
by the magistrates. 2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A train of carriages
and frames laden with spoils, those articles which were especially
remarkable either on account of their beauty or rarity being disposed
in such a manner as to be seen distinctly by the crowd. Boards were
borne aloft on fercula, on which were painted in large letters the
names of vanquished nations and countries. Here, too, models were
exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and
pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features
of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Gold and
silver in coin or bullion, arms, weapons, and horse furniture of
every description, statues, pictures, vases, and other works of art,
precious stones, elaborately wrought and richly embroidered stuffs,
and every object which could be regarded as valuable or curious. 4.
A body of flute players. 5. The white bulls or oxen destined for
sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated with infulae and serta,
attended by the slaughtering priests with their implements, and
followed by the Camilli bearing in their hands paterae and other holy
vessels and instruments. 6. Elephants or any other strange animals,
natives of the conquered districts. 7. The arms and insignia of the
leaders of the foe. 8. The leaders themselves, and such of their
kindred as had been taken prisoners, followed by the whole band of
inferior captives in fetters. 9. The coronae and other tributes of
respect and gratitude bestowed on the imperator by allied kings and
states. 10. The lictors of the imperator in single file, their fasces
wreathed with laurel. 11. The imperator himself in a circular chariot
of a peculiar form, drawn by four horses, which were sometimes,
though rarely, white. He was attired in a gold-embroidered robe
(_toga picta_) and flowered tunic (_tunica palmata_): he bore in his
right hand a laurel bough, and in his left a sceptre; his brows were
encircled with a wreath of Delphic laurel, in addition to which in
ancient times, his body was painted bright red. He was accompanied in
his chariot by his children of tender years, and sometimes by very
dear or highly honoured friends, while behind him stood a public
slave, holding over his head a golden Etruscan crown ornamented with
jewels. The presence of a slave in such a place at such a time seems
to have been intended to avert _invidia_ and the influence of the
evil eye, and for the same purpose a fascinum, a little bell, and a
scourge were attached to the vehicle. Tertullian tells us, that the
slave ever and anon whispered in the ear of the imperator the warning
words _Respice post te, hominem memento te_, but this statement is
not confirmed by any earlier writer. 12. Behind the chariot or on
the horses which drew it rode the grown-up sons of the imperator,
together with the legati, the tribuni, and the equites, all on
horseback. 13. The rear was brought up by the whole body of the
infantry in marching order, their spears adorned with laurel, some
shouting Io Triumphe, and singing hymns to the gods, while others
proclaimed the praises of their leader or indulged in keen sarcasms
and coarse ribaldry at his expense, for the most perfect freedom of
speech was granted and exercised. Just as the pomp was ascending the
Capitoline hill, some of the hostile chiefs were led aside into the
adjoining prison and put to death, a custom so barbarous that we
could scarcely believe that it existed in a civilised age, were it
not attested by the most unquestionable evidence. Pompey, indeed,
refrained from perpetrating this atrocity in his third triumph, and
Aurelian on like occasion spared Zenobia, but these are quoted as
exceptions to the general rule. When it was announced that these
murders had been completed, the victims were then sacrificed, an
offering from the spoils was presented to Jupiter, the laurel wreath
was deposited in the lap of the god, the imperator was entertained
at a public feast along with his friends in the temple, and returned
home in the evening preceded by torches and pipes, and escorted by a
crowd of citizens. The whole of the proceedings, generally speaking,
were brought to a close in one day; but when the quantity of plunder
was very great, and the troops very numerous, a longer period was
required for the exhibition, and thus the triumph of Flaminius
continued for three days in succession. But the glories of the
imperator did not end with the show, nor even with his life. It was
customary (we know not if the practice was invariable) to provide him
at the public expense with a site for a house, such mansions being
styled _triumphales domus_. After death his kindred were permitted
to deposit his ashes within the walls, and laurel-wreathed statues
standing erect in triumphal cars, displayed in the vestibulum of
the family mansion, transmitted his fame to posterity.--A TRIUMPHUS
NAVALIS appears to have differed in no respect from an ordinary
triumph, except that it must have been upon a smaller scale, and
would be characterised by the exhibition of beaks of ships and
other nautical trophies. The earliest upon record was granted to C.
Duillius, who laid the foundation of the supremacy of Rome by sea
in the first Punic war; and so elated was he by his success, that
during the rest of his life, whenever he returned home at night from
supper, he caused flutes to sound and torches to be borne before
him. A second naval triumph was celebrated by Lutatius Catulus for
his victory off the Insulae Aegates, B.C. 241; a third by Q. Fabius
Labeo, B.C. 189, over the Cretans; and a fourth by C. Octavius
over King Perseus, without captives and without spoils.--TRIUMPHUS
CASTRENSIS was a procession of the soldiers through the camp in
honour of a tribunus or some officer inferior to the general, who
had performed a brilliant exploit. After the extinction of freedom,
the emperor being considered as the commander-in-chief of all the
armies of the state, every military achievement was understood to
be performed under his auspices, and hence, according to the forms
of even the ancient constitution, he alone had a legitimate claim
to a triumph. This principle was soon fully recognised and acted
upon; for although Antonius had granted triumphs to his legati, and
his example had been freely followed by Augustus in the early part
of his career, yet after the year B.C. 14, he entirely discontinued
the practice, and from that time forward triumphs were rarely, if
ever, conceded to any except members of the imperial family. But to
compensate in some degree for what was then taken away, the custom
was introduced of bestowing what were termed _Triumphalia Ornamenta_,
that is, permission to receive the titles bestowed upon and to appear
in public with the robes worn by the imperatores of the commonwealth
when they triumphed, and to bequeath to descendants triumphal
statues. These _triumphalia ornamenta_ are said to have been first
bestowed upon Agrippa or upon Tiberius, and ever after were a common
mark of the favour of the prince.

[Illustration: Triumphal Procession. (Zoega, Bassi-rilievi, tav. 9,
76.)]

TRĬUMVĬRI, or TRESVĬRI, were either ordinary magistrates or officers,
or else extraordinary commissioners, who were frequently appointed
at Rome to execute any public office. The following is a list of the
most important of both classes.

1. TRIUMVIRI AGRO DIVIDUNDO. [TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE.]

2. TRIUMVIRI CAPITALES were regular magistrates, first appointed
about B.C. 292. They were elected by the people, the comitia being
held by the praetor. They succeeded to many of the functions of the
Quaestores Parricidii. [QUAESTOR.] It was their duty to inquire into
all capital crimes, and to receive informations respecting such, and
consequently they apprehended and committed to prison all criminals
whom they detected. In conjunction with the aediles, they had to
preserve the public peace, to prevent all unlawful assemblies, &c.
They enforced the payment of fines due to the state. They had the
care of public prisons, and carried into effect the sentence of the
law upon criminals. In these points they resembled the magistracy of
the Eleven at Athens.

4. TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE were persons appointed to
superintend the formation of a colony. They are spoken of under
COLONIA, p. 99, _b_. Since they had besides to superintend the
distribution of the land to the colonists, we find them also called
_Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae Agroque Dividundo_, and sometimes
simply _Triumviri Agro Dando_.

5. TRIUMVIRI EPULONES. [EPULONES.]

6. TRIUMVIRI EQUITUM TURMAS RECOGNOSCENDI, or LEGENDIS EQUITUM
DECURIIS, were magistrates first appointed by Augustus to revise the
lists of the equites, and to admit persons into the order. This was
formerly part of the duties of the censors.

7. TRIUMVIRI MENSARII. [MENSARII.]

8. TRIUMVIRI MONETALES. [MONETA.]

9. TRIUMVIRI NOCTURNI were magistrates elected annually, whose chief
duty it was to prevent fires by night, and for this purpose they had
to go round the city during the night (_vigilias circumire_). If they
neglected their duty they appear to have been accused before the
people by the tribunes of the plebs. The time at which this office
was instituted is unknown, but it must have been previously to the
year B.C. 304. Augustus transferred their duties to the Praefectus
Vigilum. [PRAEFECTUS VIGILUM.]

10. TRIUMVIRI REFICIENDIS AEDIBUS, extraordinary officers elected
in the Comitia Tributa in the time of the second Punic war, were
appointed for the purpose of repairing and rebuilding certain temples.

11. TRIUMVIRI REIPUBLICAE CONSTITUENDAE. When the supreme power
was shared between Caesar (Octavianus), Antony, and Lepidus, they
administered the affairs of the state under the title of _Triumviri
Reipublicae Constituendae_. This office was conferred upon them in
B.C. 43, for five years; and on the expiration of the term, in B.C.
38, was conferred upon them again, in B.C. 37, for five years more.
The coalition between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in B.C. 60,
is usually called the first triumvirate, and that between Octavianus,
Antony, and Lepidus, the second; but it must be borne in mind that
the former never bore the title of triumviri, nor were invested with
any office under that name, whereas the latter were recognised as
regular magistrates under the above-mentioned title.

12. TRIUMVIRI SACRIS CONQUIRENDIS DONISQUE PERSIGNANDIS,
extraordinary officers elected in the Comitia Tributa in the time of
the second Punic war, seem to have had to take care that all property
given or consecrated to the gods was applied to that purpose.

13. TRIUMVIRI SENATUS LEGENDI were magistrates appointed by Augustus
to admit persons into the senate. This was previously the duty of the
censors.

TRŎCHUS (τροχός), a hoop. The Greek hoop was a bronze ring, and had
sometimes bells attached to it. It was impelled by means of a hook
with a wooden handle, called _clavis_, and ἐλατήρ. From the Greeks
this custom passed to the Romans, who consequently adopted the Greek
term. The following woodcuts from gems exhibit naked youths trundling
the hoop by means of the hook or key. They are accompanied by the jar
of oil and the laurel branch, the signs of effort and of victory.

[Illustration: Trochi, Hoops. (From ancient Gems.)]

TROJAE LŪDUS. [CIRCUS.]

TRŎPAEUM (τρόπαιον, _Att._ τροπαῖον), a trophy, a sign and memorial
of victory, which was erected on the field of battle where the enemy
had turned (τρέπω, τρόπη) to flight; and in case of a victory gained
at sea, on the nearest land. The expression for raising or erecting
a trophy is τροπαῖον στῆσαι or στήσασθαι, to which may be added ἀπὸ
or κατὰ τῶν πολεμίων. When the battle was not decisive, or each party
considered it had some claims to the victory, both erected trophies.
Trophies usually consisted of the arms, shields, helmets, &c. of the
enemy that were defeated; and these were placed on the trunk of a
tree, which was fixed on some elevation. The trophy was consecrated
to some divinity, with an inscription (ἐπίγραμμα), recording the
names of the victors and of the defeated party; whence trophies were
regarded as inviolable, which even the enemy were not permitted to
remove. Sometimes, however, a people destroyed a trophy, if they
considered that the enemy had erected it without sufficient cause.
That rankling and hostile feelings might not be perpetuated by the
continuance of a trophy, it seems to have been originally part of
Greek international law that trophies should be made only of wood,
and not of stone or metal, and that they should not be repaired when
decayed. It was not, however, uncommon to erect trophies of metal.
Pausanias speaks of several which he saw in Greece. The trophies
erected to commemorate naval victories were usually ornamented with
the beaks or acroteria of ships [ACROTERIUM; ROSTRA]; and were
generally consecrated to Poseidon or Neptune. Sometimes a whole ship
was placed as a trophy. The Romans, in early times, never erected any
trophies on the field of battle, but carried home the spoils taken in
battle, with which they decorated the public buildings, and also the
private houses of individuals. [SPOLIA.] Subsequently, however, the
Romans adopted the Greek practice of raising trophies on the field
of battle. The first trophies of this kind were erected by Domitius
Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus in B.C. 121, after their conquest of
the Allobroges, when they built at the junction of the Rhone and the
Isara towers of white stone, upon which trophies were placed adorned
with the spoils of the enemy. Pompey also raised trophies on the
Pyrenees after his victories in Spain; Julius Caesar did the same
near Ziela, after his victory over Pharnaces; and Drusus, near the
Elbe, to commemorate his victory over the Germans. Still, however, it
was more common to erect some memorial of the victory at Rome than on
the field of battle. The trophies raised by Marius to commemorate his
victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri and Teutoni, which were cast
down by Sulla, and restored by Julius Caesar, must have been in the
city. In the later times of the republic, and under the empire, the
erection of triumphal arches was the most common way of commemorating
a victory, many of which remain to the present day. [ARCUS.]

[Illustration: Trophy of Augustus. (Museo Capitolino, vol i. tav. 5.)]

TROSSŬLI. [EQUITES, p. 157, _a_.]

TRŬA, _dim._ TRULLA (τορύνη), derived from τρύω, τόρω, &c., to
perforate; a large and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes; a
trowel. The annexed woodcut represents such a ladle. The _trulla
vinaria_ seems to have been a species of colander [COLUM], used as a
wine-strainer.

[Illustration: Trua. (From the House of Pansa at Pompeii.)]

TRŬTĬNA (τρυτάνη), a general term, including both _libra_, a balance,
and _statera_, a steelyard. Payments were originally made by
weighing, not by counting. Hence a balance (_trutina_) was preserved
in the temple of Saturn at Rome.

TŬBA (σάλπιγξ), a bronze trumpet, distinguished from the _cornu_ by
being straight while the latter was curved. [CORNU.] The tuba was
employed in war for signals of every description, at the games and
public festivals, and also at the last rites to the dead: those who
sounded the trumpet at funerals were termed _siticines_, and used an
instrument of a peculiar form. The tones of the tuba are represented
as of a harsh and fear-inspiring character. The invention of the tuba
is usually ascribed by ancient writers to the Etruscans. It has been
remarked that Homer never introduces the σάλπιγξ in his narrative
except in comparisons, which leads us to infer that, although known
in his time, it had been but recently introduced into Greece; and it
is certain that, notwithstanding its eminently martial character, it
was not until a late period used in the armies of the leading states.
By the Greek tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recognised.
According to one account it was first fabricated for the Tyrrhenians
by Athena, who in consequence was worshipped by the Argives under the
title of Σάλπιγξ, while at Rome the _tubilustrium_, or purification
of sacred trumpets, was performed on the last day of the Quinquatrus.
[QUINQUATRUS.] There appears to have been no essential difference in
form between the Greek and Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were
long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually increasing in diameter, and
terminating in a bell-shaped aperture.

[Illustration: Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of
Trajan.)]

TŬBĬLUSTRIUM. [QUINQUATRUS.]

TULLIĀNUM. [CARCER.]

TŬMULTUĀRĬI. [TUMULTUS.]

TŬMULTUS, the name given to a sudden or dangerous war in Italy or
Cisalpine Gaul, and the word was supposed by the ancients to be a
contraction of _timor multus_. It was, however, sometimes applied
to a sudden or dangerous war elsewhere; but this does not appear to
have been a correct use of the word. Cicero says that there might
be a war without a tumultus, but not a tumultus without a war; but
it must be recollected that the word was also applied to any sudden
alarm respecting a war; whence we find a tumultus often spoken of
as of less importance than a war, because the results were of less
consequence, though the fear might have been much greater than in a
regular war. In the case of a tumultus there was a cessation from
all business (_justitium_), and all citizens were obliged to enlist
without regard being had to the exemptions (_vacationes_) from
military service, which were enjoyed at other times. As there was not
time to enlist the soldiers in the regular manner, the magistrate who
was appointed to command the army displayed two banners (_vexilla_)
from the Capitol, one red, to summon the infantry, and the other
green, to summon the cavalry, and said, _Qui rempublicam salvam vult,
me sequatur_. Those that assembled took the military oath together,
instead of one by one, as was the usual practice, whence they were
called _conjurati_, and their service _conjuratio_. Soldiers enlisted
in this way were termed _Tumultuarii_ or _Subitarii_.

[Illustration: Doric Chiton. (From a Bas-relief in the British
Museum.)]

[Illustration: Ionic Chiton. (From a Statue in the British Museum.)]

TŬNĬCA (χιτών, _dim._ χιτωνίσκος, χιτώνιον), an under-garment. (1)
GREEK. The chiton was the only kind of ἔνδυμα, or under-garment worn
by the Greeks. Of this there were two kinds, the Dorian and Ionian.
The Dorian chiton, as worn by males, was a short woollen shirt,
without sleeves; the Ionian was a long linen garment, with sleeves.
The former seems to have been originally worn throughout the whole
of Greece; the latter was brought over to Greece by the Ionians of
Asia. The Ionic chiton was commonly worn at Athens by men during the
Persian wars, but it appears to have entirely gone out of fashion for
the male sex about the time of Pericles, from which time the Dorian
chiton was the under-garment universally adopted by men through the
whole of Greece. The distinction between the Doric and Ionic chiton
still continued in the dress of women. The Spartan virgins only
wore this one garment, and had no upper kind of clothing, whence it
is sometimes called _Himation_ [PALLIUM] as well as _Chiton_. They
appeared in the company of men without any further covering; but the
married women never did so without wearing an upper garment. This
Doric chiton was made, as stated above, of woollen stuff; it was
without sleeves, and was fastened over both shoulders by clasps or
buckles (πόρπαι, περόναι), which were often of considerable size.
It was frequently so short as not to reach the knee. It was only
joined together on one side, and on the other was left partly open
or slit up (σχιστός χίτων), to allow a free motion of the limbs. The
following cut represents an Amazon with a chiton of this kind: some
parts of the figure appear incomplete, as the original is mutilated.
The Ionic chiton, on the contrary, was a long and loose garment,
reaching to the feet (ποδήρης), with wide sleeves (κόραι), and was
usually made of linen. The sleeves, however, appear generally to
have covered only the upper part of the arm; for in ancient works
of art we seldom find the sleeve extending farther than the elbow,
and sometimes not so far. The sleeves were sometimes slit up, and
fastened together with an elegant row of brooches. The Ionic chiton,
according to Herodotus, was originally a Carian dress, and passed
over to Athens from Ionia, as has been already remarked. The women
at Athens originally wore the Doric chiton, but were compelled to
change it for the Ionic, after they had killed with the buckles or
clasps of their dresses the single Athenian who had returned alive
from the expedition against Aegina, because there were no buckles
or clasps required in the Ionic dress. The preceding cut represents
the Muse Thalia wearing an Ionic chiton. The peplum has fallen off
her shoulders, and is held up by the left hand. Both kinds of dress
were fastened round the middle with a girdle, and as the Ionic chiton
was usually longer than the body, part of it was drawn up so that
the dress might not reach farther than the feet, and the part which
was so drawn up overhung or overlapped the girdle, and was called
κόλπος.--There was a peculiar kind of dress, which seems to have been
a species of double chiton, called _Diplois_ (διπλοΐς), _Diploidion_
(διπλοΐδιον), and _Hemidiploidion_ (ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον).

[Illustration: Diploidia, double Chitons. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii.
tav. 4, 6.)]

It appears not to have been a separate article of dress, but merely
the upper part of the cloth forming the chiton, which was larger than
was required for the ordinary chiton, and was therefore thrown over
the front and back. The following cuts will give a clearer idea of
the form of this garment than any description. Since the Diploidion
was fastened over the shoulders by means of buckles or clasps, it
was called _Epomis_ (ἐπωμίς), which is supposed by some writers to
have been only the end of the garment fastened on the shoulder. The
chiton was worn by men next their skin; but females were accustomed
to wear a chemise (χιτώνιον) under their chiton. It was the practice
among most of the Greeks to wear an himation, or outer garment,
over the chiton, but frequently the chiton was worn alone. A person
who wore only a chiton was called μονοχίτων (οἰοχίτων in Homer), an
epithet given to the Spartan virgins. In the some way, a person who
wore only an himation, or outer garment, was called ἀχίτων. The
Athenian youths, in the earlier times, wore only the chiton, and when
it became the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to wear an outer
garment over it, it was regarded as a mark of effeminacy.--(2) ROMAN.
The _Tunica_ of the Romans, like the Greek chiton, was a woollen
under-garment, over which the toga was worn. It was the _Indumentum_
or _Indutus_, as opposed to the _Amictus_, the general term for the
toga, pallium, or any other outer garment. [AMICTUS.] The Romans
are said to have had no other clothing originally but the toga; and
when the tunic was first introduced, it was merely a short garment
without sleeves, and was called _Colobium_. It was considered a mark
of effeminacy for men to wear tunics with long sleeves (_manicatae_)
and reaching to the feet (_talares_). The tunic was girded (_cincta_)
with a belt or girdle around the waist, but it was usually worn
loose, without being girded, when a person was at home, or wished to
be at his ease. Hence we find the terms _cinctus_, _praecinctus_,
and _succinctus_, applied, like the Greek εὔζωνος, to an active and
diligent person, and _discinctus_ to one who was idle or dissolute.
The form of the tunic, as worn by men, is represented in many
woodcuts in this work. In works of art it usually terminates a
little above the knee; it has short sleeves, covering only the upper
part of the arm, and is girded at the waist: the sleeves sometimes,
though less frequently, extend to the hands.--Both sexes at Rome
usually wore two tunics, an outer and an under, the latter of which
was worn next the skin, and corresponds to our shirt and chemise.
The under tunics were called _Subucula_ and _Indusium_, the former
of which is supposed to be the name of the under tunic of the men,
and the latter of that of the women: but this is not certain. The
word _Interula_ was of later origin, and seems to have been applied
equally to the under tunic of both sexes. It is doubtful whether the
_Supparus_ or _Supparum_ was an outer or an under garment. Persons
sometimes wore several tunics, as a protection against cold: Augustus
wore four in the winter, besides a subucula. As the dress of a man
usually consisted of an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga,
so that of a woman, in like manner, consisted of an under tunic, an
outer tunic, and the palla. The outer tunic of the Roman matron was
properly called stola [STOLA], and is represented in the woodcut on
p. 355; but the annexed woodcut, which represents a Roman empress
in the character of Concordia, or Abundantia, gives a better idea
of its form. Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown in many
folds, but the shape of the former is still distinctly shown. The
tunics of women were larger and longer than those of men, and always
had sleeves; but in ancient paintings and statues we seldom find
the sleeves covering more than the upper part of the arm. Sometimes
the tunics were adorned with golden ornaments called _Leria_. Poor
people, who could not afford to purchase a toga, wore the tunic
alone, whence we find the common people called _Tunicati_. A person
who wore only his tunic was frequently called NUDUS. Respecting the
clavus latus and the clavus angustus, worn on the tunics of the
senators and equites respectively, see CLAVUS LATUS, CLAVUS ANGUSTUS.
When a triumph was celebrated, the conqueror wore, together with an
embroidered toga (_Toga picta_), a flowered tunic (_Tunica palmata_),
also called _Tunica Jovis_, because it was taken from the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus. Tunics of this kind were sent as presents to
foreign kings by the senate.

[Illustration: Roman Tunic. (Visconti, Monumenti Gabini, n. 34.)]

TŪRĬBŬLUM (θυμιατήριον), a censer. The Greeks and Romans, when they
sacrificed, commonly took a little frankincense out of the ACERRA
and let it fall upon the flaming altar. [ARA.] More rarely they
used a censer, by means of which they burnt the incense in greater
profusion, and which was in fact a small moveable grate or FOCULUS.
The annexed cut shows the performance of both of these acts at the
same time. Winckelmann supposes it to represent Livia, the wife, and
Octavia, the sister of Augustus, sacrificing to Mars in gratitude
for his safe return from Spain. The censer here represented has two
handles for the purpose of carrying it from place to place, and it
stands upon feet so that the air might be admitted underneath, and
pass upwards through the fuel.

[Illustration: Livia and Octavia Sacrificing. (From an ancient
Painting.)]

TURMA. [EXERCITUS, p. 166, b.]

TURRIS (πύργος), a tower. Moveable towers were among the most
important engines used in storming a fortified place. They were
generally made of beams and planks, and covered, at least on the
three sides which were exposed to the besieged, with iron, not only
for protection, but also to increase their weight, and thus make
them steadier. They were also covered with raw hides and quilts,
moistened, and sometimes with alum, to protect them from fire.
Their height was such as to overtop the walls, towers, and all
other fortifications of the besieged place. They were divided into
stories (_tabulata_ or _tecta_), and hence they are called _turres
contabulatae_. The sides of the towers were pierced with windows, of
which there were several to each story. The use of the stories was
to receive the engines of war (_tormenta_). They contained balistae
and catapults, and slingers and archers were stationed in them, and
on the tops of the towers. In the lowest story was a battering-ram
[ARIES]; and in the middle one or more bridges (_pontes_) made
of beams and planks, and protected at the sides by hurdles.
Scaling-ladders (_scalae_) were also carried in the towers, and when
the missiles had cleared the walls, these bridges and ladders enabled
the besiegers to rush upon them. These towers were placed upon wheels
(generally 6 or 8), that they might be brought up to the walls. These
wheels were placed for security inside of the tower.

TŪTOR. [CURATOR.]

TYMPĂNUM (τύμπανον), a small drum carried in the hand. Of these, some
resembled in all respects a modern tambourine with bells. Others
presented a flat circular disk on the upper surface and swelled out
beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are represented in the cuts
below. Tympana were covered with the hides of oxen, or of asses; were
beaten with a stick, or with the hand, and were much employed in all
wild enthusiastic religious rites, especially the orgies of Bacchus
and Cybele.--(2) A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons,
such as is shown in the cut on p. 298.

[Illustration: Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.)]

TỸRANNUS (τύραννος). In the heroic age all the governments in
Greece were monarchical, the king uniting in himself the functions
of the priest, the judge, and military chief. In the first two or
three centuries following the Trojan war various causes were at
work, which led to the abolition, or at least to the limitation, of
the kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of families, disasters
in war, civil dissensions, may be reckoned among these causes.
Hereditary monarchies became elective; the different functions
of the king were distributed; he was called _Archon_ (ἄρχων),
_Cosmus_ (κόσμος), or _Prytanis_ (πρύτανις), instead of _Basileus_
(βασιλεύς), and his character was changed no less than his name.
Noble and wealthy families began to be considered on a footing
of equality with royalty; and thus in process of time sprang up
oligarchies or aristocracies, which most of the governments that
succeeded the ancient monarchies were in point of fact, though not
as yet called by such names. These oligarchies did not possess the
elements of social happiness or stability. The principal families
contended with each other for the greatest share of power, and were
only unanimous in disregarding the rights of those whose station was
beneath their own. The people, oppressed by the privileged classes,
began to regret the loss of their old paternal form of government;
and were ready to assist any one who would attempt to restore it.
Thus were opportunities offered to ambitious and designing men to
raise themselves, by starting up as the champions of popular right.
Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute schemes of this
sort, and they had a greater chance of success, if descended from
the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an example; he was the
more acceptable to the people of Athens, as being a descendant of
the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities arose that species of
monarchy which the Greeks called _tyrannis_ (τυραννίς), which meant
only _a despotism_, or irresponsible dominion of one man; and which
frequently was nothing more than a revival of the ancient government,
and, though unaccompanied with any recognised hereditary title, or
the reverence attached to old name and long prescription, was hailed
by the lower orders of people as a good exchange, after suffering
under the domination of the oligarchy. All _tyrannies_, however,
were not so acceptable to the majority; and sometimes we find the
nobles concurring in the elevation of a despot, to further their
own interests. Thus the Syracusan _Gamori_, who had been expelled
by the populace, on receiving the protection of Gelon, sovereign
of Gela and Camarina, enabled him to take possession of Syracuse,
and establish his kingdom there. Sometimes the conflicting parties
in the state, by mutual consent, chose some eminent man, in whom
they had confidence, to reconcile their dissensions; investing him
with a sort of dictatorial power for that purpose, either for a
limited period or otherwise. Such a person they called _Aesymnetes_
(αἰσυμνήτης). The _tyrannus_ must be distinguished, on the one hand,
from the _aesymnetes_, inasmuch as he was not elected by general
consent, but commonly owed his elevation to some violent movement
or stratagem, such as the creation of a body-guard for him by the
people, or the seizure of the citadel; and on the other hand, from
the ancient king, whose right depended, not on usurpation, but on
inheritance and traditionary acknowledgment. The power of a king
might be more absolute than that of a _tyrant_; as Phidon of Argos
is said to have made the royal prerogative greater than it was
under his predecessors; yet he was still regarded as a king; for
the difference between the two names depended on title and origin,
and not on the manner in which the power was exercised. The name of
_tyrant_ was originally so far from denoting a person who abused
his power, or treated his subjects with cruelty, that Pisistratus
is praised for the moderation of his government. Afterwards, when
_tyrants_ themselves had become odious, the name also grew to be
a word of reproach, just as _rex_ did among the Romans. Among
the early _tyrants_ of Greece those most worthy of mention are:
Clisthenes of Sicyon, grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in
whose family the government continued for a century since its
establishment by Orthagoras, about B.C. 672; Cypselus of Corinth,
who expelled the Bacchiadae, B.C. 656, and his son Periander, both
remarkable for their cruelty; their dynasty lasted between seventy
and eighty years; Procles of Epidaurus; Pantaleon of Pisa, who
celebrated the thirty-fourth Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of the
presidency; Theagenes of Megara, father-in-law to Cylon the Athenian;
Pisistratus, whose sons were the last of the early _tyrants_ on the
Grecian continent. In Sicily, where _tyranny_ most flourished, the
principal were Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his power in
B.C. 568; Theron of Agrigentum; Gelon, already mentioned, who, in
conjunction with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the Carthaginian, on the
same day on which the battle of Salamis was fought; and Hieron, his
brother: the last three celebrated by Pindar. The following also are
worthy of notice: Polycrates of Samos; Lygdamis of Naxos; Histiaeus
and Aristagoras of Miletus. Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly be
classed among the _Greek tyrants_, as they were connected with the
Persian monarchy. The general characteristics of a _tyranny_ were,
that it was bound by no laws, and had no recognised limitation to its
authority, however it might be restrained _in practice_ by the good
disposition of the _tyrant_ himself, or by fear, or by the spirit of
the age. It was commonly most odious to the wealthy and noble, whom
the _tyrant_ looked upon with jealousy as a check upon his power,
and whom he often sought to get rid of by sending them into exile
or putting them to death. The _tyrant_ usually kept a body-guard
of foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlled the people at
home; but he seldom ventured to make war, for fear of giving an
opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The causes which led to the
decline of _tyranny_ among the Greeks were partly the degeneracy of
the _tyrants_ themselves, corrupted by power, indolence, flattery,
and bad education; for even where the father set a good example, it
was seldom followed by the son; partly the cruelties and excesses of
particular men, which brought them all into disrepute; and partly
the growing spirit of inquiry among the Greek people, who began to
speculate upon political theories, and soon became discontented
with a form of government, which had nothing in theory, and little
in practice, to recommend it. Few dynasties lasted beyond the third
generation. Most of the tyrannies, which flourished before the
Persian war, are said to have been overthrown by the exertions of
Sparta, jealous, probably, of any innovation upon the old Doric
constitution, especially of any tendency to ameliorate the condition
of the Periocci, and anxious to extend her own influence over the
states of Greece by means of the benefits which she conferred. Upon
the fall of _tyranny_, the various republican forms of government
were established, the Dorian states generally favouring oligarchy,
the Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later period, the most
celebrated are the two Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans,
their intestine discords, and the fear of the Carthaginian invaders,
led to the appointment of Dionysius to the chief military command,
with unlimited powers; by means of which he raised himself to the
throne, B.C. 406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son to
succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far inferior in every respect to
his father, was expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the throne, and
was again expelled by Timoleon, who restored liberty to the various
states of Sicily.

UDO, a sock of goat’s-hair or felt, worn by countrymen with the low
boots called _perones_. [PERO.]

ULNA. [PES.]

UMBĬLĪCUS. [LIBER.]

UMBO. [CLIPEUS.]

UMBRĀCŬLUM, UMBELLA (σκιάδειον, σκιάδιον, σκιαδίσκη), a parasol, was
used by Greek and Roman ladies as a protection against the sun. They
seem not to have been carried generally by the ladies themselves,
but by female slaves, who held them over their mistresses. The
daughters of the aliens (μέτοικοι) at Athens had to carry parasols
after the Athenian maidens at the Panathenaea, as is mentioned under
HYDRIAPHORIA. The parasols of the ancients seem to have been exactly
like our own parasols or umbrellas in form, and could be shut up and
opened like ours. It was considered a mark of effeminacy for men to
make use of parasols. The Roman ladies used them in the amphitheatre
to defend themselves from the sun or some passing shower, when
the wind or other circumstances did not allow the velarium to be
extended. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] To hold a parasol over a lady was one
of the common attentions of lovers, and it seems to have been very
common to give parasols as presents. Instead of parasols, the Greek
women in later times wore a kind of straw hat or bonnet, called
_tholia_ (θολία). The Romans also wore a hat with a broad brim
(_petasus_) as a protection against the sun.

[Illustration: Umbraculum, Parasol. (From an ancient Vase.)]

UNCIA (ὀγκία, οὐγκία, οὐγγία), the twelfth part of the AS or LIBRA,
is derived by Varro from _unus_, as being the unit of the divisions
of the as. Its value as a weight was 433·666 grains, or ¾ of an
ounce and 105·36 grains avoirdupois. [LIBRA.] In connecting the
Roman system of weights and money with the Greek another division of
the uncia was used. When the drachma was introduced into the Roman
system as equivalent to the denarius of 96 to the pound [DENARIUS;
DRACHMA], the uncia contained 8 drachmae, the drachma 3 scrupula, the
scrupulum 2 oboli (since 6 oboli made up the drachma), and the obolos
3 siliquae (κερατία). In this division we have the origin of the
modern Italian system, in which the pound is divided into 12 ounces,
the ounce into 3 drams, the dram into 3 scruples, and the scruple
into 6 carats. In each of these systems 1728 κερατία, siliquae, or
carats, make up the pound. The Romans applied the uncial division to
all kinds of magnitude. [AS.] In length the uncia was the twelfth
of a foot, whence the word _inch_ [PES], in area the twelfth of a
jugerum [JUGERUM], in content the twelfth of a sextarius [SEXTARIUS;
CYATHUS], in time the twelfth of an hour.

UNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [FENUS.]

UNCTŌRES. [BALNEUM.]

UNGUENTA, ointments, oils, or salves. The application of unguenta in
connection with the bathing and athletic contests of the ancients is
stated under BALNEUM and ATHLETAE. But although their original object
was simply to preserve the health and elasticity of the human frame,
they were in later times used as articles of luxury. They were then
not only employed to impart to the body or hair a particular colour,
but also to give to them the most beautiful fragrance possible; they
were, moreover, not merely applied after a bath, but at any time,
to render one’s appearance or presence more pleasant than usual. In
short, they were used then as oils and pomatums are at present. At
Rome these luxuries did not become very general till towards the end
of the republic, while the Greeks appear to have been familiar with
them from early times. The wealthy Greeks and Romans carried their
ointments and perfumes with them, especially when they bathed, in
small boxes of costly materials and beautiful workmanship, which
were called _Narthecia_. The traffic which was carried on in these
ointments and perfumes in several towns of Greece and southern Italy
was very considerable. The persons engaged in manufacturing them
were called by the Romans _Unguentarii_, or, as they frequently
were women, _Unguentariae_, and the art of manufacturing them
_Unguentaria_. In the wealthy and effeminate city of Capua there was
one great street, called the Seplasia, which consisted entirely of
shops in which ointments and perfumes were sold.

ŪRĀGUS. [CENTURIO.]

URCĔUS, a pitcher or water-pot, generally made of earthenware, was
used by the priests at Rome in the sacrifices, and thus appears with
other sacrificial emblems on Roman coins.

[Illustration: Urceus and Lituus on obverse of Coin of Pompey.]

URNA, an urn, a Roman measure of capacity for fluids, equal to half
an AMPHORA. This use of the term was probably founded upon its more
general application to denote a vessel for holding water, or any
other substance, either fluid or solid. An urn was used to receive
the names of the judges (_judices_) in order that the praetor might
draw out of it a sufficient number to determine causes: also to
receive the ashes of the dead.

USTRĪNA, USTRĪNUM. [BUSTUM.]

ŪSŪCĂPĬO, the possession of property for a certain time without
interruption. The Twelve Tables declared that the ownership of land,
a house, or other immoveable property, could be acquired by usucapio
in two years; and of moveable property by usucapio in one year.

ŪSŪRAE. [FENUS.]

ŪSUS. [MATRIMONIUM.]

ŪSUSFRUCTUS was the right to the enjoyment of a thing by one person,
while the ownership belonged to another. He who had the ususfructus
was _Ususfructuarius_ or _Fructuarius_, and the object of the
ususfructus was _Res Fructuaria_.

UTRĬCŬLĀRĬUS. [TIBIA.]

UXOR. [MATRIMONIUM.]

UXŌRĬUM. [AES UXORIUM.]

VĂCATĬO. [EXERCITUS, EMERITI.]

VĂDĬMŌNĬUM, VAS. [ACTIO; PRAES.]

VĀGĪNA. [GLADIUS.]

VALLUM, a term applied either to the whole or a portion of the
fortifications of a Roman camp. It is derived from _vallus_ (a
stake), and properly means the palisade which ran along the outer
edge of the agger, but it very frequently includes the agger also.
The _vallum_, in the latter sense, together with the _fossa_ or ditch
which surrounded the camp outside of the _vallum_, formed a complete
fortification. The _valli_ (χάρακες), of which the _vallum_, in
the former and more limited sense, was composed, are described by
Polybius and Livy, who make a comparison between the _vallum_ of the
Greeks and that of the Romans, very much to the advantage of the
latter. Both used for _valli_ young trees or arms of larger trees,
with the side branches on them; but the _valli_ of the Greeks were
much larger and had more branches than those of the Romans, which
had either two or three, or at the most four branches, and these
generally on the same side. The Greeks placed their valli in the
agger at considerable intervals, the spaces between them being filled
up by the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close together, and made
the branches interlace, and sharpened their points carefully. Hence
the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of by its large branches
and pulled from its place, and when it was removed a large opening
was left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, on the contrary, presented
no convenient handle, required very great force to pull it down,
and even if removed left a very small opening. The Greek valli were
cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, and each
soldier carried three or four of them when on a march. They were
made of any strong wood, but oak was preferred. The word _vallus_
is sometimes used as equivalent to _vallum_. In the operations of
a siege, when the place could not be taken by storm, and it became
necessary to establish a blockade, this was done by drawing defences
similar to those of a camp round the town, which was then said to be
_circumvallatum_. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all
communication between the town and the surrounding country, formed
a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a
double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the
outer against a force that might attempt to raise the siege. In this
case the army was encamped between the two lines of works. This
kind of circumvallation, which the Greeks called ἀποτειχισμός and
περιτειχισμός, was employed by the Peloponnesians in the siege of
Plataeae. Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently of turf)
at the distance of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the form
of a circle. Between the walls were the huts of the besiegers. The
wall had battlements (ἐπάλξεις), and at every tenth battlement
was a tower, filling up by its depth the whole space between the
walls. There was a passage for the besiegers through the middle
of each tower. On the outside of each wall was a ditch (τάφρος).
This description would almost exactly answer to the Roman mode of
circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of
Carthage by Scipio, that of Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia
by Caesar. The towers in such lines were similar to those used in
attacking fortified places, but not so high, and of course not
moveable. [TURRIS.]

VALVAE. [JANUA.]

VANNUS (λικμός, λίκνον), a winnowing-van, _i.e._ a broad basket,
into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after thrashing,
and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. Virgil dignifies
this simple implement by calling it _mystica vannus Iacchi_. The
rites of Bacchus, as well as those of Ceres, having a continual
reference to the occupations of rural life, the vannus was borne in
the processions celebrated in honour of both these divinities. In the
cut annexed the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by two dancing
bacchantes clothed in skins.

[Illustration: Bacchus carried in a Vannus. (From an Antefixa in the
British Museum.)]

VAS (pl. _vasa_), a general term for any kind of vessel. Thus
we read of _vas vinarium_, _vas argenteum_, _vasa Corinthia et
Deliaca_, _vasa Samia_, that is, made of Samian earthenware, _vasa
Murrhina_. [MURRHINA VASA.] The word _vas_ was used in a still wider
signification, and was applied to any kind of utensil used in the
kitchen, agriculture, &c. The utensils of the soldiers were called
_vasa_, and hence _vasa colligere_ and _vasa conclamare_ signify to
pack up the baggage, to give the signal for departure.

VECTĪGĀLĬA, the general term for all the regular revenues of the
Roman state. It means anything which is brought (_vehitur_) into the
public treasury, like the Greek φόρος. The earliest regular income
of the state was in all probability the rent paid for the use of
the public land and pastures. This revenue was called _pascua_, a
name which was used as late as the time of Pliny, in the tables
or registers of the censors for all the revenues of the state in
general. The senate was the supreme authority in all matters of
finance, but as the state did not occupy itself with collecting
the taxes, duties, and tributes, the censors were entrusted with
the actual business. These officers, who in this respect may not
unjustly be compared to modern ministers of finance, used to let the
various branches of the revenue to the publicani for a fixed sum, and
for a certain number of years. [CENSOR; PUBLICANI.] As most of the
branches of the public revenues of Rome are treated of in separate
articles, it is only necessary to give a list of them here, and to
explain those which have not been treated of separately. 1. The
tithes paid to the state by those who occupied the ager publicus.
[DECUMAE; AGER PUBLICUS.] 2. The sums paid by those who kept their
cattle on the public pastures. [SCRIPTURA.] 3. The harbour duties
raised upon imported and exported commodities. [PORTORIUM.] 4. The
revenue derived from the salt-works. [SALINAE.] 5. The revenues
derived from the mines (_metalla_). This branch of the public revenue
cannot have been very productive until the Romans had become masters
of foreign countries. Until that time the mines of Italy appear to
have been worked, but this was forbidden by the senate after the
conquest of foreign lands. The mines of conquered countries were
treated like the salinae. 6. The hundredth part of the value of all
things which were sold (_centesima rerum venalium_). This tax was not
instituted at Rome until the time of the civil wars; the persons who
collected it were called _coactores_. Tiberius reduced this tax to a
two-hundredth (_ducentesima_), and Caligula abolished it for Italy
altogether, whence upon several coins of this emperor we read R. C.
C., that is, _Remissa Ducentesima_. Respecting the tax raised upon
the sale of slaves, see QUINQUAGESIMA. 7. The vicesima hereditatum
et manumissionum. [VICESIMA.] 8. The tribute imposed upon foreign
countries was by far the most important branch of the public revenue
during the time of Rome’s greatness. It was sometimes raised at
once, sometimes paid by instalments, and sometimes changed into a
poll-tax, which was in many cases regulated according to the census.
In regard to Cilicia and Syria we know that this tax amounted to one
per cent. of a person’s census, to which a tax upon houses and slaves
was added. In some cases the tribute was not paid according to the
census, but consisted in a land-tax. 9. A tax upon bachelors. [AES
UXORIUM.] 10. A door-tax. [OSTIARIUM.] 11. The _octavae_. In the
time of Caesar all liberti living in Italy, and possessing property
of 200 sestertia, and above it, had to pay a tax consisting of the
eighth part of their property.--It would be interesting to ascertain
the amount of income which Rome at various periods derived from these
and other sources; but our want of information renders it impossible.
We have only the general statement, that previously to the time of
Pompey the annual revenue amounted to fifty millions of drachmas, and
that it was increased by him to eighty-five millions.

VĒLĀRĬUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM, p. 23.]

VĒLĬTES, the light-armed troops in a Roman army. [EXERCITUS, p. 169.]

VĒLUM (αὐλαία).--(1) A curtain. Curtains were used in private
houses as coverings over doors, or they served in the interior of
the house as substitutes for doors.--(2) _Velum_, and more commonly
its derivative _velamen_, denoted the veil worn by women. That worn
by a bride was specifically called _flammeum_. [MATRIMONIUM.]--(3)
(Ἱστίον.) A sail. [NAVIS, p. 267.]

VĒNĀBŬLUM, a hunting-spear. This may have been distinguished from
the spears used in warfare by being barbed; at least it is often so
formed in ancient works of art. It was seldom, if ever, thrown, but
held so as to slant downwards and to receive the attacks of the wild
boars and other beasts of chace.

VĒNĀTĬO, hunting, was the name given among the Romans to an
exhibition of wild beasts, which fought with one another and with
men. These exhibitions originally formed part of the games of the
circus. Julius Caesar first built a wooden amphitheatre for the
exhibition of wild beasts, and others were subsequently erected;
but we frequently read of venationes in the circus in subsequent
times. The persons who fought with the beasts were either condemned
criminals or captives, or individuals who did so for the sake of
pay, and were trained for the purpose. [BESTIARII.] The Romans were
as passionately fond of this entertainment as of the exhibitions of
gladiators, and during the latter days of the republic, and under
the empire, an immense variety of animals was collected from all
parts of the Roman world for the gratification of the people, and
many thousands were frequently slain at one time. We do not know on
what occasion a venatio was first exhibited at Rome; but the first
mention we find of any thing of the kind is in the year B.C. 251,
when L. Metellus exhibited in the circus 142 elephants, which he had
brought from Sicily after his victory over the Carthaginians. But
this can scarcely be regarded as an instance of a venatio, as it
was understood in later times, since the elephants are said to have
been only killed because the Romans did not know what to do with
them, and not for the amusement of the people. There was, however,
a venatio in the later sense of the word in B.C. 186, in the games
celebrated by M. Fulvius in fulfilment of the vow which he had
made in the Aetolian war; in these games lions and panthers were
exhibited. It is mentioned as a proof of the growing magnificence of
the age that in the ludi circenses, exhibited by the curule aediles
P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus B.C. 168, there were 63
African panthers and 40 bears and elephants. From about this time
combats with wild beasts probably formed a regular part of the ludi
circenses, and many of the curule aediles made great efforts to
obtain rare and curious animals, and put in requisition the services
of their friends. Elephants are said to have first fought in the
circus in the curule aedileship of Claudius Pulcher, B.C. 99; and
twenty years afterwards, in the curule aedileship of the two Luculli,
they fought against bulls. A hundred lions were exhibited by Sulla
in his praetorship, which were destroyed by javelin-men sent by king
Bocchus for the purpose. This was the first time that lions were
allowed to be loose in the circus; they were previously always tied
up. The games, however, in the curule aedileship of Scaurus, B.C. 58,
surpassed anything the Romans had ever seen; among other novelties,
he first exhibited an hippopotamos and five crocodiles in a temporary
canal or trench (_euripus_). At the venatio given by Pompey in his
second consulship, B.C. 55, upon the dedication of the temple of
Venus Victrix, there was an immense number of animals slaughtered,
among which we find mention of 600 lions, and 18 or 20 elephants;
the latter fought with Gaetulians, who hurled darts against them,
and they attempted to break through the railings (_clathri_) by
which they were separated from the spectators. To guard against this
danger Julius Caesar surrounded the arena of the amphitheatre with
trenches (_euripi_). In the games exhibited by J. Caesar in his
third consulship, B.C. 45, the venatio lasted for five days, and was
conducted with extraordinary splendour. Cameleopards or giraffes were
then for the first time seen in Italy. The venationes seem to have
been first confined to the ludi circenses, but during the later times
of the republic, and under the empire, they were frequently exhibited
on the celebration of triumphs, and on many other occasions, with the
view of pleasing the people. The passion for these shows continued
to increase under the empire, and the number of beasts sometimes
slaughtered seems almost incredible. Under the emperors we read of
a particular kind of venatio, in which the beasts were not killed
by bestiarii, but were given up to the people, who were allowed to
rush into the area of the circus and carry away what they pleased.
On such occasions a number of large trees, which had been torn up by
the roots, was planted in the circus, which thus resembled a forest,
and none of the more savage animals were admitted into it. One of the
most extraordinary venationes of this kind was that given by Probus,
in which there were 1000 ostriches, 1000 stags, 1000 boars, 1000
deer, and numbers of wild goats, wild sheep, and other animals of the
same kind. The more savage animals were slain by the bestiarii in
the amphitheatre, and not in the circus. Thus, in the day succeeding
the venatio of Probus just mentioned, there were slain in the
amphitheatre 100 lions and 100 lionesses, 100 Libyan and 100 Syrian
leopards, and 300 bears.

[Illustration: Venationes. (From Bas-reliefs on the Tomb of Scaurus
at Pompeii.)]

VĔNĒFĬCĬUM, the crime of poisoning, is frequently mentioned in Roman
history. Women were most addicted to it: but it seems not improbable
that this charge was frequently brought against females without
sufficient evidence of their guilt, like that of witchcraft in Europe
in the middle ages. We find females condemned to death for this crime
in seasons of pestilence, when the people are always in an excited
state of mind, and ready to attribute the calamities under which they
suffer to the arts of evil-disposed persons. Thus the Athenians,
when the pestilence raged in their city during the Peloponnesian
war, supposed the wells to have been poisoned by the Peloponnesians,
and similar instances occur in the history of almost all states.
Still, however, the crime of poisoning seems to have been much more
frequent in ancient than in modern times; and this circumstance
would lead persons to suspect it in cases when there was no real
ground for the suspicion. At Athens the PHARMACON GRAPHE was brought
against poisoners. At Rome the first legislative enactment especially
directed against poisoning was a law of the dictator Sulla--Lex
Cornelia de Sicariis et Veneficis--passed in B.C. 82, which continued
in force, with some alterations, to the latest times. It contained
provisions against all who made, bought, sold, possessed, or gave
poison for the purpose of poisoning. The punishment fixed by this law
was the interdictio aquae et ignis.

VER SACRUM (ἔτος ἱερόν). It was a custom among the early Italian
nations, especially among the Sabines, in times of great danger and
distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of everything born in the
next spring, that is, between the first of March and the last day
of April, if the calamity under which they were labouring should be
removed. This sacrifice in the early times comprehended both men and
domestic animals, and there is little doubt that in many cases the
vow was really carried into effect. But in later times it was thought
cruel to sacrifice so many infants, and accordingly the following
expedient was adopted. The children were allowed to grow up, and in
the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year they were with
covered faces driven across the frontier of their native country,
whereupon they went whithersoever fortune or the deity might lead
them. Many a colony had been founded by persons driven out in this
manner; and the Mamertines in Sicily were the descendants of such
devoted persons. In the two historical instances in which the Romans
vowed a ver sacrum, that is, after the battle of lake Trasimenus
and at the close of the second Punic war, the vow was confined to
domestic animals.

VERBĒNA. [SAGMINA.]

VERBĒNĀRĬUS. [FETIALIS.]

VERNA. [SERVUS.]

VERSŪRA. [FENUS.]

VĔRU, VERŪTUM. [HASTA.]

VESPAE, VESPILLŌNES. [FUNUS, p. 188.]

VESTĀLES, the virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her
temple and watched the eternal fire. Their existence at Alba Longa is
connected with the earliest Roman traditions, for Silvia the mother
of Romulus was a member of the sisterhood; their establishment in
the city, in common with almost all other matters connected with
state religion, is generally ascribed to Numa, who selected four,
two from the Titienses and two from the Ramnes; and two more were
subsequently added from the Luceres, by Tarquinius Priscus according
to one authority, by Servius Tullius according to another. This
number of six remained unchanged to the latest times. They were
originally chosen (_capere_ is the technical word) by the king,
and during the republic and empire by the pontifex maximus. It was
necessary that the maiden should not be under six nor above ten
years of age, perfect in all her limbs, in the full enjoyment of
all her senses, patrima et matrima [PATRIMI], the daughter of free
and freeborn parents who had never been in slavery, who followed
no dishonourable occupation, and whose home was in Italy. The Lex
Papia ordained that when a vacancy occurred the pontifex maximus
should name at his discretion twenty qualified damsels, one of whom
was publicly (_in concione_) fixed upon by lot, an exemption being
granted in favour of such as had a sister already a vestal, and of
the daughters of certain priests of a high class. The above law
appears to have been enacted in consequence of the unwillingness of
fathers to resign all control over a child, and this reluctance was
manifested so strongly in later times, that in the age of Augustus
_libertinae_ were declared eligible. The casting of lots moreover
does not seem to have been practised if any respectable person
came forward voluntarily, and offered a daughter who fulfilled the
necessary conditions. As soon as the election was concluded, the
pontifex maximus took the girl by the hand and addressed her in a
solemn form. After this was pronounced she was led away to the atrium
of Vesta, and lived thenceforward within the sacred precincts, under
the special superintendence and control of the pontifical college.
The period of service lasted for thirty years. During the first ten
the priestess was engaged in learning her mysterious duties, being
termed _discipula_, during the next ten in performing them, during
the last ten in giving instructions to the novices, and so long as
she was thus employed she was bound by a solemn vow of chastity. But
after the time specified was completed, she might, if she thought
fit, throw off the emblems of her office, unconsecrate herself
(_exaugurare_), return to the world, and even enter into the marriage
state. Few however availed themselves of these privileges; those who
did were said to have lived in sorrow and remorse (as might indeed
have been expected from the habits they had formed); hence such a
proceeding was considered ominous, and the priestesses for the most
part died, as they had lived, in the service of the goddess. The
senior sister was entitled _Vestalis Maxima_, or _Virgo Maxima_,
and we find also the expressions _Vestalium vetustissima_ and _tres
maximae_. Their chief office was to watch by turns, night and day,
the everlasting fire which blazed upon the altar of Vesta, its
extinction being considered as the most fearful of all prodigies, and
emblematic of the extinction of the state. If such misfortune befell,
and was caused by the carelessness of the priestess on duty, she
was stripped and scourged by the pontifex maximus, in the dark and
with a screen interposed, and he rekindled the flame by the friction
of two pieces of wood from a _felix arbor_. Their other ordinary
duties consisted in presenting offerings to the goddess at stated
times, and in sprinkling and purifying the shrine each morning with
water, which according to the institution of Numa was to be drawn
from the Egerian fount, although in later times it was considered
lawful to employ any water from a living spring or running stream,
but not such as had passed through pipes. When used for sacrificial
purposes it was mixed with _muries_, that is, salt which had been
pounded in a mortar, thrown into an earthen jar, and baked in an
oven. They assisted moreover at all great public holy rites, such as
the festivals of the Bona Dea, and the consecration of temples; they
were invited to priestly banquets, and we are told that they were
present at the solemn appeal to the gods made by Cicero during the
conspiracy of Catiline. They also guarded the sacred relics which
formed the _fatale pignus imperii_, the pledge granted by fate for
the permanency of the Roman sway, deposited in the inmost adytum,
which no one was permitted to enter save the virgins and the chief
pontifex. What this object was no one knew; some supposed that it was
the palladium, others the Samothracian gods carried by Dardanus to
Troy, and transported from thence to Italy by Aeneas, but all agreed
in believing that something of awful sanctity was here preserved,
contained, it was said, in a small earthen jar closely sealed, while
another exactly similar in form, but empty, stood by its side. We
have seen above that supreme importance was attached to the purity of
the vestals, and a terrible punishment awaited her who violated the
vow of chastity. According to the law of Numa, she was simply to be
stoned to death, but a more cruel torture was devised by Tarquinius
Priscus, and inflicted from that time forward. When condemned by
the college of pontifices, she was stripped of her vittae and other
badges of office, was scourged, was attired like a corpse, placed in
a close litter and borne through the forum attended by her weeping
kindred, with all the ceremonies of a real funeral, to a rising
ground called the _Campus Sceleratus_, just within the city walls,
close to the Colline gate. There a small vault underground had been
previously prepared, containing a couch, a lamp, and a table with
a little food. The pontifex maximus, having lifted up his hands to
heaven and uttered a secret prayer, opened the litter, led forth
the culprit, and placing her on the steps of the ladder which gave
access to the subterranean cell, delivered her over to the common
executioner and his assistants, who conducted her down, drew up the
ladder, and having filled the pit with earth until the surface was
level with the surrounding ground, left her to perish deprived of all
the tributes of respect usually paid to the spirits of the departed.
In every case the paramour was publicly scourged to death in the
forum. The honours which the vestals enjoyed were such as in a great
measure to compensate for their privations. They were maintained at
the public cost, and from sums of money and land bequeathed from time
to time to the corporation. From the moment of their consecration
they became as it were the property of the goddess alone, and were
completely released from all parental sway, without going through
the form of _emancipatio_ or suffering any _capitis deminutio_.
They had a right to make a will, and to give evidence in a court of
justice without taking an oath. From the time of the triumviri each
was preceded by a lictor when she went abroad; consuls and praetors
made way for them, and lowered their fasces; even the tribunes of
the plebs respected their holy character, and if any one passed
under their litter he was put to death. Augustus granted to them all
the rights of matrons who had borne three children, and assigned
them a conspicuous place in the theatre, a privilege which they had
enjoyed before at the gladiatorial shows. Great weight was attached
to their intercession on behalf of those in danger and difficulty,
of which we have a remarkable example in the entreaties which they
addressed to Sulla on behalf of Julius Caesar, and if they chanced
to meet a criminal as he was led to punishment, they had a right to
demand his release, provided it could be proved that the encounter
was accidental. Wills, even those of the emperors, were committed
to their charge, for when in such keeping they were considered
inviolable; and in like manner very solemn treaties, such as that
of the triumvirs with Sextus Pompeius, were placed in their hands.
That they might be honoured in death as in life, their ashes were
interred within the pomoerium. They were attired in a stola over
which was an upper vestment made of linen, and in addition to the
infula and white woollen vitta, they wore when sacrificing a peculiar
head-dress called _suffibulum_, consisting of a piece of white cloth
bordered with purple, oblong in shape, and secured by a clasp. In
dress and general deportment they were required to observe the utmost
simplicity and decorum, any fanciful ornaments in the one or levity
in the other being always regarded with disgust and suspicion. Their
hair was cut off, probably at the period of their consecration:
whether this was repeated from time to time does not appear, but
they are never represented with flowing locks. The following cut
represents the vestal Tuccia who, when wrongfully accused, appealed
to the goddess to vindicate her honour, and had power given to her to
carry a sieve full of water from the Tiber to the temple. The form of
the upper garment is well shown.

[Illustration: Vestal Virgin. (From a Gem.)]

VESTĬBŬLUM. [DOMUS, p. 142, a.]

VĔTĔRĀNUS. [TIRO.]

VEXILLĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 170, b.]

VEXILLUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.]

VIA, a public road. It was not until the period of the long
protracted Samnite wars that the necessity was felt of securing a
safe communication between the city and the legions, and then for
the first time we hear of those famous paved roads, which, in after
ages, connected Rome with her most distant provinces, constituting
the most lasting of all her works. The excellence of the principles
upon which they were constructed is sufficiently attested by their
extraordinary durability, many specimens being found in the country
around Rome which have been used without being repaired for more than
a thousand years. The Romans are said to have adopted their first
ideas upon this subject from the Carthaginians, and it is extremely
probable that the latter people may, from their commercial activity
and the sandy nature of their soil, have been compelled to turn
their attention to the best means of facilitating the conveyance of
merchandise to different parts of their territory. The first great
public road made by the Romans was the Via Appia, which extended in
the first instance from Rome to Capua, and was made in the censorship
of Appius Claudius Caecus (B.C. 312.) The general construction of a
Roman road was as follows:--In the first place, two shallow trenches
(_sulci_) were dug parallel to each other, marking the breadth of
the proposed road; this in the great lines is found to have been
from 13 to 15 feet. The loose earth between the _sulci_ was then
removed, and the excavation continued until a solid foundation
(_gremium_) was reached, upon which the materials of the road might
firmly rest; if this could not be attained, in consequence of the
swampy nature of the ground or from any peculiarity in the soil, a
basis was formed artificially by driving piles (_fistucationibus_).
Above the _gremium_ were four distinct strata. The lowest course
was the _statumen_, consisting of stones not smaller than the hand
could just grasp; above the statumen was the _rudus_, a mass of
broken stones cemented with lime, (what masons call _rubble-work_,)
rammed down hard, and nine inches thick; above the rudus came the
_nucleus_, composed of fragments of bricks and pottery, the pieces
being smaller than in the rudus, cemented with lime, and six inches
thick. Uppermost was the _pavimentum_, large polygonal blocks of the
hardest stone (_silex_), usually, at least in the vicinity of Rome,
basaltic lava, irregular in form, but fitted and jointed with the
greatest nicety, so as to present a perfectly even surface, as free
from gaps or irregularities as if the whole had been one solid mass.
The general aspect will be understood from the cut given below.

[Illustration: Street at the entrance of Pompeii.]

The centre of the way was a little elevated, so as to permit
the water to run off easily. Occasionally, at least in cities,
rectangular slabs of softer stone were employed instead of the
irregular polygons of silex, and hence the distinction between the
phrases _silice sternere_ and _saxo quadrato sternere_. Nor was
this all. Regular foot-paths (_margines_, _crepidines_, _umbones_)
were raised upon each side and strewed with gravel, the different
parts were strengthened and bound together with _gomphi_ or stone
wedges, and stone blocks were set up at moderate intervals on the
side of the foot-paths, in order that travellers on horseback might
be able to mount without assistance. Finally, Caius Gracchus
erected mile-stones along the whole extent of the great highways,
marking the distances from Rome, which appear to have been counted
from the gate at which each road issued forth, and Augustus, when
appointed inspector of the viae around the city, erected in the
forum a gilded column (_milliarium aureum_), on which were inscribed
the distances of the principal points to which the viae conducted.
During the earlier ages of the republic the construction and general
superintendence of the roads without, and the streets within the
city, were committed like all other important works to the censors.
These duties, when no censors were in office, devolved upon the
consuls, and in their absence on the praetor urbanus, the aediles, or
such persons as the senate thought fit to appoint. There were also
under the republic four officers, called _quatuorviri viarum_, for
superintending the streets within the city, and two called _curatores
viarum_, for superintending the roads without. Under the empire the
_curatores viarum_ were officers of high rank. The chief roads which
issued from Rome are:--1. The VIA APPIA, the _Great South Road_.
It issued from the _Porta Capena_, and passing through _Aricia_,
_Tres Tabernae_, _Appii Forum_, _Tarracina_, _Fundi_, _Formiae_,
_Minturnae_, _Sinuessa_, and _Carilinum_, terminated at _Capua_,
but was eventually extended through _Calatia_ and _Caudium_ to
_Beneventum_, and finally from thence through _Venusia_, _Tarentum_,
and _Uria_, to _Brundusium_.--2. The VIA LATINA, from the _Porta
Capena_, another great line leading to Beneventum, but keeping a
course farther inland than the Via Appia. Soon after leaving the city
it sent off a short branch (VIA TUSCULANA) to _Tusculum_, and passing
through _Compitum Anaginum_, _Ferentinum_, _Frusino_, _Fregellae_,
_Fabrateria_, _Aquinum_, _Casinum_, _Venafrum_, _Teanum_, _Allifae_,
and _Telesia_, joined the _Via Appia_ at _Beneventum_. A cross-road
called the VIA HADRIANA, running from _Minturnae_ through _Suessa
Aurunca_ to _Teanum_, connected the _Via Appia_ with the _Via
Latina_.--3. From the _Porta Esquilina_ issued the VIA LABICANA,
which passing Labicum fell into the _Via Latina_ at the station _ad
Bivium_, 30 miles from Rome.--4. The VIA PRAENESTINA, originally
the VIA GABINA, issued from the same gate with the former. Passing
through _Gabii_ and _Praeneste_, it joined the _Via Latina_ just
below _Anagnia_.--5. The VIA TIBURTINA, which issued from the _Porta
Tiburtina_, and proceeding N. E. to _Tibur_, a distance of about
20 miles, was continued from thence, in the same direction, under
the name of the VIA VALERIA, and traversing the country of the
Sabines passed through _Carseoli_ and _Corfinium_ to _Aternum_ on
the Adriatic, thence to _Adria_, and so along the coast to _Castrum
Truentinum_, where it fell into the _Via Salaria_.--6. The VIA
NOMENTANA, anciently FICULNENSIS, ran from the _Porta Collina_,
crossed the _Anio_ to _Nomentum_, and a little beyond fell into the
_Via Salaria_ at _Eretum_.--7. The VIA SALARIA, also from the _Porta
Collina_ (passing _Fidenae_ and _Crustumerium_) ran north and east
through Sabinum and Picenum to _Reate_ and _Asculum Picenum_. At
_Castrum Truentinum_ it reached the coast, which it followed until
it joined the _Via Flaminia_ at _Ancona_.--8. The VIA FLAMINIA, the
_Great North Road_, carried ultimately to _Ariminum_. It issued from
the _Porta Flaminia_, and proceeded nearly north to _Ocriculum_ and
_Narnia_ in Umbria. Here a branch struck off, making a sweep to
the east through _Interamna_ and _Spoletium_, and fell again into
the main trunk (which passed through _Mevania_) at _Fulginia_. It
continued through _Fanum Flaminii_ and _Nuceria_, where it again
divided, one line running nearly straight to _Fanum Fortunae_ on
the Adriatic, while the other diverging to _Ancona_ continued from
thence along the coast to _Fanum Fortunae_, where the two branches
uniting passed on to _Ariminum_ through _Pisaurum_. From thence the
_Via Flaminia_ was extended under the name of the VIA AEMILIA, and
traversed the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through _Bononia_, _Mutina_,
_Parma_, _Placentia_ (where it crossed the Po), to _Mediolanum_.--9.
The VIA AURELIA, the _Great Coast Road_, issued originally from the
_Porta Janiculensis_, and subsequently from the _Porta Aurelia_. It
reached the coast at _Alsium_, and followed the shore of the lower
sea along Etruria and Liguria by _Genoa_ as far as _Forum Julii_ in
Gaul. In the first instance it extended no farther than _Pisa_.--10.
The VIA PORTUENSIS kept the right bank of the Tiber to _Portus
Augusti_.--11. The VIA OSTIENSIS originally passed through the _Porta
Trigemina_, afterwards through the _Porta Ostiensis_, and kept the
left bank of the Tiber to _Ostia_. From thence it was continued
under the name of VIA SEVERIANA along the coast southward through
_Laurentum_, _Antium_, and _Circaei_, till it joined the _Via Appia_
at _Tarracina_. The VIA LAURENTINA, leading direct to _Laurentum_,
seems to have branched off from the _Via Ostiensis_ at a short
distance from Rome.--12. The VIA ARDEATINA from Rome to _Ardea_.
According to some this branched off from the _Via Appia_, and thus
the circuit of the city is completed.

VĬĀTĬCUM is, properly speaking, everything necessary for a person
setting out on a journey, and thus comprehends money, provisions,
dresses, vessels, &c. When a Roman magistrate, praetor, proconsul,
or quaestor went to his province, the state provided him with all
that was necessary for his journey. But as the state in this, as
in most other cases of expenditure, preferred paying a sum at once
to having any part in the actual business, it engaged contractors
(_redemptores_), who for a stipulated sum had to provide the
magistrates with the viaticum, the principal parts of which appear
to have been beasts of burden and tents (_muli et tabernacula_).
Augustus introduced some modification of this system, as he once
for all fixed a certain sum to be given to the proconsuls (probably
to other provincial magistrates also) on setting out for their
provinces, so that the redemptores had no more to do with it.

VĬĀTOR, a servant who attended upon and executed the commands of
certain Roman magistrates, to whom he bore the same relation as the
lictor did to other magistrates. The name _viatores_ was derived
from the circumstance of their being chiefly employed on messages
either to call upon senators to attend the meeting of the senate,
or to summon people to the comitia, &c. In the earlier times of the
republic we find viatores as ministers of such magistrates also
as had their lictors: viatores of a dictator and of the consuls
are mentioned by Livy. In later times, however, viatores are only
mentioned with such magistrates as had only potestas and not
imperium, such as the tribunes of the people, the censors, and the
aediles.

VICTIMA. [SACRIFICIUM.]

VĪCĒSĬMA, a tax of five per cent. Every Roman, when he manumitted a
slave, had to pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his value,
whence the tax was called _vicesima manumissionis_. This tax was
first imposed by the Lex Manlia (B.C. 357), and was not abolished
when all other imposts were done away with in Rome and Italy. A
tax called _vicesima hereditatum et legatorum_ was introduced by
Augustus (_Lex Julia Vicesimaria_): it consisted of five per cent.,
which every Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium militare, upon
any inheritance or legacy left to him, with the exception of such
as were left to a citizen by his nearest relatives, and such as did
not amount to above a certain sum. It was levied in Italy and the
provinces by procuratores appointed for the purpose.

VĪCOMĂGISTRI. [VICUS.]

VĪCUS, the name of the subdivisions into which the four regions
occupied by the four city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided,
while the country regions, according to an institution ascribed to
Numa, were subdivided into pagi. This division, together with that of
the four regions of the four city tribes, remained down to the time
of Augustus, who made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen regions
into which he divided the city. In this division each vicus consisted
of one main street, including several smaller by-streets; their
number was 424, and each was superintended by four officers, called
_vico-magistri_, who had a sort of local police, and who, according
to the regulation of Augustus, were every year chosen by lot from
among the people who lived in the vicus. On certain days, probably at
the celebration of the compitalia, they wore the praetexta, and each
of them was accompanied by two lictors. These officers, however, were
not a new institution of Augustus, for they had existed during the
time of the republic, and had had the same functions as a police for
the vici of the Servian division of the city.

VICTŌRĬĀTUS. [DENARIUS.]

VĬGĬLES. [EXERCITUS, p. 171.]

VĬGĬLĬAE. [CASTRA.]

VĪGINTĬSEXVĬRI, twenty-six magistratus minores, among whom were
included the Triumviri Capitales, the Triumviri Monetales, the
Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum for the city, the two Curatores Viarum
for the roads outside the city, the Decemviri Litibus (_stlitibus_)
Judicandis, and the four praefects who were sent into Campania for
the purpose of administering justice there. Augustus reduced the
number of officers of this college to twenty (_vigintiviri_), as the
two curatores viarum for the roads outside the city and the four
Campanian praefects were abolished. Down to the time of Augustus the
sons of senators had generally sought and obtained a place in the
college of the vigintisexviri, it being the first step towards the
higher offices of the republic; but in A.D. 13 a senatusconsultum
was passed, ordaining that only equites should be eligible to the
college of the vigintiviri. The consequence of this was that the
vigintiviri had no seats in the senate, unless they had held some
other magistracy which conferred this right upon them. The age at
which a person might become a vigintivir appears to have been twenty.

VĪGINTĬVĬRI. [VIGINTISEXVIRI.]

VILLA, a farm or country-house. The Roman writers mention two kinds
of villa, the _villa rustica_ or farm-house, and the _villa urbana_
or _pseudo-urbana_, a residence in the country or in the suburbs of
a town. When both of these were attached to an estate they were
generally united in the same range of buildings, but sometimes
they were placed at different parts of the estate. The interior
arrangements of the _villa urbana_ corresponded for the most part to
those of a town-house. [DOMUS.]

VILLĬCUS, a slave who had the superintendence of the _villa rustica_,
and of all the business of the farm, except the cattle, which were
under the care of the _magister pecoris_. The word was also used
to describe a person to whom the management of any business was
entrusted.

VĪNĀLĬA. There were two festivals of this name celebrated by the
Romans: the _Vinalia urbana_ or _priora_, and the _Vinalia rustica_
or _altera_. The vinalia urbana were celebrated on the 23rd of April,
when the wine-casks which had been filled the preceding autumn
were opened for the first time, and the wine tasted. The rustic
vinalia, which fell on the 19th of August, and was celebrated by
the inhabitants of all Latium, was the day on which the vintage was
opened. On this occasion the flamen dialis offered lambs to Jupiter,
and while the flesh of the victims lay on the altar, he broke with
his own hands a bunch of grapes from a vine, and by this act he, as
it were, opened the vintage, and no must was allowed to be conveyed
into the city until this solemnity was performed. This day was sacred
to Jupiter, and Venus too appears to have had a share in it.

VINDĒMĬĀLIS FĒRĬA. [FERIAE.]

VINDEX. [ACTIO.]

VINDICTA. [MANUMISSIO.]

VĪNĔA, in its literal signification, is a bower formed of the
branches of vines; and, from the protection which such a leafy roof
affords, the name was applied by the Romans to a roof under which the
besiegers of a town protected themselves against darts, stones, fire,
and the like, which were thrown by the besieged upon the assailants.
The whole machine formed a roof, resting upon posts eight feet in
height. The roof itself was generally sixteen feet long and seven
broad. The wooden frame was in most cases light, so that it could be
carried by the soldiers; sometimes, however, when the purpose which
it was to serve required great strength, it was heavy, and then the
whole fabric probably was moved by wheels attached to the posts.
The roof was formed of planks and wicker-work, and the uppermost
layer or layers consisted of raw hides or wet cloth, as a protection
against fire, by which the besieged frequently destroyed the vineae.
The sides of a vinea were likewise protected by wicker-work. Such
machines were constructed in a safe place at some distance from
the besieged town, and then carried or wheeled (_agere_) close to
its walls. Here several of them were frequently joined together, so
that a great number of soldiers might be employed under them. When
vineae had taken their place close to the walls, the soldiers began
their operations, either by undermining the walls, and thus opening a
breach, or by employing the battering-ram (_aries_).

VĪNUM (οἴνος). The general term for the fermented juice of the grape.
In the Homeric poems the cultivation of the grape is represented as
familiar to the Greeks. It is worth remarking that the only wine upon
whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone approaching to hyperbole
is represented as having been produced on the coast of Thrace, the
region from which poetry and civilisation spread into Hellas, and the
scene of several of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus. Hence we
might infer that the Pelasgians introduced the culture of the vine
when they wandered westward across the Hellespont, and that in like
manner it was conveyed to the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent
period they made their way round the head of the Adriatic. It seems
certain that wine was both rare and costly in the earlier ages of
Roman history. As late as the time of the Samnite wars, Papirius
the dictator, when about to join in battle with the Samnites, vowed
to Jupiter only a small cupful (_vini pocillum_) if he should gain
the victory. In the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines were
considered far superior to native growths; but the rapidity with
which luxury spread in this matter is well illustrated by the saying
of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a boy never saw an entertainment
in his father’s house, however splendid, at which Greek wine was
handed round more than once, but when in manhood he returned from his
Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the people a largess of more than
a hundred thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine are said to
have been presented for the first time at the feast given by Julius
Caesar in his third consulship (B.C. 46.), these being Falernian,
Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, and not until after this date were the
merits of the numerous varieties, foreign and domestic, accurately
known and fully appreciated. But during the reign of Augustus and
his immediate successors the study of wines became a passion, and
the most scrupulous care was bestowed upon every process connected
with their production and preservation. Pliny calculates that the
number of wines in the whole world deserving to be accounted of high
quality (_nobilia_) amounted to eighty, of which his own country
could claim two-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds might be reckoned
up, and that if all the varieties of these were to be included in the
computation, the sum would be almost doubled.--The process followed
in wine-making was essentially the same among both the Greeks and the
Romans. After the grapes had been gathered they were first trodden
with the feet in a vat (ληνός, _torcular_); but as this process did
not press out all the juice of the grapes, they were subjected to
the more powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam (_prelum_) for
the purpose of obtaining all the juice yet remaining in them. From
the press the sweet unfermented juice flowed into another large vat,
which was sunk below the level of the press, and therefore called the
_under wine-vat_, in Greek ὑπολήνιον, in Latin _lacus_. A portion
of the must was used at once, being drunk fresh after it had been
clarified with vinegar. When it was desired to preserve a quantity in
the sweet state, an amphora was taken and coated with pitch within
and without, and corked so as to be perfectly air-tight. It was then
immersed in a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet sand, and
allowed to remain for six weeks or two months. The contents after
this process were found to remain unchanged for a year, and hence the
name ἀεὶ γλεῦκος, _i.e._ _semper mustum_. A considerable quantity of
must from the best and oldest vines was inspissated by boiling, being
then distinguished by the Greeks under the general names of ἕψημα or
γλύξις, while the Latin writers have various terms according to the
extent to which the evaporation was carried. Thus, when the must was
reduced to two-thirds of its original volume it became _carenum_,
when one-half had evaporated _defrutum_, when two-thirds _sapa_
(known also by the Greek names _siraeum_ and _hepsema_), but these
words are frequently interchanged. Similar preparations are at the
present time called in Italy _musto cotto_ and _sapa_, and in France
_sabe_. The process was carried on in large caldrons of lead (_vasa
defrutaria_), over a slow fire of chips, on a night when there was no
moon, the scum being carefully removed with leaves, and the liquid
constantly stirred to prevent it from burning. These grape-jellies,
for they were nothing else, were used extensively for giving body to
poor wines and making them keep, and entered as ingredients into many
drinks, such as the _burranica potio_, so called from its red colour,
which was formed by mixing _sapa_ with milk. The whole of the mustum
not employed for some of the above purposes was conveyed from the
_lacus_ to the _cella vinaria_, an apartment on the ground-floor or
a little below the surface. Here were the _dolia_ (πίθοι), otherwise
called _seriae_ or _cupae_, long bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware,
very carefully formed of the best clay, and lined with a coating of
pitch. They were usually sunk (_depressa_, _defossa_, _demersa_)
one-half or two-thirds in the ground; to the former depth, if the
wine to be contained was likely to prove strong, to the latter if
weak. In these _dolia_ the process of fermentation took place, which
usually lasted for about nine days, and as soon as it had subsided,
and the _mustum_ had become _vinum_, the dolia were closely covered.
The lids (_opercula doliorum_), were taken off about once every
thirty-six days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to cool and
give air to the contents, to add any preparation required to preserve
them sound, and to remove any impurities that might be thrown up.
The commoner sorts of wine were drunk direct from the dolium, and
hence draught wine was called _vinum doliare_ or _vinum de cupa_,
but the finer kinds were drawn off (_diffundere_, μεταγγίζειν), into
_amphorae_. On the outside the title of the wine was painted, the
date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in
office. [AMPHORA.] The amphorae were then stored up in repositories
(_apothecae_, _horrea_, _tabulata_), completely distinct from the
_cella vinaria_, and usually placed in the upper story of the house
(whence _descende_, _testa_, and _deripere horreo_ in Horace), for a
reason explained afterwards. It is manifest that wine prepared and
bottled in the manner described above must have contained a great
quantity of dregs and sediment, and it became absolutely necessary
to separate these before it was drunk. This was sometimes effected
by fining with yolks of eggs, those of pigeons being considered most
appropriate by the fastidious, but more commonly by simply straining
through small cup-like utensils of silver or bronze perforated with
numerous small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth (σάκκος,
_saccus_) was placed over the _colum_, and the wine filtered through.
[COLUM.] In all the best wines hitherto described the grapes are
supposed to have been gathered as soon as they were fully ripe, and
fermentation to have run its full course. But a great variety of
sweet wines were manufactured by checking the fermentation, or by
partially drying the grapes, or by converting them completely into
raisins. _Passum_ or _raisin-wine_ was made from grapes dried in
the sun until they had lost half their weight, or they were plunged
into boiling oil, which produced a similar effect, or the bunches
after they were ripe were allowed to hang for some weeks upon the
vine, the stalks being twisted or an incision made into the pith
of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop to vegetation. The stalks
and stones were removed, the raisins were steeped in must or good
wine, and then trodden or subjected to the gentle action of the
press. The quantity of juice which flowed forth was measured, and an
equal quantity of water added to the pulpy residuum, which was again
pressed, and the product employed for an inferior _passum_ called
_secundarium_. The passum of Crete was most prized, and next in rank
were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the neighbouring provinces.
The kinds known as _Psythium_ and _Melampsythium_ possessed the
peculiar flavour of the grape and not that of wine. The grapes most
suitable for passum were those which ripened early, especially
the varieties _Apiana_, _Scirpula_, and _Psithia_. The Greeks
recognised three colours in wines: _red_ (μέλας), _white_, i.e. pale
straw-colour (λευκός), and brown or amber-coloured (κιῤῥός). The
Romans distinguish four: _albus_, answering to λευκός, _fulvus_ to
κιῤῥός, while μέλας is subdivided into _sanguineus_ and _niger_, the
former being doubtless applied to bright glowing wines like Tent
and Burgundy, while the _niger_ or _ater_ would resemble Port. We
have seen that wine intended for keeping was racked off from the
dolia into amphorae. When it was necessary in the first instance to
transport it from one place to another, or when carried by travellers
on a journey, it was contained in bags made of goat-skin (ἀσκοί,
_utres_) well pitched over so as to make the seams perfectly tight.

[Illustration: Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico.
vol. iii. tav. 28.)]

As the process of wine-making among the ancients was for the most
part conducted in an unscientific manner, it was found necessary,
except in the case of the finest varieties, to have recourse to
various devices for preventing or correcting acidity, heightening the
flavour, and increasing the durability of the second growths. The
object in view was accomplished sometimes by merely mixing different
kinds of wine together, but more frequently by throwing into the
dolia or amphorae various condiments or seasonings (ἀρτύσεις,
_medicamina_, _conditurae_). The principal substances employed as
_conditurae_ were, 1. sea-water; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in
the form of pitch (_pix_), tar (_pix liquida_), or resin (_resina_).
3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, burnt marble, or calcined shells.
4. Inspissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, and gums; and these
were used either singly, or cooked up into a great variety of
complicated confections. But not only were spices and gums steeped
in wine or incorporated during fermentation, but even the precious
perfumed essential oils (_unguenta_) were mixed with it before it was
drunk (μυῤῥίνη, _murrhina_.) Of these compound beverages the most
popular was the _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) of the Greeks, the _mulsum_
of the Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one honey was mixed
with wine, in the other with must. The former was said to have been
invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus, the first cultivator
of bees, and was considered most perfect and palatable when made
of some old rough (_austerum_) wine, such as Massic or Falernian
(although Horace objects to the latter for this purpose), and new
Attic honey. The proportions were four, by measure, of wine to one
of honey, and various spices and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia,
costum, malobathrum, nard, and pepper, might be added. The second
kind was made of must evaporated to one half of its original bulk,
Attic honey being added in the proportion of one to ten. This,
therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, in no way allied to
wine. _Mulsum_ was considered the most appropriate draught upon an
empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed immediately before the
regular business of a repast began and hence the whet (_gustatio_)
coming before the cup of mulsum was called the _promulsis_. _Mulsum_
was given at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers. _Mulsum_
(sc. _vinum_) or _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) is perfectly distinct from
_mulsa_ (sc. _aqua_). The latter, or _mead_, being made of honey
and water mixed and fermented, is the _melicraton_ (μελίκρατον) or
_hydromeli_ (ὑδρόμελι) of the Greeks. The ancients considered old
wine not only more grateful to the palate, but also more wholesome
and invigorating. Generally speaking the Greek wines do not seem to
have required a long time to ripen. Nestor in the Odyssey, indeed,
drinks wine ten years old; but the connoisseurs under the empire
pronounced that all transmarine wines arrived at a moderate degree
of maturity in six or seven. Many of the Italian varieties, however,
required to be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before they were
drinkable (which is now considered ample for our strongest ports),
and even the humble growths of Sabinum were stored up for from four
to fifteen. Hence it became a matter of importance to hasten, if
possible, the natural process. This was attempted in various ways,
sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels
containing the must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness
was induced (_praecox vetustas_) and the wine in consequence termed
_thalassites_; but more usually by the application of heat. Thus
it was customary to expose the amphorae for some years to the
full fervour of the sun’s rays, or to construct the _apothecae_
in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot air and smoke of
the bath-furnaces, and hence the name _fumaria_ applied to such
apartments, and the phrases _fumosos_, _fumum bibere_, _fuligine
testae_, in reference to the wines. If the operation was not
conducted with care, and the amphorae not stoppered down perfectly
tight, a disagreeable effect would be produced on the contents. In
Italy, in the first century of the Christian aera, the lowest market
price of the most ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for
40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, or 6_d._ a gallon
nearly. At a much earlier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during
the first Punic war (B.C. 250), wine was sold at the rate of 8 asses
the amphora. The price of native wine at Athens was four drachmas
for the metretes, that is, about 4½_d._ the gallon, when necessaries
were dear, and we may perhaps assume one half of this sum as the
average of cheaper times. On the other hand, high prices were given
freely for the varieties held in esteem, since as early as the time
of Socrates a metretes of Chian sold for a mina.--With respect to
the way in which wine was drunk, and the customs observed by the
Greeks and Romans at their drinking entertainments, the reader is
referred to the article SYMPOSIUM.--The wine of most early celebrity
was that which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who dwelt upon the
skirts of Thracian Ismarus, gave to Ulysses. It was red (ἐρυθρόν),
and honey-sweet (μελιηδέα), so precious, that it was unknown to
all in the mansion save the wife of the priest and one trusty
house-keeper; so strong, that a single cup was mingled with twenty
of water; so fragrant, that even when thus diluted it diffused a
divine and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions also more than once
_Pramnian wine_ (οἴνος Πραμνεῖος), an epithet which is variously
interpreted by different writers. In after times a wine bearing the
same name was produced in the island of Icaria, around the hill
village of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the neighbourhood
of Smyrna, near the shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines
of greatest renown at a later period were grown in the islands of
Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots on the
opposite coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge
which separates the valley of the Hermus from that of the Caÿster,
Mount Messogis, which divides the tributaries of the Caÿster from
those of the Meander, the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene,
which still retains its fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus,
of Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these the first place seems to
have been by general consent conceded to the _Chian_, of which the
most delicious varieties were brought from the heights of Ariusium in
the central parts, and from the promontory of Phanae at the southern
extremity of the island. The _Thasian_ and _Lesbian_ occupied the
second place, and the _Coan_ disputed the palm with them. In Lesbos
the most highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene and Methymna.
There is no foundation whatever for the remark that the finest
Greek wines, especially the products of the islands in the Aegean
and Ionian seas, belonged for the most part to the luscious sweet
class. The very reverse is proved by the epithets αὐστηρός, σκληρός,
λεπτός, and the like, applied to a great number, while γλυκύς and
γλυκάζων are designations comparatively rare, except in the vague
language of poetry.--The most noble Italian wines, with a very few
exceptions, were derived from Latium and Campania, and for the most
part grew within a short distance of the sea. In the first rank
we must place the _Setinum_, which fairly deserves the title of
_Imperial_, since it was the chosen beverage of Augustus and most of
his courtiers. It grew upon the hills of Setia, above Forum Appii,
looking down upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age of Augustus
the _Caecubum_ was the most prized of all. It grew in the poplar
swamps bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. In the time
of Pliny its reputation was entirely gone, partly in consequence
of the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly from its proper
soil, originally a very limited space, having been cut up by the
canal of Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bodied and
heady, not arriving at maturity until it had been kept for many
years. The second rank was occupied by the _Falernum_, of which the
_Faustianum_ was the most choice variety, having gained its character
from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation of the vines.
The _Falernus ager_ commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the left
hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the
_Faustianus ager_ at a village about six miles from Sinuessa, so that
the whole district in question may be regarded as stretching from
the Massic hills to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for
drinking in ten years, and might be used until twenty years old, but
when kept longer gave headaches, and proved injurious to the nervous
system. Pliny distinguishes three kinds, the rough (_austerum_),
the sweet (_dulce_), and the thin (_tenue_). Others arranged the
varieties differently; that which grew upon the hill tops they called
_Caucinum_, that on the middle slopes _Faustianum_, and that on the
plain _Falernum_. In the third rank was the _Albanum_, from the
Mons Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (_praedulce_), sweetish,
rough, and sharp; it was invigorating (_nervis utile_), and in
perfection after being kept for fifteen years. Here too we place the
_Surrentinum_, from the promontory forming the southern horn of the
bay of Naples, which was not drinkable until it had been kept for
five-and-twenty years, for, being destitute of richness, and very
dry, it required a long time to ripen, but was strongly recommended
to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. Of
equal reputation were the _Massicum_, from the hills which formed
the boundary between Latium and Campania, although somewhat harsh,
and the _Gauranum_, from the ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced
in small quantity, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and thick.
In the same class are to be included the _Calenum_ from Cales, and
the _Fundanum_ from Fundi. The _Calenum_ was light and better for
the stomach than Falernian; the _Fundanum_ was full-bodied and
nourishing, but apt to attack both stomach and head; therefore
little sought after at banquets. This list is closed by the
_Veliturninum_, _Privernatinum_, and _Signinum_, from Velitrae,
Privernum, and Signia, towns on the Volscian hills; the first was a
sound wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always tasted as if
mixed with some foreign substance; the second was thin and pleasant;
the last was looked upon only in the light of a medicine valuable
for its astringent qualities. We may safely bring in one more, the
_Formianum_, from the Gulf of Caieta, associated by Horace with the
Caecuban, Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank contained the
_Mamertinum_, from the neighbourhood of Messana, first brought into
fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was sound, light, and at the
same time not without body.

VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [VESTALES VIRGINES.]

VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the purpose of preventing acts of
violence. The Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against those who
occupied public places and carried arms. The lex proposed by the
consul Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance of Plautius
the tribunus, appears to be the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of
the dictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penalty of
exile. Two Juliae Leges were passed as to this matter in the time of
Augustus, which were respectively entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi
Privata.

VISCĔRĀTĬO. [FUNUS, p. 190, _b_.]

VĪTIS. [CENTURIO.]

VITRUM (ὕαλος), glass. A story has been preserved by Pliny, that
glass was first discovered accidentally by some merchants who, having
landed on the Syrian coast at the mouth of the river Belus, and
being unable to find stones to support their cooking-pots, fetched
for this purpose from their ships some of the lumps of nitre which
composed the cargo. This being fused by the heat of the fire, united
with the sand upon which it rested, and formed a stream of vitrified
matter. No conclusion can be drawn from this tale, even if true, in
consequence of its vagueness; but it probably originated in the fact,
that the sand of the district in question was esteemed peculiarly
suitable for glass-making, and exported in great quantities to
the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria, long the most famous in
the ancient world. Alexandria sustained its reputation for many
centuries: Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from this
source, and as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture
still flourishing. There is some difficulty in deciding by what
Greek author glass is first mentioned, because the term ὕαλος
unquestionably denotes not only artificial glass but rock-crystal, or
indeed any transparent stone or stone-like substance. Thus the ὕελος
of Herodotus, in which the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their
dead, cannot be glass, for we are expressly told that it was dug in
abundance out of the earth; and hence commentators have conjectured
that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or
some bituminous or gummy product, might be indicated. But when the
same historian, in his account of sacred crocodiles, states that they
were decorated with ear-rings made of melted stone, we may safely
conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament for which
he knew no appropriate name. Glass is, however, first mentioned with
certainty by Theophrastus, who notices the circumstance alluded to
above, of the fitness of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus for
the fabrication of glass. Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears
to be the first in which the word _vitrum_ occurs; but it must have
been well known to his countrymen long before, for Cicero names
it along with paper and linen, as a common article of merchandise
brought from Egypt. Scaurus, in his aedileship (B.C. 58), made a
display of it such as was never witnessed even in after-times; for
the _scena_ of his gorgeous theatre was divided into three tiers, of
which the under portion was of marble, the upper of gilded wood, and
the middle compartment of glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it
is constantly introduced, both directly and in similes, and in such
terms as to prove that it was an object with which every one must be
familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a small drinking-cup of
glass might be purchased at Rome for half an as, and so common was
it in the time of Juvenal and Martial, that old men and women made
a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for broken fragments. When
Pliny wrote, manufactories had been established not only in Italy,
but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had entirely
superseded those of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander
Severus we find _vitrearii_ ranked along with curriers, coachmakers,
goldsmiths, silversmiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the
emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. The numerous specimens
transmitted to us prove that the ancients were well acquainted with
the art of imparting a great variety of colours to their glass;
they were probably less successful in their attempts to render it
perfectly pure and free from all colour, since we are told that it
was considered most valuable in this state. It was wrought according
to the different methods now practised, being fashioned into the
required shape by the blowpipe, _cut_, as we term it, although
_ground_ (_teritur_) is a more accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and
engraved with a sharp tool like silver. The art of etching upon
glass, now so common, was entirely unknown, since it depends upon the
properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery of the last century.
The following were the chief uses to which glass was applied:--1.
Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. Glass pastes, presenting
fac-similes either in relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones.
3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, such as the carbuncle,
the sapphire, the amethyst, and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick
sheets of glass of various colours appear to have been laid down for
paving floors, and to have been attached as a lining to the walls
and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is
frequently employed in Italy, and occasionally in our own country
also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called _vitreae camerae_, and
the panels _vitreae quadraturae_. Such was the kind of decoration
introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his theatre, not columns nor
pillars of glass as some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. 5.
Glass was also used for windows. [DOMUS, p. 144.]

VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or fillet, is to be considered,
1. As an ordinary portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration of
sacred persons and sacred things. 1. When considered as an ordinary
portion of female dress, it was simply a band encircling the head,
and serving to confine the tresses (_crinales vittae_), the ends when
long (_longae taenia vittae_) hanging down behind. It was worn by
maidens, and by married women also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial
day being of a different form from that used by virgins. The Vitta
was _not_ worn by libertinae even of fair character, much less by
meretrices; hence it was looked upon as an _insigne pudoris_, and,
together with the _stola_ and _instita_, served to point out at first
sight the freeborn matron. The colour was probably a matter of
choice: white and purple are both mentioned. When employed for sacred
purposes, it was usually twisted round the infula [INFULA], and held
together the loose flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed
as an ornament for 1. Priests, and those who offered sacrifice. 2.
Priestesses, especially those of Vesta, and hence _vittata sacerdos_
for a vestal, κατ’ ἐξόχην. 3. Prophets and poets, who may be regarded
as priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently intertwined
with chaplets of olive or laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims
decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. 8. The ἱκετήρια of
suppliants. The sacred vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of
wool, and hence the epithets _lanea_ and _mollis_. They were white
(_niveae_), or purple (_puniceae_), or azure (_caeruleae_), when
wreathed round an altar to the manes.

[Illustration: Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)]

VŎLŌNES is synonymous with _Voluntarii_ (from _volo_), and might
hence be applied to all those who volunteered to serve in the Roman
armies without there being any obligation to do so. But it was
applied more especially to slaves, when in times of need they offered
or were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. Thus when during
the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there was not a
sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young
and able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was accepted;
they received armour at the public expense, and as they distinguished
themselves they were honoured with the franchise. In after times the
name volones was retained whenever slaves chose or were allowed to
take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more
willing to do, as they were generally rewarded with the franchise.

VŎLŪMEN. [LIBER.]

VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [VOLONES.]

VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the
23rd of August, with games in the circus Flaminius, where the god had
a temple. The sacrifice on this occasion consisted of fishes, which
the people threw into the fire. It was also customary on this day to
commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered as an
auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the
god of this element.

VULGĀRES. [SERVUS.]

XĔNĀGI (ξεναγοί). The Spartans, as being the head of that
Peloponnesian and Dorian league, which was formed to secure the
independence of the Greek states, had the sole command of the
confederate troops in time of war, ordered the quotas which each
state was to furnish, and appointed officers of their own to command
them. Such officers were called _Xenagi_. The generals whom the
allies sent with their troops were subordinate to these Spartan
_xenagi_, though they attended the council of war, as representatives
of their respective countries. After the peace of Antalcidas, the
league was still more firmly established, though Argos refused to
join it; and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting the required
military service, demanding levies by the _scytale_, and sending out
_xenagi_ to collect them. The word _Xenagus_ may be applied to any
leader of a hand of foreigners or mercenaries.

XĔNĒLĂSĬA (ξενηλασία). The Lacedaemonians appear in very early
times, before the legislation of Lycurgus, to have been averse to
intercourse with foreigners. This disposition was encouraged by the
lawgiver, who made an ordinance forbidding strangers to reside at
Sparta without special permission, and empowering the magistrate to
expel from the city any stranger who misconducted himself, or set an
example injurious to public morals.

XĔNĬAS GRĂPHĒ (ξενίας γραφή). As no man could be an Athenian citizen
except by birth or creation (γένει or ποιήσει), if one, having
neither of those titles, assumed to act as a citizen, either by
taking part in the popular assembly, or by serving any office,
judicial or magisterial, or by attending certain festivals, or doing
any other act which none but a citizen was privileged to do, he was
liable to a γραφὴ ξενίας, which any citizen might institute against
him; or he might be proceeded against by εἰσαγγελία.

XĔNUS (ξένος). [HOSPITIUM.]

XESTES (ξέστης), a Greek measure of capacity, both fluid and solid,
which contained 12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to ⅙ of the
chous, 1/48 of the Roman amphora or quadrantal, and 1/72 of the
Greek amphora or metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure, it was
half the choenix and 1/96 of the medimnus. It contained ·9911 of a
pint English. At this point the Roman and Attic systems of measures
coincide; for there is no doubt that the Attic xestes was identical
with the Roman sextarius.

ZĂCŎRI. [AEDITUI.]

ZĒTĒTAE (ζητηταί), _Inquisitors_, were extraordinary officers,
appointed by the Athenians to discover the authors of some crime
against the state, and bring them to justice. They were more
frequently appointed to search for confiscated property, the
goods of condemned criminals and state debtors; to receive and
give information against any persons who concealed, or assisted
in concealing them, and to deliver an inventory of all such goods
(ἀπογράφειν) to the proper authorities.

ZŌNA, also called CINGŬLUM (ζώνη, ζῶμα, ζωστῆρ, μίτρα), a girdle
or zone, worn about the loins by both sexes. The chief use of this
article of dress was to hold up the tunic (ζώννυσθαι), which was
more especially requisite to be done when persons were at work, on
a journey, or engaged in hunting. The zona is also represented in
many statues and pictures of men in armour as worn round the cuirass.
The girdle, mentioned by Homer, seems to have been a constituent
part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by means of a buckle, and
also affording an additional protection to the body, and having a
short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is shown in the figure of
the Greek warrior in p. 240. The cut at p. 4 shows that the ancient
cuirass did not descend low enough to secure that part of the body
which was covered by the ornamental kilt or petticoat. To supply this
defect was the design of the _mitra_ (μίτρα), a brazen belt lined
probably on the inside with leather and stuffed with wool, which was
worn next to the body. Men used their girdles to hold money instead
of a purse. As the girdle was worn to hold up the garments for the
sake of business or of work requiring despatch, so it was loosened
and the tunic was allowed to fall down to the feet to indicate the
opposite condition, and more especially in preparing to perform
a sacrifice (_veste recincta_), or funeral rites (_discincti_,
_incinctae_). A girdle was worn by young women, even when their tunic
was not girt up, and removed on the day of marriage, and therefore
called ζώνη παρθενική.

ZŌPHŎRUS (ζωφόρος or διάζωμα), the frieze of an entablature.

TABLES

GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY.

TABLE Page

I. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(1) Smaller Measures 424

II. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(1) Smaller Measures 424

III. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(2) Land and Itinerary 425

IV. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(2) Land and Itinerary 426

V. GREEK MEASURES OF SURFACE 426

VI. ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE 427

VII. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(1) Liquid Measures 428

VIII. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(1) Liquid Measures 429

IX. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(2) Dry Measures 430

X. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(2) Dry Measures 430

XI. GREEK WEIGHTS 431

XII. GREEK MONEY 432

XIII. ROMAN WEIGHTS.
(1) The As and its Uncial Divisions 433

XIV. ROMAN WEIGHTS.
(2) Subdivisions of the Uncia 433

XV. ROMAN MONEY.
(1) Before Augustus 434

XVI. ROMAN MONEY.
(2) After Augustus 434

TABLE I.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Column headings:

F: Feet.

Row labels:

O: ὈΡΓΥΙΆ

+--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+
| I. SMALLER MEASURES. |F| Inches. |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+
| Δάκτυλος |”| ·7584375|
+--+ | | |
| 2| Κόνδυλος |”| 1·516875|
+--+---+ | | |
| 4| 2 | Παλαιστή, Δῶρον, Δοχμή, or Δακτυλοδοχμή |”| 3·03375 |
+--+---+---+ | | |
| 8| 4 | 2 | Διχάς, or Ἡμιπόδιον |”| 6·0675 |
+--+---+---+---+ | | |
|10| 5 | 2½| 1¼| Διχάς |”| 7·584375|
+--+---+---+---+------+ | | |
|11| 5½| 2¾| 1⅜|1-1/10| Ὀρθοδῶρον |”|8·3428125|
+--+---+---+---+------+------+ | | |
|12| 6 | 3 | 1½| 1⅕ |1-1/11| Σπιθαμή |”| 9·10125 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+ | | |
|16| 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅗ |1-5/11| 1⅓| ΠΟῩΣ |1| 0·135 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+ | | |
|18| 9 | 4½| 2¼| 1⅘ |1-7/11| 1½| 1⅛| Πυγμή |1| 1·651875|
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+ | | |
|20| 10| 5 | 2½| 2 |1-9/11| 1⅔| 1¼|1-1/9| Πυγών |1| 3·16875 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+ | | |
|24| 12| 6 | 3 | 2⅖ |2-2/11| 2 | 1½| 1⅓ | 1⅕| ΠΗΧΥΣ |1| 6·2025 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+ | | |
|72| 36| 18| 9 | 7⅕ |6-6/11| 6 | 4½| 4 | 3⅗|3| Ξύλον |4| 6·6075 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+ | | |
|96| 48| 24| 12| 9⅗ |8-8/11| 8 | 6 | 5⅓ | 4⅘|4| 1⅓| O |6| 0·81 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+---+-+---------+

N.B.--_Approximate Values._ From the above Table, it will be seen
that the Greek _Foot_, _Cubit_, and _Orguia_, only exceed the English
_Foot_, _Foot and a half_, and _Fathom_, by about 1-10th, 2-10ths,
and 8-10ths of an inch respectively.

TABLE II.

ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

+----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
| I. SMALLER MEASURES. | Feet. | Inches. |
+----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
| Digitus | ” | ·7281 |
+----+ | | |
| 1⅓ | UNCIA or Pollex | ” | ·9708 |
+----+----+ | | |
| 4 | 3 | Palmus | ” | 2·9124 |
+----+----+---+ | | |
| 12 | 9 | 3 | Palmus Major (of late times) | ” | 8·7372 |
+----+----+---+----+ | | |
| 16 | 12 | 4 | 1⅓ | PES | ” | 11·6496 |
+----+----+---+----+----+ | | |
| 20 | 15 | 5 | 1⅔ | 1¼ | Palmipes | 1 | 2·562 |
+----+----+---+----+----+----+ | | |
| 24 | 18 | 6 | 2 | 1½ | 1⅕ | CUBITUS | 1 | 5·4744 |
+----+----+---+----+----+----+-----------------+-------+---------+

N.B.--_Approximate Values._ The Roman _Uncia_, _Pes_, and _Cubitus_
only fall short of our _Inch_, _Foot_, and _Foot and a half_, by less
than 1-10th, 4-10ths, and 6-10ths of an inch respectively.

TABLE III.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Column headings:

M: Miles.
F: Feet.
I: Inches.

Row labels:

RM: ROMAN MILE (μίλιον)
P: ΠαρασάγγηςS: ΣχοῖνοςD: DEGREE

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+
| II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY.[4] | M | F | I |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+
| ΠΟΥΣ | ” | 1 |0·135 |
+------+ | | | |
| 1½ | ΠΗΧΥΣ | ” | 1 |6·2025|
+------+-------+ | | | |
| 2½ | 1⅔ | Βῦμα | ” | 2 |6·3375|
+------+------+------+ | | | |
| 6 | 4 | 2⅖ | ὈΡΓΥΙΆ | ” | 6 | 0·81 |
+------+------+------+----+ | | | |
| 10 | 6⅔ | 4 | 1⅔ | Κάλαμος, Ἄκαινα, or Δεκάπους | ” | 10 | 1·35 |
+------+------+------+----+----+ | | | |
| 60 | 40 | 24 | 10 | 6 | Ἄμμα | ” | 60 | 8·1 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+ | | | |
| 100 | 66⅔ | 40 | 16⅔| 10 | 1⅔| Πλέθρον | ” | 101| 1·5 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+ | | | |
| 600 | 400 | 240 | 100| 60 | 10| 6| ΣΤΆΔΙΟΝ or ΣΤΆΔΙΟΣ | ” | 606| 9 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | |
| 1200 | 800 | 480 | 200| 120| 20| 12| 2 | Δίαυλος | ” |1213| 6 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | |
| 2400 | 1600 | 960 | 40 | 240| 40| 24| 4 | 2 | Ἱππικόν | ” |2427| ” |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | |
| 4800 | 3200 | 1920 | 800| 480| 80| 48| 8 | 4 | 2 | RM | ” |4854| ” |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | |
|18,000|12,000| 7200 |3000|1800|300|180| 30| 15| 7½| 3¾| P | 3 |2362| 6 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+ | | | |
|36,000|24,000|14,400|6000|3600|600|360| 60| 30| 15| 7½| 2| S | 6 |4735| ” |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+ | | | |
|360,000 |144,000 |36,000 |3600 |300 |75 |10|D|68[5]|5110| ” |
| |240,000 |60,000 |6000 |600 |150 |20 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+-+-----+----+------+

FOOTNOTES:

[4] In order to show the relations more clearly, the foreign measures
most familiar to the Greeks are included in this Table.

[5] This is, of course, not the true number of English statute miles
contained in a degree of a great circle of the earth, but the number
_computed_ from the data exhibited in the Table, some of which are
only approximate; namely, 1 Degree = 75 Roman miles = 600 Greek
Stadia, and 1 Greek foot = 12·135 inches. The true value of a degree
in English miles is 69-1/51 = 69·0196, and the difference is only about
7-100ths of a mile.

TABLE IV.

ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Column headings:

M: Miles
F: Feet.
I: Inches.

Row labels:

MP: MILLE PASSUUM
GL: Gallic Leuga
D: DEGREE[6]

+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+
| II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY. | M | F | I |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+
| PES | ” | ” |11·6496|
+-------+ | | | |
| 1½ | Cubitus | ” | 1 | 5·4744|
+-------+-------+ | | | |
| 2½ | 1⅔ | Gradus, or Pes Sestertius | ” | 2 | 5·124 |
+-------+-------+-------+ | | | |
| 5 | 3⅓ | 2 | PASSUS | ” | 4 |10·248 |
+-------+-------+-------+------+ | | | |
| 10 | 6⅔ | 4 | 2 | Decempeda, or Pertica | ” | 9 | 8·496 |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+ | | | |
| 120 | 80 | 48 | 24 | 12 | Actus (in length) | ” | 116 | 5·952 |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+ | | | |
| 5000 | 3333⅓| 2000 | 1000 | 500 | 41⅔| MP | ” | 4854| ” |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+ | | | |
| 7500 | 5000 | 3000 | 1500 | 750 | 62½|1½| GL | 1 | 2003| ” |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+ | | | |
|375,000|250,000|150,000|75,000|37,500|3125|75|50| D |68 | 5110| ” |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+--------+---+-----+-------+

N.B.--The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than
1-10th.

FOOTNOTE:

[6] See Note to Table III.

TABLE V.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Column headings:

P: Perches.
SF: Square Feet.

+---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+
| ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. | P | SF |
+---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+
| ΠΟΥΣ (Square Foot) | ” | 1·0226 |
+------+ | | |
| 36 | Ἑξαπόδης | ” | 36·81456 |
+------+--------+ | | |
| 100 | 2-7/9 | Ἄκαινα (Square of the καλαμος) | ” | 102·26266 |
+------+--------+-----+ | | |
| 833⅓| 23-4/27| 8⅓| Ἡμίεκτος | 3 | 35·439 |
+------+--------+-----+----+ | | |
| 1666⅔| 46-8/27| 16⅔| 2 | Ἕκτος | 6 | 70·877 |
+------+--------+-----+----+----+ | | |
| 2500 | 69-4/9| 25 | 3 | 1½ | Ἄρουρα | 9 | 106·318 |
+------+--------+-----+----+----+---+ | | |
|10,000| 277-7/9| 100 | 12 | 6 | 4 | ΠΛΈΘΡΟΝ | 37 | 153·02[7] |
+------+--------+-----+----+----+---+---------------+----+-----------+

FOOTNOTE:

[7] This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more
than 2 perches; for the rood contains 40 perches.

TABLE VI.

ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Column headings:

A: Acres.
R: Roods.
P: Perches.
SF: Square Feet.

Row labels:

H: Heredium
C: Centuria
S: Saltus

+------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+
| ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. | A | R | P | SF |
+------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+
| PES QUADRATUS | ” | ” | ” | ·9445 |
+----------+ | | | | |
| 100 | Scrupulum, or Decempeda Quadrata | ” | ” | ” | 94·245 |
+----------+-------+ | | | | |
| 480 | 4⅘ | ACTUS SIMPLEX | ” | ” | 1 | 180·127 |
+----------+-------+------+ | | | | |
| 2400 | 24 | 5 | Uncia[8] | ” | ” | 8 | 83·885 |
+----------+-------+------+----+ | | | | |
| 3600 | 36 | 7½ | 1½ | Clima | ” | ” |12 | 125·83 |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+ | | | | |
| 14,400 | 144 | 30 | 6 | 4 | ACTUS QUADRATUS | ” | 1 | 9 | 231·07 |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 28,800 | 288 | 60 | 12 | 8 | 2 | JUGERUM | ” | 2 |19 |189·89[9] |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 57,600 | 576 | 120 | 24 | 16 | 4 | 2 | H | 1 | 0 |39 |107·53[10]|
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 5,760,000| 57,600|12,000|2400|1600| 400|200|100| C |124| 2 |19 | 135·25 |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+ | | | | |
|23,040,000|230,400|48,000|9600|6400|1600|800|400|4| S |498| 1 |37 |268·75[11]|
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+---+---+---+---+----------+

FOOTNOTES:

[8] The _As_ to which this _Uncia_ and the above _Scrupulum_ belong
is the _Jugerum_. The other uncial divisions of the _Jugerum_ may
easily be calculated from the _Uncia_. The _Semissis_ is, of course,
the _Actus Quadratus_.

[9] _i.e._ almost 5-8ths of an acre.

[10] _i.e._ almost an acre and a quarter.

[11] _i.e._ almost 500 acres.

TABLE VII.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings: G=Gallons. P=Pints.

Row labels:

RA: ROMAN AMPHORA (κεράμιον)
AM: ΑΜΦΟΡΕΥΣ ΜΕΤΡΗΤΗΣ

+----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-------+
| | | |Approx-|
| | | |imate. |
| I. ATTIC LIQUID MEASURES. | | | [12] |
| | | +-+-----+
| |G| P |G| P |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-+-----+
|Κοχλιάριον |“| ·008|”|1/120|
+----+ | | | | |
| 2 |Χήμη |“| ·016|”|1/60 |
+----+----+ | | | | |
| 2½| 1¼|Μύστρον |“| ·02 |”|1/48 |
+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 5 | 2½| 2|Κόγχη |“| ·04 |”|1/24 |
+----+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 10 | 5 | 4| 2|ΚΎΑΘΟΣ |“| ·08 |”|1/12 |
+----+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 15 | 1½| 6| 3| 1½|Ὀξύβαφον |“| ·12 |”| ⅛ |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 30 15 | 12| 6| 3| 2|Τέταρτον |“| ·24 |”| ¼ |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 60 | 30 | 24| 12| 6| 4| 2|Κοτύλη, Τρυβλίον or Ἡμίνα |“| ·48 |”| ½ |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 120| 60 | 48| 24| 12| 8| 4| 2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (Sextarius) |“| ·96 |”| 1 |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--- | | | | |
| 720| 360| 288| 144| 72| 48| 24| 12| 6 ΧΟΥΣ |“|5·76 |”| 6 |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+ | | | | |
|5760|2880|2304|1152|576|384|192| 96|48| 8| RA |5|6·08 |6| ” |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+ | | | | |
|8640|4320|3456|1728|864|576|288|144|72|12| 1½| AM |8|5·12 |9| ” |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+------------+-+-----+-+-----+

N.B.--The _Aeginetan_ measures of capacity may be easily calculated
from these, according to the ratio given under QUADRANTAL.

FOOTNOTE:

[12] As the _Sextarius_ differs from the English pint by only 1-25th
part of the latter, it will be found useful, in ordinary rough
calculations, to take it at exactly a pint, and so with the other
measures in this table. The results thus obtained may be corrected by
subtracting from each of them its 1-25th part.

TABLE VIII.

ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings:

A: Approximate.[13]
G: Gallons.
P: Pints.

Row labels:

Q: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_
S: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_
AQ: AMPHORA QUADRANTAL
C: Culeus

+-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----------+
| | | | A |
| I. LIQUID MEASURES. | G | P +-----+-----+
| | | | G | P |
+-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----+-----+
| Ligula | ” | ·02| ” | 1/48|
+------+ | | | | |
| 4 | CYATHUS[14] | ” | ·08| ” | 1/12|
+------+------+ | | | | |
| 6 | 1½ | Acetabulum | ” | ·12| ” | ⅛ |
+------+------+----+ | | | | |
| 12 | 3 | 2 | Q | ” | ·24| ” | ¼ |
+------+------+----+----+ | | | | |
| 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina or Cotyla | ” | ·48| ” | ½ |
+------+------+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | S | ” | ·96| ” | 1 |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 288 | 72 | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | CONGIUS | ” | 5·76| ” | 6 |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 1152 | 288 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 4 | Urna | 2 | 7·04| 3 | ” |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+ | | | | |
| 2304 | 576 | 384| 192| 96 | 48| 8 | 2| AQ | 5 | 6·08| 6 | ” |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+ | | | | |
|46,080|11,520|7680|3840|1920|960|160|40|20| C | 115| 1·6 | 120 | ” |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+----+----+-----+-----+-----+

FOOTNOTES:

[13] See the Note to Table VII

[14] According to the uncial division, the _Sextarius_ was the _As_,
and the _Cyathus_ the _Uncia_.

TABLE IX.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings:

A: Approximate.[15]
G: Gallons
P: Pints.

Row labels:

H: Ἕκτος (equal to the Roman _Modius_.)
M: ΜΈΔΙΜΝΟΣ

+------------------------------------------+----+------+---------------+
| | | | A |
| II. ATTIC DRY MEASURES. | G | P +-------+-------+
| | | | G | P |
+------------------------------------------+----+------+-------+-------+
| Κοχλιάριον | ” | ·008 | ” | 1/120 |
+------+ | | | | |
| 10 | ΚΎΑΘΟΣ | ” | ·08 | ” | 1/12 |
+------+----+ | | | | |
| 15 | 1½| Ὀξύβαφον | ” | ·12 | ” | ⅛ |
+------+----+---+ | | | | |
| 60 | 6 | 4| ΚΟΤΎΛΗ or Ἡμίνα | ” | ·48 | ” | ½ |
+------+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 120 | 12| 8| 2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (_Sextarius_) | ” | ·96 | ” | 1 |
+------+----+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 240 | 24| 16| 4| 2 | ΧΟΙΝΙΞ | ” | 1·92 | ” | 2[16] |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 960 | 96| 64| 16| 8 | 4 | Ἡμίεκτον | ” | 7·68 | 1 | ” |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 1920 | 192|128| 32| 16| 8 | 2 | H | 1 | 7·36 | 2 | ” |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
|11,520|1152|768|192| 96| 48| 12| 6 | M | 11 | 4·16 | 12[17]| ” |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+------+----+------+-------+-------+

N.B.--Respecting the _Aeginetan_ Measures, see the Note to Table VII.

FOOTNOTES:

[15] See the Note to Table VII.

[16] Or one quart.

[17] Or one bushel and a half.

TABLE X.

ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings:

A: Approximate.[18]
G: Gallons.
P: Pints.

Row labels:

Quart.: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_
Sext.: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_

+----------------------------------------------+---+------+-------------+
| | | | A |
| II. DRY MEASURES. | G | P +------+------+
| | | | G | P |
+----------------------------------------------+---+------+------+------+
| Ligula | ” | ·02 | ” | 1/48 |
+-----+ | | | | |
| 4 | CYATHUS[19] | ” | ·08 | ” | 1/12 |
+-----+-----+ | | | | |
| 6 | 1½ | Acetabulum | ” | ·12 | ” | ⅛ |
+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | |
| 12 | 3 | 2 | Quart. | ” | ·24 | ” | ¼ |
+-----+-----+-----+----+ | | | | |
| 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina, or Cotyla | ” | ·48 | ” | ½ |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Sext. | ” | ·96 | ” | 1 |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 384 | 96 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | Semimodius | ” | 7·68 | 1 | ” |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 768 | 192 | 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 2 | MODIUS | 1 | 7·36 | 2[20]| ” |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+---------+---+------+------+------+

FOOTNOTES:

[18] See the Note to Table VII.

[19] See the Note to Table VIII.

[20] Or a quarter of a bushel.

TABLE XI.

GRECIAN WEIGHTS.

+------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. Ratios of the three chief Systems. |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Aeginetan : Euboic or old Attic :: 6 : 5 |
| Aeginetan : Solonian or later Attic :: 5 : 3 |
| Euboic : Solonian :: 138-8/9 : 100 |
| or :: 100 : 72 |
| or :: 25 : 18 |
+========================================================================+
|The Aeginetan Talent=6000 Aeginetan Drachmae=7200 Euboic=10,000 Solonian|
| Euboic ” =5000 ” =6000 ” = 8,333⅓ ” |
| Solonian[21] ” =3600 ” =4320 ” = 6,000 ” |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------+

FOOTNOTE:

[21] Also called the _Attic Silver Talent_. When Attic weights are
spoken of without any further distinction, these are generally
intended.

Column headings:

L: lb.
O: oz.
G: grs.

+----------------------------------+--------------------+--------------+
| | _Exact._[22] |_Approximate._|
| 2. Aeginetan Weights. +----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
| | L | O | grs. | lb. |oz.| G |
+----------------------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
| Obol (Ὀβολος) | ” | ” | 18·472-2/9| ” | ” | 20 |
+------+ | | | | | | |
| 6 | Drachma (Δραχμή) | ” | ” | 110·83⅛ | ” | ¼ | ” |
+------+----+ | | | | | | |
| 600 | 100| Mina (Μνᾶ) | 1 | 9 |145·83⅓[23]| 1⅔ | ” | ” |
+------+----+--+ | | | | | | |
|36,000|6000|60| Talent (Τάλαντον) | 95 | ” | ” | 100 | ” | ” |
+------+----+--+-------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+

FOOTNOTES:

[22] In this and the other tables the English weights used are those
of the avoirdupois scale as fixed by statute; namely, the grain = the
Troy grain, the ounce = 437½ grains, the pound = 16 ounces = 7000
grains.

[23] Or ⅓ of an oz.

Column headings:

L: lb.
O: oz.

+------------------------------+-----------------------+--------------+
| | _Exact._ |_Approximate._|
| 3. Euboic or Attic +----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
| Commercial Weights. | L | O | grs. | L | O | grs.|
+------------------------------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
| Obol | ” | ” | 15·398-14/27 | | ” | 15½ |
+--------+ | | | | | | |
| 6 | Drachma | ” | ” | 92·3611-1/9 | ” | ” | 93⅓ |
+--------+------+ | | | | | | |
| 600 | 100 | Mina | 1 | 5 | 48·611-1/9 | 1 | ” | ” |
+--------+------+----+ | | | | | | |
| 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent | 79 | 2 | 291·63⅓ | 80 | ” | ” |
+--------+------+----+---------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+

Column headings:

L: lb.
O: oz.
G: grs.

+----------------------------------+------------------+--------------+
| | _Exact._ |_Approximate._|
| 4. Attic Commercial +----+----+--------+----+----+----+
| Weights increased. | L | O | grs. | L | O | G |
+----------------------------------+----+----+--------+----+----+----+
| 1 Mina = 150 Drachmae (silver) | 1 | 6 | 350 | 1½ | ” | ” |
| 5 Minae = 6 Minae (commercial) | 7 | 14 | 291·6⅔ | 7½ | ” | ” |
| 1 Talent = 65 Minae (commercial) | 88 | ” | 145·8⅓ | 90 | ” | ” |
+----------------------------------+----+----+--------+----+----+----+

+-----------------------------+----------------------+--------------+
| | _Exact._ |_Approximate._|
| 5. Attic Silver Weights. +-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+
| | lb. | oz.| grs. | lb.| oz.|grs.|
+-----------------------------+-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+
| Obol | ” | ” | 11·0833⅓ | ” | ” | 12 |
+--------+ | | | | | | |
| 6 | Drachma | ” | ” | 66·5 | ” | ” | 70 |
+--------+------+ | | | | | | |
| 600 | 100 | Mina | ” | 15 | 87·5[24] | 1 | ” | ” |
+--------+------+----+ | | | | | | |
| 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent | 57 | ” | ” | 60 | ” | ” |
+--------+------+----+--------+-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+

FOOTNOTE:

[24] Or ⅕ of an oz.

TABLE XII.

GRECIAN MONEY.

Column headings:

F: Farthings.

Row labels:

Dr.: DRACHMA[25] (Δραχμή)
Di.: Didrachm (Δίδραχμον)
Tet.: Tetradrachm (Τετράδραχμον)
M: MINA (Μνᾶ)
T: TALENT (Τάλαντον)

+--------------------------------------------------------+---+----+----+-----+
| I. ATTIC COPPER AND SILVER. |£. |_s._|_d._| F |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---+----+----+-----+
| Lepton (Λεπτόν) | ” | ” | ” | ·116|
+------+ | | | | |
| 7 | Chalchus (Χαλκοῦς) | ” | ” | ” |·8125|
+------+----+ | | | | |
| 14 | 2 | Dichalcon, or Quarter Obol (Δίχαλκον) | ” | ” | ” |1·625|
+------+----+----+ | | | | |
| 28 | 4 | 2 | Half Obol (Ἡμιοβόλιον) | ” | ” | ” | 3·25|
+------+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 56 | 8 | 4 | 2 | OBOL (Ὀβολός) | ” | ” | 1 | 2·5 |
+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 112 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Diobolus (Διόβολον) | ” | ” | 3 | 1 |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 168 | 24 | 12 | 6 | 3 | 1½| Triobolus (Τριόβολον) | ” | ” | 4 | 3·5 |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 224 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅓| Tetrobolus | ” | ” | 6 | 2 |
| | | | | | | | (Τετρόβολον) | | | | |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 336 | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1½| Dr. | ” | ” | 9 | 3 |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 672 | 96 | 48 | 24 | 12| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | Di. | ” | 1 | 7 | 2 |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 1344 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 12| 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Tet. | ” | 3 | 3 | ” |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
|33,600|4800|2400|1200|600|300|200|150|100| 50| 25| M | 4 | 1 | 3 | ” |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+ | | | | |
|2,016,000 |144,000 |36,000 |12,000 |6000 |1500 | T |243|15[26] ” | ” |
| |288,000 |72,000 |18,000 |9000 |3000 |60| |
+------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+---+---+----+----+-----+

II. _Aeginetan and Euboic Silver._--The coins of these systems can be
easily calculated from the Attic, according to the ratios given in
Table XI., No. 1. As thus calculated, the Aeginetan Talent was equal
to 406_l._ 5_s._, and the Euboic was equal to 338_l._ 10_s._ 10_d._,
and the Drachmae were equal respectively to 1_s._ 4¼_d._ for the
Aeginetan, and 1_s._ 1½_d._ + ⅕ of a farthing for the Euboic.

III. _Grecian Gold._--The values of the Grecian gold money cannot be
conveniently reduced to the tabular form; they will be found in the
articles STATER and DAREICUS.

FOOTNOTES:

[25] The Drachma was very nearly equal to the French Franc.

[26] Or, approximately, 250_l._, the difference being only 1-40th.

TABLE XIII.

ROMAN WEIGHTS.

Column headins:

O: Oz.

Row labels:

AL: AS, or LIBRA

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+
| |Avoirdupois|
| | Weight. |
| I. THE UNCIAL DIVISIONS OF THE POUND. +--+--------+
| |O | Grs. |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+--+--------+
| UNCIA | ”| 430·83⅓|
| | | [27] |
+---+ | | |
| 1½| Sescuncia, or Sescunx | 1| 203·75 |
+---+---+ | | |
| 2 | 1⅓| Sextans | 1| 404·16⅔|
+---+---+---+ | | |
| 3 | 2 | 1½| Quadrans, or Teruncius | 2| 168·750|
+---+---+---+---+ | | |
| 4 | 2⅓| 2 | 1⅓| Triens | 3| 270·83⅓|
+---+---+---+---+---+ | | |
| 5 | 3⅓| 2½| 1⅔| 1¼| Quincunx | 4| 354·16⅔|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | |
| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1½| 1⅕| SEMIS, or Semissi | 5| 337·5 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | |
| 7 | 4⅓| 3½| 2⅓| 1¾| 1⅖| 1⅙| Septunx | 6| 320·33⅓|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+ | | |
| 8 | 5⅓| 4 | 2⅔| 2 | 1⅗| 1⅓|1-1/7| Bes, or Bessis | 7| 104·16⅔|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+ | | |
| 9 | 6 | 4½| 3 | 2¼| 1⅘| 1½|1-2/7| 1⅛| Dodrans | 8| 277·5 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+ | | |
| 10| 6⅓| 5 | 3⅓| 2½| 2 | 1⅔|1-3/7| 1¼|1-1/9| Dextrans | 9| 270·83⅓|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+ | | |
| 11| 7⅓| 5½| 3⅔| 2¾| 2⅕| 1⅚|1-4/7| 1⅜|1-2/9|1-1/10| Deunx |10| 260·83⅓|
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+------+ | | |
| 12| 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2⅖| 2 |1-5/7| 1½| 1⅓ | 1⅕ |1-1/11| AL |11| 237·5 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+------+----+--+--------+

FOOTNOTE:

[27] This only differs from the ounce avoirdupois by less than 7
grains.

TABLE XIV.

ROMAN WEIGHTS.

+----------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| II. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UNCIA. | Grains. |
+----------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Siliqua | 2·9224 |
+----+ | |
| 3 | Obolus | 8·767361 |
+----+---+ | |
| 6 | 2 | SCRUPULUM | 17·53472 |
+----+---+---+ | |
| 12 | 4 | 2 | Semisextula | 35·0694 |
+----+---+---+---+ | |
| 24 | 8 | 4 | 2 | SEXTULA | 70·138 |
+----+---+---+---+---+ | |
| 36 | 12| 6 | 3 | 1½| Sicilicus | 105·2083 |
+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | |
| 48 | 16| 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅓| Duella | 140·277 |
+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | |
| 72 | 24| 12| 6 | 3 | 2 | 1½| Semuncia | 120·416 |
+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | |
| 144| 48| 24| 12| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | UNCIA | 420·833 |
+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | |
|1728|576|288|144| 72| 48| 36| 24| 12| AS, or LIBRA | 5050 |
+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------------+-------------+

TABLE XV.

ROMAN MONEY.

Row labels:

Du: Dupondius
S: SESTERTIUS
Q: Quinarius
De: DENARIUS

+---------------------------------------------------------------------+
| I. BEFORE THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS: when the Denarius was |
| 1-7th of an Ounce, or about 60 Grains. |
+----------------------+--------------------+----+----+----+----------+
| 1. _Copper Coins._ | 2. _Silver Coins._ | £. |_s._|_d._|Farthings.|
| | | | | | |
| Sextula | | ” | ” | ” | ·35416 |
+--+ | | | | | |
|1½| Quadrans | Teruncius | ” | ” | ” | ·53125 |
+--+--+ | | | | | |
| 2|1⅓| Triens | | ” | ” | ” | ·7083 |
+--+--+--+ +--+ | | | | |
| 3| 2|1½| Semissis | 2| Sembella | ” | ” | ” | 1·0625 |
+--+--+--+--+ +--+--+ | | | | |
| 6| 4| 3| 2| As | 4| 2| Libella | ” | ” | ” | 2·125 |
+--+--+--+--+--+ +--+--+--+ | | | | |
|12| 8| 6| 4| 2| Du | | | | | ” | ” | 1 | ·25 |
+--+--+--+--+--+-+ +--+--+--+ | | | | |
|24|16|12| 8| 4|2| S |16| 8| 4| S | ” | ” | 2 | ·5 |
+--+--+--+--+--+-+-+ +--+--+--+-+ | | | | |
|48|32|24|16| 8|4|2| |32|16| 8|2| Q | ” | ” | 4 | 1 |
+--+--+--+--+--+-+-+ +--+--+--+-+-+ | | | | |
|96|64|48|32|16|8|4| |24|32|16|4|2| De | ” | ” | 8 | 2 |
+==+==+==+==+==+=+=+===+==+==+==+=+=+=======+====+====+====+==========+
| 3. _Gold Coins._ AUREUS[28] | | | | |
| (value in proportion to Roman Silver) | ” | 17 | 8 | 2 |
| (value in English current Coin) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
+===========================================+====+====+====+==========+
| 4. _Money of Account (not a Coin)._ | | | | |
| SESTERTIUM, or Mille Nummi | 8 | 17 | 1 | ” |
+-------------------------------------------+----+----+----+----------+

FOOTNOTE:

[28] For the subdivisions of the gold money, see AURUM.

TABLE XVI.

ROMAN MONEY.

Row labels:

QV: Quinarius, or Victoriatus

+---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+
| II. AFTER THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS: | | | | |
| when the Denarius was 1-8th of an | £. | s. | d. | Farth- |
| Ounce, or 52·5 Grains. | | | | ings. |
+---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+
| Sextula | ” | ” | ” | ·3125 |
+----+ | | | | |
| 1½ | Quadrans | ” | ” | ” | ·46875|
+----+----+ | | | | |
| 2 | 1⅓ | Triens | ” | ” | ” | ·625 |
+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 3 | 2 | 1½ | Semissis | ” | ” | ” | ·9375 |
+----+----+----+--+ | | | | |
| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2| As | ” | ” | ” | 1·875 |
+----+----+----+--+--+ | | | | |
| 12 | 8 | 6 | 4| 2| Dupondius | ” | ” | ” | 3·75 |
+----+----+----+--+--+-+ | | | | |
| 24 | 16 | 12 | 8| 4|2| SESTERTIUS | ” | ” | 1 | 3·5 |
+----+----+----+--+--+-+-+ | | | | |
| 48 | 32 | 24 |16| 8|4|2| QV | ” | ” | 3 | 3 |
+----+----+----+--+--+-+-+-+ | | | | |
| 96 | 64 | 48 |32|16|8|4|2| Denarius | ” | ” | 7 | 2 |
+====+====+====+==+==+=+=+=+============+====+====+====+========+
| AUREUS, reckoned at 25 Denarii | ” | 15 | 7 | 2 |
| ” reckoned in English Current Coin| ” | 18 | 5 | 3·25 |
| SESTERTIUM, or Mille Nummi | 7 | 16 | 3 | ” |
+---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+

PARALLEL YEARS.

(_See page 276._)

B.C. Ol.

776. 1. 1.
772. 2. 1.
768. 3. 1.
764. 4. 1.
760. 5. 1.
756. 6. 1.
752. 7. 1.
748. 8. 1.
744. 9. 1.
740. 10. 1.
736. 11. 1.
732. 12. 1.
728. 13. 1.
724. 14. 1.
720. 15. 1.
716. 16. 1.
712. 17. 1.
708. 18. 1.
704. 19. 1.
700. 20. 1.
696. 21. 1.
692. 22. 1.
688. 23. 1.
684. 24. 1.
680. 25. 1.
676. 26. 1.
672. 27. 1.
668. 28. 1.
664. 29. 1.
660. 30. 1.
656. 31. 1.
652. 32. 1.
648. 33. 1.
644. 34. 1.
640. 35. 1.
636. 36. 1.
632. 37. 1.
628. 38. 1.
624. 39. 1.
620. 40. 1.
616. 41. 1.
612. 42. 1.
608. 43. 1.
604. 44. 1.
600. 45. 1.
596. 46. 1.
592. 47. 1.
591. 2.
590. 3.
589. 4.
588. 48. 1.
587. 2.
586. 3.
585. 4.
584. 49. 1.
583. 2.
582. 3.
581. 4.
580. 50. 1.
579. 2.
578. 3.
577. 4.
576. 51. 1.
575. 2.
574. 3.
573. 4.
572. 52. 1.
571. 2.
570. 3.
569. 4.
568. 53. 1.
567. 2.
566. 3.
565. 4.
564. 54. 1.
563. 2.
562. 3.
561. 4.
560. 55. 1.
559. 2.
558. 3.
557. 4.
556. 56. 1.
555. 2.
554. 3.
553. 4.
552. 57. 1.
551. 2.
550. 3.
549. 4.
548. 58. 1.
547. 2.
546. 3.
545. 4.
544. 59. 1.
543. 2.
542. 3.
541. 4.
540. 60. 1.
539. 2.
538. 3.
537. 4.
536. 61. 1.
535. 2.
534. 3.
533. 4.
532. 62. 1.
531. 2.
530. 3.
529. 4.
528. 63. 1.
527. 2.
526. 3.
525. 4.
524. 64. 1.
523. 2.
522. 3.
521. 4.
520. 65. 1.
519. 2.
518. 3.
517. 4.
516. 66. 1.
515. 2.
514. 3.
513. 4.
512. 67. 1.
511. 2.
510. 3.
509. 4.
508. 68. 1.
507. 2.
506. 3.
505. 4.
504. 69. 1.
503. 2.
502. 3.
501. 4.
500. 70. 1.
499. 2.
498. 3.
497. 4.
496. 71. 1.
495. 2.
494. 3.
493. 4.
492. 72. 1.
491. 2.
490. 3.
489. 4.
488. 73. 1.
487. 2.
486. 3.
485. 4.
484. 74. 1.
483. 2.
482. 3.
481. 4.
480. 75. 1.
479. 2.
478. 3.
477. 4.
476. 76. 1.
475. 2.
474. 3.
473. 4.
472. 77. 1.
471. 2.
470. 3.
469. 4.
468. 78. 1.
467. 2.
466. 3.
465. 4.
464. 79. 1.
463. 2.
462. 3.
461. 4.
460. 80. 1.
459. 2.
458. 3.
457. 4.
456. 81. 1.
455. 2.
454. 3.
453. 4.
452. 82. 1.
451. 2.
450. 3.
449. 4.
448. 83. 1.
447. 2.
446. 3.
445. 4.
444. 84. 1.
443. 2.
442. 3.
441. 4.
440. 85. 1.
439. 2.
438. 3.
437. 4.
436. 86. 1.
435. 2.
434. 3.
433. 4.
432. 87. 1.
431. 2.
430. 3.
429. 4.
428. 88. 1.
427. 2.
426. 3.
425. 4.
424. 89. 1.
423. 2.
422. 3.
421. 4.
420. 90. 1.
419. 2.
418. 3.
417. 4.
416. 91. 1.
415. 2.
414. 3.
413. 4.
412. 92. 1.
411. 2.
410. 3.
409. 4.
408. 93. 1.
407. 2.
406. 3.
405. 4.
404. 94. 1.
403. 2.
402. 3.
401. 4.
400. 95. 1.
399. 2.
398. 95. 3.
397. 4.
396. 96. 1.
395. 2.
394. 3.
393. 4.
392. 97. 1.
391. 2.
390. 3.
389. 4.
388. 98. 1.
387. 2.
386. 3.
385. 4.
384. 99. 1.
383. 2.
382. 3.
381. 4.
380. 100. 1.
379. 2.
378. 3.
377. 4.
376. 101. 1.
375. 2.
374. 3.
373. 4.
372. 102. 1.
371. 2.
370. 3.
369. 4.
368. 103. 1.
367. 2.
366. 3.
365. 4.
364. 104. 1.
363. 2.
362. 3.
361. 4.
360. 105. 1.
359. 2.
358. 3.
357. 4.
356. 106. 1.
355. 2.
354. 3.
353. 4.
352. 107. 1.
351. 2.
350. 3.
349. 4.
348. 108. 1.
347. 2.
346. 3.
345. 4.
344. 109. 1.
343. 2.
342. 3.
341. 4.
340. 110. 1.
339. 2.
338. 3.
337. 4.
336. 111. 1.
335. 2.
334. 3.
333. 4.
332. 112. 1.
331. 2.
330. 3.
329. 4.
328. 113. 1.
327. 2.
326. 3.
325. 4.
324. 114. 1.
323. 2.
322. 3.
321. 4.
320. 115. 1.
319. 2.
318. 3.
317. 4.
316. 116. 1.
315. 2.
314. 3.
313. 4.
312. 117. 1.
311. 2.
310. 3.
309. 4.
308. 118. 1.
307. 2.
306. 3.
305. 4.
304. 119. 1.
303. 2.
302. 3.
301. 4.
300. 120. 1.
299. 2.
298. 3.
297. 4.
296. 121. 1.
295. 2.
294. 3.
293. 4.
292. 122. 1.
291. 2.
290. 3.
289. 4.
288. 123. 1.
287. 2.
286. 3.
285. 4.
284. 124. 1.
283. 2.
282. 3.
281. 4.
280. 125. 1.
279. 2.
278. 3.
277. 4.
276. 126. 1.
275. 2.
274. 3.
273. 4.
272. 127. 1.
268. 128. 1.
264. 129. 1.
260. 130. 1.
256. 131. 1.
252. 132. 1.
248. 133. 1.
244. 134. 1.
240. 135. 1.
236. 136. 1.
232. 137. 1.
228. 138. 1.
224. 139. 1.
220. 140. 1.
216. 141. 1.
212. 142. 1.
208. 143. 1.
204. 144. 1.
200. 145. 1.
196. 146. 1.
192. 147. 1.
188. 148. 1.
184. 149. 1.
180. 150. 1.
176. 151. 1.
172. 152. 1.
168. 153. 1.
164. 154. 1.
160. 155. 1.
156. 156. 1.
152. 157. 1.
148. 158. 1.
144. 159. 1.
140. 160. 1.
136. 161. 1.
132. 162. 1.
128. 163. 1.
124. 164. 1.
120. 165. 1.
116. 166. 1.
112. 167. 1.
108. 168. 1.
104. 169. 1.
100. 170. 1.
96. 171. 1.
92. 172. 1.
88. 173. 1.
84. 174. 1.
80. 175. 1.
76. 176. 1.
72. 177. 1.
68. 178. 1.
64. 179. 1.
60. 180. 1.
56. 181. 1.
52. 182. 1.
48. 183. 1.
44. 184. 1.
40. 185. 1.
36. 186. 1.
32. 187. 1.
28. 188. 1.
24. 189. 1.
20. 190. 1.
16. 191. 1.
12. 192. 1.
8. 193. 1.
4. 194. 1.

A.D. Ol.

1. 195. 1.
5. 196. 1.
9. 197. 1.
13. 198. 1.
17. 199. 1.
21. 200. 1.
25. 201. 1.
29. 202. 1.
33. 203. 1.
37. 204. 1.
41. 205. 1.
45. 206. 1.
49. 207. 1.
53. 208. 1.
57. 209. 1.
61. 210. 1.
65. 211. 1.
69. 212. 1.
73. 213. 1.
77. 214. 1.
81. 215. 1.
85. 216. 1.
89. 217. 1.
93. 218. 1.
97. 219. 1.
101. 220. 1.
105. 221. 1.
109. 222. 1.
113. 223. 1.
117. 224. 1.
121. 225. 1.
125. 226. 1.
129. 227. 1.
133. 228. 1.
137. 229. 1.
141. 230. 1.
145. 231. 1.
149. 232. 1.
153. 233. 1.
157. 234. 1.
161. 235. 1.
165. 236. 1.
169. 237. 1.
173. 238. 1.
177. 239. 1.
181. 240. 1.
185. 241. 1.
189. 242. 1.
193. 243. 1.
197. 244. 1.
201. 245. 1.
205. 246. 1.
209. 247. 1.
213. 248. 1.
217. 249. 1.
221. 250. 1.
225. 251. 1.
229. 252. 1.
233. 253. 1.
237. 254. 1.
241. 255. 1.
245. 256. 1.
249. 257. 1.
253. 258. 1.
257. 259. 1.
261. 260. 1.
265. 261. 1.
269. 262. 1.
273. 263. 1.
277. 264. 1.
281. 265. 1.
285. 266. 1.
289. 267. 1.
293. 268. 1.
297. 269. 1.
301. 270. 1.

CALENDARIUM:

Labels:

AK: Ante Kalendas (of the month following).
AKM: Ante Kalendas Martias.

+--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Our | March, May, | January, | April, June, | February has |
| days | July, | August, | September, | 28 days, |
| of the | October, have | December, | November, | and in Leap |
| Month. | 31 days. | have 31 days. | have 30 days. | Year 29. |
+--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| 1. | KALENDIS. | KALENDIS. | KALENDIS. | KALENDIS. |
| 2. | VI. } | IV. } ante | IV. } ante | IV. } ante |
| 3. | V. } ante | III.} Nonas. | III.} Nonas. | III.} Nonas. |
| 4. | IV. } Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. |
| 5. | III.} | NONIS. | NONIS. | NONIS. |
| 6. | Pridie Nonas. | VIII.} | VIII.} | VIII. |
| 7. | NONIS. | VII. } | VII. } | VII. |
| 8. | VIII.} | VI. } ante | VI. } ante | VI. |
| 9. | VII. } | V. } Idus. | V. } Idus. | V. |
| 10. | VI. } ante | IV. } | IV. } | IV. |
| 11. | V. } Idus. | III. } | III. } | III. |
| 12. | IV. } | Pridie Idus. | Pridie Idus. | Pridie Idus. |
| 13. | III. } | IDIBUS. | IDIBUS. | IDIBUS. |
| 14. | Pridie Idus. | XIX. } | XVIII.} | XVI. } |
| 15. | IDIBUS. | XVIII.} | XVII. } | XV. } |
| 16. | XVII } | XVII. } | XVI. } | XIV. } |
| 17. | XVI. } | XVI. } | XV. } | XIII.} |
| 18. | XV. } | XV. } | XIV. } | XII. } |
| 19. | XIV. } | XIV. } | XIII. } | XI. } |
| 20. | XIII.} | XIII. } | XII. } | X. } AKM |
| 21. | XII. } | XII. } | XI. } AK | IX. } |
| 22. | XI. } AK | XI. } AK | X. } | VIII.} |
| 23. | X. } | X. } | IX. } | VII. } |
| 24. | IX. } | IX. } | VIII. } | VI. } |
| 25. | VIII.} | VIII. } | VII. } | V. } |
| 26. | VII. } | VII. } | VI. } | IV. } |
| 27. | VI. } | VI. } | V. } | III. } |
| 28. | V. } | V. } | IV. } | Pridie |
| 29. | IV. } | IV. } | III. } | Kalendas |
| 30. | III. } | III. } | Pridie | Martias. |
| 31. | Pridie | Pridie | Kalendas (of | |
| | Kalendas (of | Kalendas (of | the month | |
| | the month | the month | following). | |
| | following). | following). | | |
+--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

GREEK INDEX.

_The numerals indicate the pages, and the letters_ a _and_ b
_the first and second columns respectively._

Α.

Ἄβαξ, 1, a.

Ἄγαλμα, 13, b; 350, a.

Ἀγαθοεργοί, 13, b.

Ἀγγαρεία, 25, a.

Ἀγέλη, 13, b.

Ἄγημα, 13, b.

Ἀγητής, 72, b.

Ἀγητόρειον, 72, b.

Ἀγητόρια, 72, b.

Ἄγκιστρον, 191, b.

Ἄγκοινα, 267, b.

Ἀγκύλη, 200, a.

Ἀγκύρα, 268, a.

Ἀγορά, 15, b.

Ἀγορανόμος, 8, b; 15, b.

Ἀγρονόμοι, 16, a.

Ἀγροτέρας θυσία, 16, a.

Ἀγύρται, 16, a.

Ἀγχεμάχοι, 41, b.

Ἀγχιστεία, 203, a.

Ἀγωνάρχαι, 15, a.

Ἀγῶνες, 15, a; 131, b.
ἀτίμητοι, 132, b; 377, b.
τίμητοι, 132, b; 377, b.

Ἀγωνισταί, 47, a.

Ἀγωνοδίκαι, 15, a.

Ἀγωνοθέται, 15, a.

Ἀδελφιδοῦς, 203, a.

Ἀδελφός, 203, a.

Ἀδέσποτοι, 202, a.

Ἀδύνατοι, 8, b.

Ἀδώνια, 7, a.

Ἄδυτον, 367, a.

Ἀείσιτοι, 313, b.

Ἀέτωμα, 176, a.

Ἀθληταί, 47, a.

Ἀθλητῆρες, 47, a.

Ἀθλοθέται, 15, a; 282, a.

Αἰγικορεῖς, 389, b.

Αἰγίοχος, 10, b.

Αἰγίς, 10, b.

Αἴθουσα, 16, b.

Αἰκίας δίκη, 16, a.

Αἴνιγμα, 11, a; 357, b.

Αἰσυμνήτης, 12, b; 15, a.

Αἰχμή, 199, b.

Αἰχμοφόροι, 587, b.

Αἰώρα, 11, a.

Ἄκαινα, Ἀκαίνη, 1, b.

Ἀκάτειος, 266, b.

Ἀκάτιον, 1, b; 262, b.

Ἄκατος, 1, b; 262, a.

Ἀκινάκης, 3, b.

Ἀκμόθετον, 254, b.

Ἄκμων, 254, b.

Ἀκόντιον, 200, b.

Ἀκράτισμα, 95, a.

Ἀκροκέραια, 267, a.

Ἀκρόλιθοι, 4, a; 350, b.

Ἀκρόπολις, 4, a.

Ἀκροστόλιον, 4, a; 263, b.

Ἀκρωτηριάζειν, 4, b; 322, b.

Ἀκρωτήριον, 4, a.

Ἄκτια, 5, a.

Ἀκωκή, 199, b.

Ἄκων, 200, b.

Ἀλαβάρχης, 16, b.

Ἁλαί, 327, a.

Ἀλείπται, 17, b.

Ἁλία, 15, b.

Ἄλληξ, or Ἄλλιξ, 17, a.

Ἄλμα, 289, a.

Ἁλοπήγιον, 327, a.

Ἀλυσίδιον, 76, b.

Ἀλύσιον, 76, b.

Ἅλυσις, 76, b.

Ἀλύται, 18, a; 275, a.

Ἀλυτάρχης, 18, a; 275, a.

Ἁλῶα, 18, a; 37, a.

Ἀλῶα, 18, a.

Ἅλως, 37, a.

Ἅμαξα, 297, b.

Ἀμαρύνθια, 18, a.

Ἀμαρύσια, 18, a.

Ἀμβροσία, 19, a.

Ἀμπεχόνη, 19, b.

Ἀμπίτταρες, 202, a.

Ἀμπυκτήρ, 24, a.

Ἄμπυξ, 24, a.

Ἀμφίβληστρον, 320, b.

Ἀμφίβολος, 268, b.

Ἀμφιδέαι, 42, b.

Ἀμφιδρόμια, 21, a.

Ἀμφιθάλαμος, 141, b.

Ἀμφικίων, 367, a.

Ἀμφικτύονες, 19, b.

Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, 367, a.

Ἀμφίστομος, 268, b.

Ἀμφορεύς, 23, a.

Ἀναβαθμοί, 140, a.

Ἀνάγλυπτα, 24, b.

Ἀνάγλυφα, 24, b.

Ἀναγώγια, 25, a.

Ἀναδικία, 29, a.

Ἀναθήματα, 145, a; 350, b.

Ἁνακαλυπτήρια, 250, b.

Ἀνακειμένα, 145, a.

Ἀνάκειον, 24, b.

Ἀνάκλιντρον, 222, a.

Ἀνάκρισις, 24, b; 34, b.

Ἀνάκτορον, 367, a.

Ἄναξ, 320, a.

Ἀναξυρίδες, 62, a.

Ἀνδρεῖα, 359, b.

Ἀνδριάς, 351, a.

Ἀνδρογεώνια, 25, a.

Ἀνδροληψία, 25, a.

Ἀνδρολήψιον, 25, a.

Ἀνδρῶνες, 140, b.

Ἀνδρωνῖτις, 140, a.

Ἀνεύθυνος, 160, a.

Ἀνεψιαδαῦς, 203, a.

Ἀνεψιός, 203, a.

Ἀνθεστήρια, 135, b.

Ἀνθεστηριών, 65, b.

Ἀνθεσφόρια, 26, b.

Ἀνθράκια, 141, b.

Ἀνθύπατος, 310, a.

Ἀνθυπωμοσία, 132, a.

Ἄνοδος, 375, b.

Ἄνοπλοι, 41, b.

Ἀντιγόνεια, 390, b.

Ἀντιγραφή, 27, a; 132, a.

Ἀντίδοσις, 26, b.

Ἀντιτίμησις, 81, b.

Ἀντιχειροτονεῖν, 83, b.

Ἀντλία, 27, a.

Ἄντυξ, 27, a; 94, a.

Ἀντωμοσία, 132, a.

Ἀξίνη, 331, b.

Ἄξονες, 54, b; 271, b.

Ἄξων, 124, a.

Ἄορ, 196, a.

Ἀπαγωγή, 27, b.

Ἀπατούρια, 27, b.

Ἀπαύλια, 250, b.

Ἀπελεύθερος, 239, a; 338, b.

Ἀποβάθρα, 303, a.

Ἀπογραφή, 28, b.

Ἀποδέκται, 28, a; 345, a.

Ἀπόδεσμος, 355, b.

Ἀποθέωσις, 28, b.

Ἀποθήκη, 28, b; 207, b.

Ἀποικία, 98, b.

Ἄποικοι, 93, a.

Ἀπόκλητοι, 13, a.

Ἀπολείψεως δίκη, 139, a.

Ἀπολλώνια, 28, b.

Ἀποπέμψεως δίκη, 139, a.

Ἀπόῤῥητα, 28, b.

Ἀποστασίου δίκη, 338, b.

Ἀποστολεύς, 28, b.

Ἀποτειχισμός, 406, b.

Ἀποτελεσματικός, 45, b.

Ἀποτίμημα, 145, b.

Ἀπόφασις, 38, a.

Ἀποφορά, 28, b.

Ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι, 301, a.

Ἀποχειροτονεῖν, 35, a.

Ἀποχειροτονία, 83, b.

Ἀπωμοσία, 171, b.

Ἀραιόστυλος, 367, b.

Ἀρβύλη, 291, a.

Ἀργάδεις, 389, b.

Ἀργυράσπιδες, 40, a.

Ἀργυροκοπεῖον, 40, a.

Ἄργυρος, 40, a.

Ἀρδάλιον, 185, a.

Ἀρδάνιον, 185, a.

Ἄρειος πάγος, 37, a.

Ἀριστοκρατία, 40, b.

Ἄριστον, 95, a.

Ἅρμα, 123, b; 274, b.

Ἁρμάμαξα, 199, b.

Ἄροτρον, 31, b.

Ἄρουρα, 43, a.

Ἁρπάγη, 199, a.

Ἁρπαστόν, 297, a.

Ἅρπη, 173, b.

Ἀῤῥηφόρια, 42, b.

Ἀῤῥηφόροι, 42, b.

Ἀρτάβη, 43, a.

Ἀρτεμίσια, 43, a.

Ἀρτοποιός, 297, b.

Ἀρτοπῶλαι, 96, a.

Ἀρτοπώλιδες, 96, a; 297, b.

Ἀρτύσεις, 418, a.

Ἀρχεῖον, 33, a.

Ἀρχή, 35, b.

Ἀρχίατρος, 33, a.

Ἀρχιθέωρος, 129, a; 375, a.

Ἀρχιτεκτονία, 33, a.

Ἀρχιτεκτονική, 33, a.

Ἀρχιτέκτων, 374, b.

Ἄρχων, 34, b.
βασιλέυς, 35, a.
ἐπώνυμος, 35, a; 66, a; 86, a.

Ἀρχώνης, 365, a.

Ἀσάμινθος, 54, b.

Ἄσβολος, 183, b.

Ἀσεβείας γραφή, 44, a.

Ἀσκαύλης, 376, b.

Ἀσκληπίεια, 44, b.

Ἀσκοί, 418, a.

Ἀσκωλιασμός, 44, b.

Ἄσκωμα, 265, b.

Ἀσπιδεῖον, 264, a.

Ἀσπιδίσκη, 264, a.

Ἀσπίς, 41, b; 94, a.

Ἀσπισταί, 41, b.

Ἀσσάριον, 44, a.

Ἀστράβη, 154, a.

Ἀστράγαλος, 45, a; 361, b.

Ἀστρατείας γραφή, 45, b.

Ἄστυλος, 367, a.

Ἀστυνόμοι, 46, a.

Ἀσυλία, 46, a.

Ἄσυλον, 46, a.

Ἀτέλεια, 46, b; 366, a.

Ἀτιμία, 8, a; 47, b.

Ἄτιμος, 36, a; 47, b.

Ἄτλαντες, 47, b.

Ἄτρακτος, 191, b.

Αὐθέψης, 54, a.

Αὐλαία, 372, a; 408, a.

Αὔλακες, 32, b.

Αὔλειος θύρα, 140, b.

Αὐλή, 16, b; 48, a; 140, b.

Αὐλητρίδες, 377, b.

Αὐλός, 207, a; 376, b.

Αὐτόνομοι, 54, a.

Αὐτοψία, 150, b.

Ἀφεταί, 202, a.

Ἀφετήριον ὄργανον, 381, a.

Ἄφλαστον, 264, b.

Ἄφοδος, 85, b.

Ἄφρακτος ναῦς, 261, b.

Ἀφρήτορ, 389, a.

Ἀφροδίσια, 28, a.

Ἀχίτων, 401, b.

Ἁψίς, 29, b.

Β.

Βαλανεῖον, 54, b.

Βάλαντιον, 248, b.

Βαλλισμοί, 283, b.

Βάραθρον, 57, a.

Βάρβιτον, -ος, 57, b; 245, b.

Βασανισταί, 381, b.

Βάσανος, 248, b; 381, a.

Βασίλεια, 256, b.

Βασιλεύς, 320, a; 360, b.

Βασίλισσα, 35, a.

Βασκανία, 175, a.

Βελόνη, 6, b.

Βελονίς, 6, b.

Βέμβηξ, 198, a.

Βενδίδεια, 58, a.

Βηλός, 215, a.

Βῆμα, 146, b; 249, a.

Βίβασις, 328, b.

Βιβλιοθήκη, 58, b.

Βιβλίον, 238, a.

Βιδιαῖοι, 59, a.

Βῖκος, 59, a.

Βιός, 37, b.

Βοηδρόμια, 59, b.

Βοηδρομιών, 65, b.

Βοιωτάρχης, -ος, 59, b.

Βολίς, 76, a.

Βομβύλιος, 23, b.

Βορεασμοί, 61, a.

Βορεασμός, 61, a.

Βουλευτήριον, 62, a.

Βουλή, 3, b; 15, b; 61, a.

Βοῶναι, 60, b.

Βραβεῖς, 15, b.

Βραβευταί, 15, b.

Βραυρώνια, 62, a.

Βρόχοι, 319, b.

Βύβλος, 238, a.

Βυκάνη, 62, b.

Βυσσός, 63, a.

Βωμός, 31, a.

Γ.

Γαισός, 192, b.

Γάλως, 13, b.

Γαμηλία, 193, a.

Γάμοροι, 91, a.

Γάμος, 249, b.

Γελέοντες, 389, b.

Γενεθλιαλογία, 45, b.

Γένειον, 57, a.

Γενέσια, 187, b.

Γένεσις, 46, a.

Γένη, 389, a.

Γεννῆται, 389, b.

Γένος, 301, a.

Γέρανος, 327, a.

Γερουσία, 193, b.

Γέῤῥα, 194, a.

Γέφυρα, 302, a.

Γεφυρίζειν, 151, a.

Γεφυρισμός, 151, a.

Γεωμόροι, 389, b.

Γλεῦκος, 416, b.

Γλύξις, 416, b.

Γναφεύς, 184, a.

Γνήσιος, 7, a.

Γνώμων, 206, a.

Γοργύρα, 72, a.

Γράμμα, 331, a.

Γραμματεύς, 3, b; 196, a.

Γραφή, 131, b; 293, b.

Γραφή δωροδοκίας, 127, a.
δώρων, 127, a.
ξενίας, 422, a.
παρανοίας, 284, a.
παρανόμων, 147, b; 284, a.
ὕβρεως, 210, a.
φαρμάκων, 292, b.
ψευδεγγραφῆς, 314, a.

Γραφική, 293, b.

Γραφίς, 295, b.

Γρῖφος, 357, b.

Γρόσφος, 200, b.

Γύης, 31, b.

Γυμνασιάρχης, 197, b.

Γυμνασίαρχος, 197, b.

Γυμνάσιον, 197, a.

Γυμνασταί, 197, b.

Γυμνήσιοι, 198, a.

Γυμνῆται, 41, b.

Γυμνῆτες, 41, b; 198, b.

Γυμνοί, 41, b; 272, b.

Γυμνοπαιδία, 198, b.

Γυναικοκόσμοι, 198, b.

Γυναικονόμοι, 198, b.

Γυναικωνῖτις, 140, a.

Γωρυτός, 37, b.

Δ.

Δαδοῦχος, 150, b.

Δαίδαλα, 126, b.

Δαιδάλεια, 126, b.

Δακτύλιος, 25, b.

Δάκτυλος, 126, b.

Δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον, 126, b.

Δαμοσία, 161, b; 301, b.

Δανάκη, 126, b; 185, a.

Δαρεικός, 126, b.

Δαφνηφόρια, 126, b.

Δεῖγμα, 128, b.

Δείλη, 134, b.

Δεῖπνον, 95, a.

Δεκαδαρχία, 127, a.

Δεκαδοῦχοι, 127, a.

Δεκαρχία, 127, a.

Δεκασμός, 127, a.

Δεκάστυλος, 367, b.

Δεκατευταί, 128, b.

Δεκάτη, 128, b.

Δεκατηλόγοι, 128, a.

Δεκατῶναι, 128, a.

Δελφίνια, 129, a.

Δελφίς, 129, a.

Δεσμωτήριον, 72, a.

Δεσποσιοναῦται, 202, a.

Δευτεραγωνιστής, 205, b.

Δῆγμα, 182, b.

Δήλια, 128, b; 283, b.

Δήμαρχοι, 129, a; 385, b.

Δημιοῦργοι, 3, b; 129, a; 389. b.

Δήμιος, 202, a.

Δημοκρατία, 129, b.

Δῆμος, 129, b; 130, a.

Δημόσιοι, 129, b.

Δημόσιον, 11, b; 33, a.

Δημόται, 130, a.

Διαγραφεῖς, 149, a.

Διάζωμα, 422, b.

Διαζώματα, 371, a.

Διαιτηταί, 130, b.

Διάκριοι, 390, a.

Διαμαρτυρία, 24, b.

Διαμαστίγωσις, 130, b.

Διάσια, 131, a.

Διάστυλος, 367, b.

Δίαυλος, 274, b; 348, b.

Διαχειροτονία 83, b.

Διαψήφισις, 130, b.

Διελκυστίνδα παίζειν, 198, a.

Διῆρες, 141, b.

Δίκαι ἔμμηνοι, 152, a.

Διιπόλεια, 135, b.

Διιπόλια, 135, b.

Δικαστής, 131, a.

Δικαστικόν, 131, a.

Δίκη, 131, b.
ἀποστασίου, 338, b.

Δίκη αὐτοτελής, 132, b.
βλάβης, 248, b.
ἐξούλης, 152, a.
λειπομαρτυρίου, 248, b.
προικός, 345, a.
σίτου, 345, a.
χρέους, 377, b.

Δίκροτα, 260, b.

Δικτύννια, 134, b.

Δίκτυον, 319, b.

Διμάχαι, 135, b; 164, a.

Δίμιτος, 364, b.

Διοικήσεως, ὁ ἐπὶ, 362, b.

Διόλεια, 135, b.

Διονύσια, 135 b.
ἐν ἄστει, or μεγάλα, 135, b.
κατ’ ἀργούς, or μικρά, 135, b.

Διοσημεῖα, 138, b.

Διοσκούρια, 137, a.

Διπλοΐδιον, 401, a.

Διπλοΐς, 401, a.

Διπόλεια, 135, b.

Δίπτερος, 367, a.

Δίπτυχα, 137, b; 358, b; 360, a.

Δίσκος, 137, b.

Διφθέρα, 137, a; 238, a.

Δίφρος, 124, b.

Διωβελία, 374, b.

Δόκανα, 139, b.

Δοκιμασία, 139, b; 153, b.

Δόλιχος, 274, b; 348, b.

Δόλων, 140, a.

Δοράτιον, 199, b.

Δόρπον, 95, a.

Δόρυ, 41, b; 199, b.

Δοῦλος, 337, a.

Δράκων, 343, b.

Δραχμή, 145, b.

Δρεπάνη, Δρέπανον, 173, b.

Δροῖται, 185, b.

Δρόμος, 274, b.

Δυμανάται, 389, a.

Δυμᾶνες, 389, a.

Δωμάτια, 140, b.

Δῶρα, 145, a.

Δωροδοκίας γραφή. 127, a.

Δῶρον, 281, a.

Δώρων γραφή, 127, a.

Ε.

Ἐγγύησις, 249, b.

Ἔγκλημα, 131, b.

Ἔγκτημα, 152, b.

Ἔγκτησις, 91, a; 152, b.

Ἔγχος, 41, b; 199, b.

Ἕδνα, 145, a.

Ἕδος, 367, a.

Ἑδώλια, 265, b.

Ἔεδνα, 145, a.

Ἐθελοπρόξενος, 209, a.

Εἰκόνες, 351, a.

Εἰκοστή, 148, b.

Εἰκοστολόγοι, 148, b.

Εἵλωτες, 201, b.

Εἴρην, 148, b.

Εἰσαγγελία, 148, b.

Εἰσιτήρια, 148, b.

Εἰσποιεῖσθαι, 7, a.

Εἰσποίησις, 7, a.

Εἰσποιητός, 7, a.

Εἰσφέρειν, 149. a.

Εἰσφορά, 148, b.

Ἑκατόμβαια, 203, a.

Ἑκατομβαιών, 65, b.

Ἑκατομβή, 203, a; 324, b.

Ἔκγονοι, 203, a.

Ἔκδικος, 148, a.

Ἔκδοσις, 176, b.

Ἐκεχειρία, 274. a.

Ἐκκλησία, 146, b.
κυρία, 146, b.
νόμιμος, 146, b.
σύγκλητος, 146, b.

Ἔκκλητοι, 206, b.

Ἐκκομιδή, 185, b.

Ἐκλογεῖς, 149, a.

Ἐκμαρτυρία, 24, b; 148, a.

Ἐκποιεῖν, 7, a.

Ἐκποιεῖσθαι, 7. a.

Ἑκτεύς, Ἕκτη, 201, a.

Ἐκφορά, 185, a.

Ἐκφυλλοφορία, 172, b.

Ἐλαία, Ἔλαιον, 273, b.

Ἐλατήρ, 398, a.

Ἐλαφηβολιών, 65, b.

Ἐλέος, 382, b.

Ἐλευθέρια, 151, b.

Ἐλευσίνια, 149, b.

Ἑλκυστίνδα παίζειν, 198, a.

Ἑλλανοδίκαι, 18, a; 201, b; 275, a.

Ἑλληνοταμίαι, 201, b.

Ἐλλόβιον, 211, b.

Ἐλλώτια, or Ἑλλώτια, 151, b.

Ἔλυμα, 31, b.

Ἐμβάς, 151, b.

Ἐμβατεία, 151, b.

Ἔμβλημα, 152, a.

Ἐμβολή, 40, b.

Ἔμβολον, 264, a.

Ἔμβολος, 124, a; 264, a.

Ἐμμέλεια, 85, b.

Ἔμμηνοι δίκαι, 152, a.

Ἔμπαισμα, 152, a.

Ἐμποριον, 152, b.

Ἔμπορος, 152, b.

Ἔμφρουρος, 161, a.

Ἐναγίσματα, 187, b.

Ἔνατα, 187, a.

Ἔνδειξις, 152, b.

Ἕνδεκα οἱ, 202, b.

Ἐνδοῦναι, 140, b.

Ἐνδρομίς, 152, b.

Ἔνδυμα, 19, b.

Ἔννατα, 187, a.

Ἐννεάκρουνος, 29, b.

Ἐννεατηρίς, 316, a.

Ἔνοπτρον, 347, a.

Ἔντεα, 41, a.

Ἐνωμοτίαι, 161, a.

Ἐνώτιον, 211, b.

Ἑξάστυλος, 367, a.

Ἐξέδρα, 140, b; 160, b; 258, b.

Ἐξετασταί, 160, b.

Ἐξηγηταί, 160, a; 160, b.

Ἑξήρεις, 262, a.

Ἐξόδια, 171, a.

Ἔξοδος, 384, a.

Ἐξούλης δίκη, 152, a.

Ἐξωμίς, 171, a.

Ἐξωμοσία, 171, b.

Ἐξώστρα, 171, b.

Ἑορτή, 274, b.

Ἐπαγγελία, 153, a.

Ἑπάλξεις, 381, a; 406, b.

Ἐπάριτοι, 153, a.

Ἐπαύλια, 250, b.

Ἐπεισόδιον, 384, a.

Ἐπιβάθρα, 303, a.

Ἐπιβάται, 155, a.

Ἐπίβλημμα, 19, b.

Ἐπιβόλαιον, 19, b.

Ἐπιβολή, 155, a.

Ἐπιγαμία, 91, a.

Ἐπίγραμμα, 377, b.

Ἐπιγραφεῖς, 149, a.

Ἐπιδαύρια, 151, a.

Ἐπιδόσεις, 155, a.

Ἐπίθημα, 186, b.

Ἐπίκληρος, 155, a.

Ἐπίκλιντρον, 222, a.

Ἐπίλογοι, 358, b.

Ἐπιμεληταί, 155, b; 316, a.
τοῦ ἐμπορίον, 152, b; 155, b.
τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου, 155, b; 362, b.
τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν, 155, b.
τῶν Μυστηρίων, 155, b.
τῶν νεωρίων, 155, b.
τῶν φυλῶν, 155, b.

Ἐπιμύλιον, 256, a.

Ἐπιπόραδος, 85, b.

Ἐπίπροικοι, 203, a.

Ἐπίσκοποι, 155, b.

Ἐπισπάσασθαι, 140, b.

Ἐπισπαστήρ, 140, b.

Ἐπιστάτης, 61, b; 161, b.
τῶν δημοσίων ἔργων, 155, b.

Ἐπιστολεύς, 155, b.

Ἐπιστύλιον, 102, a; 155, b.

Ἐπίσωτρον, 124, a.

Ἐπίταγμα, 163, b.

Ἐπίτονοι, 222, a; 267, b.

Ἐπίτροπος, 155, b.

Ἐπιχειροτονία, 35, a; 83, b.

Ἐπόπται, 150, b.

Ἐποπτεία, 150, b.

Ἐπωβελία, 156, a.

Ἐπωμίς, 401, a.

Ἐπωνία, 365, b.

Ἐπώνυμος, 35, a.

Ἔρανος, 95, b; 159, a.

Ἐργάναι, 363, b.

Ἐργαστῖναι, 282, a.

Ἑρμαῖ, 204, a.

Ἕρμαια, 204, a.

Ἐῤῥηφόροι, 42, b.

Ἐρσηφόροι, 42, b.

Ἐρυκτῆρες, 202, a.

Ἐρώτια, 159, b.

Ἐρωτίδια, 159, b.

Ἔσοπτρον, 347, a.

Ἐστία, 180, b.

Ἐστιάσις, 204, a.

Ἑστιάτωρ, 204, b.

Ἐσχάρα, 31, a; 141, b; 180, b.

Ἐσχαρίς, 31 a; 141, b; 180, b.

Ἑταιρία, 98, a; 159, a; 359, b.

Ἕταιροι, 163, b.

Ἑτεροστόμος, 268, b.

Εὔδειπνος, 11, a.

Εὔζωνος, 401, b.

Εὐθυδικία, 132, a.

Εὐθύνη, 154, b; 160, a.

Εὔθυνοι, 160, b.

Εὐμολπίδαι, 159, b.

Εὐνή, 222, a.

Εὐπατρίδαι, 91, a; 160, a.

Εὔστυλος, 367, b.

Εὐφημεῖτε, 138, b.

Εὐφημία, 138, b.

Ἐφελκύσασθαι, 140, b.

Ἐφέσις, 29, a.

Ἐφέται, 153, b.

Ἐφηβεία, 153, a.

Ἔφηβος, 153, a.

Ἐφήγησις, 153, b.

Ἐφίππειον, 154, a.

Ἐφίππιον, 154, a.

Ἔφοροι, 154, a.

Ἔφυροι, 150, b.

Ἐχῖνος, 24, b; 132, a; 249, a.

Ἕψημα, 416, b.

Ἐώρα, 11, a.

Ζ.

Ζάκοροι, 10, a.

Ζευγῖται, 81, b; 162, a; 390, a.

Ζεῦγλαι, 266, a.

Ζευκτηρίαι, 266, a.

Ζητηταί, 422, b.

Ζυγά, 265, b.

Ζύγιοι, 124, b; 265, b.

Ζυγῖται, 124, b; 265, b.

Ζύγον, 161, a; 217, a; 245, b; 329, a.

Ζύγος, 217, a; 329, a.

Ζύθος, 82, b.

Ζωγραφία, 293, b.

Ζῶμα, 422, b.

Ζωμὸς μέλας, 360, a.

Ζώνα, 41, a; 422, b.

Ζωστήρ, 41, b; 422, b.

Ζωφόρος, 102, a; 422, b.

Η.

Ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν, 393, a.

Ἡγεμονία δικαστηρίου, 249, a.

Ἠθμός, 101, a.

Ἠλακάτη, 191, b.; 267, a.

Ἤλεκτρον -ος, 149, b.

Ἡλιοτρόπιον, 207, a.

Ἦμαρ δείελον, 134, b.
μέσον, 134, b.

Ἡμέρα κυρία τοῦ νόμου, 94, a.
μέση, 134, b.

Ἡμεροδρόμοι, 202, a.

Ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον, 401, a.

Ἡμιεκτεόν, 201, a.

Ἡμιέκτον, 201, a.

Ἡμικύκλιον, 202, a.

Ἡμίμνα, or Ἡμίνα, 120, b; 202, b.

Ἡνίοχος, 124, b.

Ἡραῖα, 202, b.

Ἡρῷον, 186, a.

Ἠώς, 134, b.

Θ.

Θαλάμιοι, 265, b.

Θαλαμῖται, 265, b.

Θάλαμος, 141, b; 265, b.

Θαλλοφόροι, 282, b.

Θάπτειν, 185, b.

Θαργήλια, 370, a.

Θαργηλιών, 65, b.

Θέατρον, 273, a; 370, b.

Θεατροπώλης, 374, b.

Θεατρώνης, 374, b.

Θέμα, 46, a.

Θεοφανία, 374, a.

Θεράπων, 161, b; 202, a.

Θερμά, 55, a.

Θέσις, 7, a.

Θεσμοθέται, 35, a.

Θεσμός, 35, b; 271, b.

Θεσμοφόριος, 375, b.

Θετοί, 7, a.

Θεωρία, 375, a.

Θεωρικά, 374, a.

Θεωρίς, 128, b; 283, b.

Θεωροί, 128, b; 375, a.

Θῆκαι, 186, a.

Θηριομάχοι, 58, b.

Θησαυρός, 367, a; 375, a.

Θησεῖα, 375, b.

Θῆτες, 81, b; 390, a.

Θίασος, 135, b.

Θολία, 405, a.

Θόλος, 376, a.

Θόωκος, 15, b.

Θράνιον, 376, a.

Θρανῖται, 265, b.

Θράνος, 265, b.

Θρηνῳδοί, 185, b.

Θρίαμβος, 394, a.

Θρόνος, 376, a.

Θυμέλη, 371, b.

Θυμιατήριον, 2, a; 402, b.

Θύρα, 214, b.
αὔλειος, 140, b.
βαλανωτός, 141, a.
κηπαία, 141, b.
μέσαυλος, 141, a.
μέταυλος, 141, a.

Θυρεός, 331, a.

Θύρετρον, 215, a.

Θυρίδες, 141, b.

Θύρσος, 376, a.

Θυρῶν, 140, b.

Θυρωρεῖον, 140, b.

Θυρωρός, 140, b; 215, a.

Θύσανοι, 10, b.

Θυτήριον, 31, a.

Θώραξ, 41, a; 240, b.

Ι.

Ἴακχος, 150, b.

Ἴγδη, Ἴγδις, 257, a.

Ἵδρυσις, 366, b.

Ἱερεῖον, 324, a.

Ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, 303, a.

Ἱερόδουλοι, 204, b.

Ἱερομαντεία, 138, a.

Ἱερομηνία, 274, a.

Ἱερομνήμονες, 20, a; 205, a.

Ἱερόν, 362, a; 366, b.

Ἱερονῖκαι, 47, a.

Ἱερονόμος, 303, a.

Ἱεροποιοί, 205, a.

Ἱεροσκοπία, 138, a.

Ἱεροφάντης, 150, a; 159, b; 303, a.

Ἱεροφύλαξ, 303, a.

Ἱκετηρία, 421, a.

Ἴκρια, 260, a.

Ἰλάρια, 205, a.

Ἴλη, 163, b.

Ἱμάντες, 82, b; 267, b.

Ἱμάντες πυκτικοί, 82, b.

Ἱματίδιον, 280, a.

Ἱμάτιον, 19, a; 280, a.

Ἰνῶα, 213, a.

Ἱππαρμοστής, 161, a.

Ἴππαρχος, 3, b; 162, b.

Ἱππεῖς, 13, b; 81, b; 390, a.

Ἱππικόν, 348, b.

Ἱπποβόται, 205, a.

Ἱππόδρομος, 348, b.

Ἱπποκόμος, 162, b.

Ἴρην, 148, b.

Ἴσθμια, 214, a.

Ἰσοπολιτεία, 91, a; 255, a.

Ἰσοτέλεια, 91, a; 255, a; 366, a.

Ἰσοτελεῖς, 91, a; 255, a.

Ἱστίον, 259, b; 267, a.

Ἱστοβοεύς, 31, b.

Ἱστός, 259, b; 266, a; 363, b.

Ἱστών, 141, b; 363, b.

Ἴτυς, 124, a.

Ἱφικρατίδες, 163, a.

Κ.

Καβείρια, 63, a.

Κάδος, Κάδδος, 23, b; 63, b.

Καθάπαξ, 47, b.

Κάθαρσις, 244, a.

Καθετήρ, 318, b.

Κάθοδος, 375, b.

Καίειν, 185, b.

Κάλαθος, 64, a.
κάθοδος, 150, b.

Κάλαμος, 301, a.

Καλλιγένεια, 375, b.

Καλλιερεῖν, 138, b.

Καλλιστεῖα, 68, b.

Καλοβάτης, 184, b.

Κάλοι, 260, b; 267, b.

Καλῳδία, 267, b.

Καμάρα, 69, a.

Κάναβος, or Κίναβος, 69, a.

Κάναθρον, 69, a.

Κάνδυς, 70, a.

Κάνεον, 70, a.

Κανηφόρος, 70, a; 282, b.

Κανών, 364, b.

Καπηλεῖον, 77, a.

Κάπηλος, 77, a; 152, b.

Καπνοδόκη, 141, b.

Καρνεάται, 72, b.

Καρνεῖα, 72, b.

Καρπαία, 328, a.

Καρχήσιον, 72, a.

Καρύα, 73, a.

Καρυατίς, 73, a.

Καταβλητική, 242, a.

Καταγώγιον, 77, a.

Κατάλογος, 76, a.

Κατάλυσις, 77, a.

Καταπειρατήρια, 76, a.

Καταπέλτης, 381, a.

Καταπελτική, 381, a.

Καταῤῥάκτης, 76, a.

Κατάστασις, 162, b.

Καταστρώματα, 261, a.

Κατατομαί, 371, a.

Κατάφρακτοι, 261, a.

Καταχειροτονία, 83, b.

Καταχύσματα, 250, a.

Κατήγορος, 358, b.

Κάτοπτρον, 347, a.

Κατορύττειν, 185, b.

Κατοχεύς, 215, a.

Καυσία, 77, b.

Κεάδας, 72, a; 78, a.

Κειρία, 222, a.

Κεκρύφαλος, 103, b.

Κελευστής, 259, a; 305, b.

Κεραία, 267, a.

Κεραμεύς, 178, b.

Κεράμιον, 178, b.

Κέραμος, 178, b; 363, b.

Κέρας, 163, b; 322, b.

Κερατίον, 405, b.

Κερκίδες, 364, b; 371, a.

Κεροῦχοι, 267, b.

Κεφαλή, 40, b.

Κηπαία θύρα, 141, b.

Κῆπος, 207, b.

Κηρογραφία, 295, a.

Κηροός, 82, b.

Κηρύκειον, 63, a.

Κηρύκιον, 63, a.

Κιβωτός, 32, a.

Κίθαρις,245, a.

Κίονες, 186, a.

Κίστη, 90, a.

Κιστοφόρος, 90, b.

Κίων, 101, b.

Κλεῖθρον, 215, a.

Κλείς, 178, b.

Κλεψύδρα, 249, a.

Κλήιδες, 260, a.

Κληρονόμος, 203, a.

Κλῆρος, 203, a.

Κληρουχία, 93, a; 98, b.

Κληροῦχοι, 93, a.

Κλητῆρες, 93, a.

Κλήτορες, 93, a.

Κλιμακίδες, 266, a.

Κλίνη, 221, a; 222, a.

Κλινίδιον, 221, a.

Κλισίας, 215, a.

Κναφεύς, 184, a.

Κνέφαλον, 222, a.

Κνῆμαι, 124, a.

Κνημίς, 41, a; 273, a.

Κόγξ, 150, b.

Κόθορνος, 120, a.

Κοιλοι, 65, b.

Κοῖλον, 371, a.

Κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων, 13, a.

Κοιτῶνες, 140, b.

Κολεός, 196, a.

Κολοσσός, 101, a.

Κόλπος, 401, a.

Κολῶναι, 186, a.

Κόμη, 103, a.

Κομμός, 384, a.

Κοντός, 266, a.

Κοπίς, 122, a.

Κόρδαξ, 85, b; 111, a.

Κόρη, 400, b.

Κορυβαντικά, 119, b.

Κόρυμβος, 103, a.

Κόρυς, 41, b; 192, b.

Κορώνη, 288, a.

Κορωνίς, 102, b; 119, b.

Κοσμοί, 120, a.

Κότινος, 275, b.

Κότταβος, 120, b.

Κοτύλη, 120, b.

Κοτύττια, 120, b.

Κουρά, 103, a.

Κόφινος, 117, a.

Κοχλιάριον, 94, b.

Κοχλίας, 94, b.

Κράνος, 192, b.

Κρατήρ, 121, a.

Κρεάγρα, 199, b.

Κρήνη, 29, b; 181, a.

Κρηπίς, 121, a.

Κρίκος, 211, b.

Κριός, 40, a.

Κριταί, 121, a.

Κροκή, 364, a.

Κροκωτόν -ός, 121, a.

Κρόταλον, 126, a.

Κρούειν, 215, a.

Κρυπτεία, 121, b.

Κρωβύλος, 103, a.

Κτείς, 288, a.

Κύαθος, 125, a.

Κυάμος, 96, a.

Κυβερνῆται, 259, a.

Κυβιστηρες, 328, a.

Κύβος, 368, b.

Κύκλα, 124, a.

Κυκλάς, 125, b.

Κύκλος, 338, a.

Κύλιξ, 68, a.

Κῦμα, 125, b.

Κύμβαλον, 125, b.

Κύμβη, 125, b.

Κυνέη, 41, b; 192, b.

Κυρβασία, 376, b.

Κύρβεις, 54, b; 271, b.

Κύριος, 123, b; 250, b.

Κύων, 362, a.

Κώδων, 378, a.

Κωλακρέται, 98, a; 363, a.

Κῶμος, 110, b.

Κωμῳδία, 110, b.

Κωνοπεῖον, 113, a.

Κώπη, 265, b.

Λ.

Λαμπαδαρχία, 220, a.

Λαμπαδηδρομία, 220, a.

Λαμπαδηφορία, 220, a.

Λαμπάς, 220, a.

Λάρνακες, 185, b.

Λάφρια, 220, b.

Λέβης, 273, b.

Λειτουργία, 224, a.

Λεκάνη, 286, a.

Λεκανίς, 207, a.

Λέσχη, 225, a.

Λέχος, 222, a.

Λήκυθος, 23, b; 185, a; 295, b.

Λήναια, 135, b.

Ληνοί, 185, b.

Ληνός, 416, b.

Ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, 130, a.

Λῆξις, 131, b.

Λιβανωτρίς, 2, b.

Λιβυρνίς, 239, a; 262, b.

Λιβυρνόν, 239, a; 262, b.

Λιθοτομίαι, 221, a.

Λικμός, 407, a.

Λίκνον, 407, a.

Λίνα, 319, b.

Λίτρα, 240, a.

Λογεῖον, 372, a.

Λογισταί, 160, b.

Λογιστής, 65, a.

Λόγχη, 199, b.

Λοετρόν, 54, b.

Λοιβαί, 325, b.

Λουτήρ, 55, a.

Λουτήριον, 55, a.

Λουτρόν, 54, b.

Λουτροφόρος, 250, a.

Λόφος, 192, b.

Λοχαγοί, 161, a; 363, b.

Λόχος, 161, a; 162, b; 363, b.

Λύκαια, 245, a.

Λύκος, 199, a.

Λύρα, 245, a.

Λύχνος, 241, b.

Λυχνοῦχος, 70, a.

Μ.

Μάζα, 96, a; 285, a.

Μαιμακτηριών, 65, b.

Μάνδαλος, 215, a.

Μανδύας, 219, b.

Μανδύη, 219, b.

Μαντεῖον, 276, b.

Μάντεις, 137, b.

Μαντική, 137, b.

Μαρσύπιον, 248, b.

Μαρτυρία, 24, b; 248, b.

Μαστιγονόμοι, 249, a.

Μαστιγοφόροι, 249, a.

Μάστιξ, 179, b.

Μάχαιρα, 122, a; 315, a.

Μέγαρον, 367, a.

Μέδιμνος, 253, a.

Μεθίστασται, 172, a.

Μελία, 199, b.

Μελίκρατον, 418, b.

Μελιττοῦτα, 185, a.

Μελλείρην, 148, b.

Μεσαύλιος θύρα, 141, a.

Μέσαυλος θύρα, 141, a.

Μεσημβρία, 134, b.

Μεταγειτνιών, 65, b.

Μέταλλον, 254, a.

Μετάστασις, 85, b.

Μέταυλος θύρα, 141, a.

Μετεωρολογία, 45, b.

Μετοίκιον, 255, a; 365, b.

Μέτοικοι, 254, b.

Μετόπη, 255, a.

Μετρητής, 255, b.

Μέτωπον, 263, a.

Μήν ἐμβόλιμος, 65, b.

Μητρόπολις, 98, b.

Μήτρῳον, 33, a.

Μῖμος, 255, b.

Μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, 147, a.

Μίτοι, 364, b.

Μίτρα, 103, a; 256, a; 422, b.

Μίτρη, 41, a.

Μνᾶ, 361, b.

Μνήματα, 186, a.

Μνημεῖα, 186, a.

Μόθακες, 202, a.

Μόθωνες, 202, a.

Μοιχείας γραφή, 8, a.

Μολυβδίδες, 184, b.

Μοναρχία, 256, b.

Μονομάχοι, 194, b.

Μονοχίτων, 401, a.

Μόρα, 161, a.

Μουνυχιών, 65, b.

Μουσεῖον, 258, b.

Μοχλός, 215, a.

Μυκτῆρες, 241, b.

Μύλος, 256, a.

Μύξαι, 241, b.

Μυρίοι, 258, b.

Μυῤῥίναι, 418, a.

Μύσια, 258, b.

Μυσταγωγός, 150, a; 159, b.

Μύσται, 150, a.

Μυστήρια, 258, b.

Μυστίλη, 95, b.

Μύστρον, 95, b.

Μύστρος, 95, b.

Ν.

Ναΐδιον, 186, a.

Ναός, 366, b.

Ναυαρχία, 259, a.

Ναύαρχος, 259, a.

Ναύκληροι, 259, b; 359, a.

Ναυκραρία, 259, a.

Ναύκραρος, 259, a.

Ναῦς, 259, b.

Ναυτικόν, 176, b.

Ναυτοδίκαι, 268, b.

Νεάζεσθαι, 32, b.

Νεκρόδειπνον, 187, a.

Νεκύσια, 187, b.

Νεμαῖα, 269, a.

Νέμεα, 269, a.

Νεμεῖα, 269, a.

Νεοδαμώδεις, 202, a.

Νεός, 32, b.

Νεοῦσθαι, 32, b.

Νεωκόροι, 10, a; 269, a.

Νεώς, 366, b.

Νῆες, 262, a.

Νήμα, 191, b.

Νηστεία, 375, b.

Νομοθέτης, 35, b; 271, b.

Νόμος, 271, b.

Νομοφύλακες, 271, a.

Νουμηνία, 65, a.

Νυμφευτής, 250, a.

Νυχθήμερον, 134, b.

Ξ.

Ξεναγία, 163, a.

Ξεναγοί, 421, b.

Ξενηλασία, 422, a.

Ξενία, 208, a.

Ξενίας γραφή, 422, a.

Ξενικά, 255, a.

Ξένος, 208, a; 254, b.

Ξενῶνες, 141, b.

Ξέστης, 422, a.

Ξίφος, 41, b; 196, a.

Ξόανον, 349, a.

Ξυήλη, 161, b.

Ξυλοκοπία, 191, b.

Ξυστήρ, 17, b.

Ξύστρα, 56, b.

Ο.

Ὀβολός, 145, a; 361, b.

Ὀγδόδιον, 375, b.

Ὀγκία, or Οὐγκία, 405, a.

Ὁδοποιοί, 363, a.

Οἰκήματα, 140, b.

Οἰκιστής, 98, b.

Οἶκος, 140, a.

Οἰνιστήρια, 103, a.

Οἰνόμελι, 418, a.

Οἶνος, 416, a.

Οἰωνιστική, 138, b.

Οἰωνοπόλος, 49, b.

Οἰωνοσκόποι, 49, b.

Ὀκρίβας, 372, a.

Ὀκτάστυλος, 367, a.

Ὀλιγαρχία, 41, a; 273, b.

Ὁλκάδες, 262, a.

Ὁλκοί, 261, b.

Ὄλμος, 257, a.

Ὀλοκαυτεῖν, 324, b.

Ὀλύμπια, 274, a.

Ὀλυμπιάς, 276, a.

Ὁμογάλακτες, 389, b.

Ὅμοιοι, 91, b; 161, b; 206, a.

Ὁμολογία, 358, b.

Ὀμφάλος, 94, a; 163, b.

Ὀνειροπολία, 138, b.

Ὄνομα, 270, b.

Ὄνος, 256, a.

Ὀξίς, 2, b.

Ὀξυβάφιον, 2, b.

Ὀξύβαφον, 2, b; 120, b.

Ὀξυγράφοι, 272, a.

Ὀπή, 255, a.

Ὀπισθόδομος, 367, a.

Ὅπλα, 41, a.

Ὅπλητες, 389, b.

Ὁπλίται, 41, b.

Ὄργια, 258, b.

Ὀργυιά, 278, a.

Ὀρείχαλκος, 278, a.

Ὄρκος, 218, a.

Ὄρμος, 256, b; 328, b.

Ὄρυγμα, 57, a.

Ὄρχησις, 327, b.

Ὀρχήστρα, 371, b.

Ὀρχηστύς, 327, b.

Ὄσιοι, 277, a.

Ὀστράκιον, 178, b.

Ὀστρακισμός, 172, a.

Ὄστρακον, 172, b; 178, b; 185, a.

Ὀσχοφόρια, 278, a.

Οὐγγία, 405, a.

Οὐγκία, 405, a.

Οὖδας, 215, a.

Οὐλαμοί, 161, b.

Οὐλόχυτα, 325, a.

Οὐλοχύται, 325, a.

Οὐραγός, 161, b; 166, b.

Οὐριάχος, 200, a.

Ὄφεις, 42, b.

Ὀχάνη, 94, a.

Ὄχανον, 94, a.

Ὀχλοκρατία, 129, b.

Ὄψημα, 276, b.

Ὄψον, 276, b.

Ὀψώνης, 276, b.

Π.

Παγκρατιασταί, 282, b.

Παγκράτιον, 282, b.

Παιάν, 279, a.

Παιδαγωγός, 279, a.

Παιδονόμος, 279, a.

Παιδοτριβαί, 197, b.

Παιήων, 279, a.

Παίων, 279, a.

Πάλαισμα, 242, a.

Παλαισμοσύνη, 242, a.

Παλαιστή, 281, a.

Παλαίστρα, 279, b.

Πάλη, 242, a.

Παμβοιώτια, 281, b.

Πάμμαχοι, 282, b.

Πάμφυλοι, 389, a.

Παναθήναια, 281, b.

Πανδοκεῖον, 77, a.

Πανήγυρις, 283, a.

Πανιώνια, 283, a.

Πανοπλία, 283, a.

Παράβασις, 111, a.

Παραγναθίδες, 192, b.

Παραγραφή, 283, b.

Παράδεισος, 283, b.

Παραθύρα, 215, a.

Παραιβάτης, 124, b.

Παραλῖται, 283, b.

Πάραλοι, 283, b; 390, a.

Πάραλος, 283, b.

Παράμεσος δάκτυλος, 25, b.

Παρανοίας γραφή, 284, a.

Παρανόμων γραφή, 147, b; 284, a.

Παράνυμφος, 250, a.

Παραπέτασμα, 140, b; 372, a.

Παραπρεσβεία, 284, b.

Παραστάδες, 26, a.

Παραπυλίς, 305, a.

Παραῤῥύματα, 267, b.

Παρασάγγης, 284, b.

Παράσημον, 263, b.

Παράσιτος, 284, b.

Παρασκήνιον, 372, a.

Παραστάς, 141, a.

Παράστασι, ἐν, 367, a.

Παραστάται, 266, a.

Πάρεδροι, 284, b.

Παρήορος, 124, b.

Πάροδοι, 372, a.

Πάροδος, 85, b.

Πάροχος, 250, a.

Παστός, 289, b.

Πάτραι, 389, a.

Πεδιαῖοι, 390, a.

Πέδιλον, 64, b.

Πεζέταιροι, 163, b.

Πελάται, 288, b.

Πέλεκυς, 331, b.

Πελτασταί, 42, a; 163, a; 289, a.

Πέλτη, 42, a; 288, b.

Πενέσται, 289, a.

Πενταετηρίς, 274, b.

Πένταθλοι, 289, a.

Πένταθλον, 289, a.

Πεντακοσιαρχία, 163, b.

Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι, 81, b; 390, a.

Πενταλιθίζειν, 362, a.

Πεντάλιθος, 198, a.

Πεντάπτυχα, 360, a.

Πεντηκόντορος, 260, b; 262, a.

Πεντηκοστή, 289, a.

Πεντηκοστήρ, 161, a.

Πεντηκοστολόγοι, 289, b.

Πεντηκοστύς, 161, a.

Πεντήρεις, 262, a.

Πέπλος, 289, b.

Περίαμμα, 24, a.

Περίαπτον, 24, a.

Περίβλημα, 19, b.

Περιβόλαιον, 19, b.

Περίβολος, 323, a.

Περίδειπνον, 187, a.

Περίοικοι, 290, b.

Περίπατος, 258, b.

Περιπόδιον, 213, a.

Περίπολοι, 153, b; 162, a.

Περίπτερος, 367, a.

Περιῤῥαντήρια, 366, b.

Περισκελλίς, 291, a.

Περιστύλιον, 102, a; 140, b.

Περιτειχισμός, 406, b.

Περόνη, 178, b.

Πεσσοί, 221, a.

Πεταλισμός, 172, b.

Πέτασος, 297, b.

Πέταυρον, 292, a.

Πέτευρον, 292, a.

Πετροβόλος, 381, a.

Πηδάλιον, 265, b.

Πήληξ, 192, b.

Πήνη, 364, a.

Πηνίκη, 104, a.

Πήνιον, 192, a.

Πήρα, 290, a.

Πῆχυς, 122, a; 245, b.

Πίθος, 417, a.

Πιθοιγία, 136, a.

Πίλημα, 297, a.

Πῖλος, 297, a.

Πιλωτόν, 297, a.

Πινακική, 45, b.

Πινακοθήκη, 293, b.

Πλαγίαυλος, 376, b.

Πλαστική, 349, a.

Πλέθρον, 300, b.

Πλῆκτρον, 246, a.

Πλήμνη, 124, a.

Πλημοχόαι, 151, a.

Πλημοχόη, 151, a.

Πληρεῖς, 65, b.

Πλίνθος, 220, b.

Πλοῖον, 259, b; 262, a.

Πλυντήρια, 301, a.

Πόδες, 260, b; 267, b.

Ποιεῖν, 7, a.

Ποιεῖσθαι, 7. a.

Ποίησις, 7, a.

Ποιητός, 7, a.

Ποινή, 301, a.

Πολέμαρχος, 35, a; 162, b; 301, a.

Πόλις, 91, b.

Πολιτεία, 90, b; 203, a.

Πολίτης, 90, b.

Πόλος, 206, a.

Πολύμιτος, 364, b.

Πολύπτυχα, 360, a.

Πομπή, 301, b.

Πορισταί, 305, a; 362, b.

Πόρπαξ, 161, b.

Πόρπη, 178, b.

Ποσειδεών, 65, b.

Ποῦς, 292, a.

Πράκτορες, 306, b.

Προάγνευσις, 150, a.

Προβολή, 310, a.

Προβούλευμα, 61, b.

Πρόβουλοι, 310, a.

Προγάμεια, 250, a.

Πρόδομος, 367, a.

Προδοσία, 310, b.

Πρόδρομος, 141, a.

Προεδρία, 214, b.

Πρόεδροι, 61, b.

Πρόθεσις, 185, a.

Προθεσμία, 311, b.

Προθεσμίας νόμος, 311, b.

Πρόθυρα, 140, a.

Πρόθυρον, 16, b.

Προικὸς δίκη, 345, a.

Προΐξ, 145, a.

Προκάθαρσις, 150, a.

Προκαταβολή, 363, a.

Πρόκλησις, 132, a.

Πρόλογος, 383, b.

Πρόμαχοι, 41, b.

Προμήθεια, 311, a.

Πρόναος, 367, a.

Προξενία, 208, a.

Πρόξενος, 209, a.

Προπύλαια, 311, a.

Προσκατάβλημα, 365, a.

Προσκεφάλειον, 222, a.

Προσκήνιον, 372, a.

Πρόσκλησις, 131, b; 248, b.

Προσκύνησις, 7, b.

Προστάς, 141, a.

Προστάτης, 91, a,
τοῦ δήμου, 311, b.

Προστιμᾶν, 378, a.

Προστιμᾶσθαι, 378, a.

Προστίμημα, 132, b; 378, a.

Προστόον, 140, b.

Πρόστυλος, 367, a.

Προσωπεῖον, 291, a.

Πρόσωπον, 291, a.

Προτέλεια γάμων, 249, b.

Προτομή, 40, b.

Πρότονοι, 259, b; 267, b.

Προφήτης, 150, a.

Προφῆτις, 277, a.

Προχειροτονία, 62, a.

Προωμοσία, 132, a.

Πρυλέες, 327, b.

Πρύλις, 327, b.

Πρύμνη, 264, b.

Πρυτανεία, 61, b.

Πρυτανεῖα, 131, b; 313, b.

Πρυτανεῖον, 313, a.

Πρυτανεῖς, 61, b; 313, b.

Πρωΐ, 134, b.

Πρώρα, 263, a.

Πρωράται, 259, a.

Πρωρεύς, 264, b.

Πρωταγωνιστής, 205, b.

Πρωτοστάτης, 161, b.

Πυανέψια, 315, b.

Πυανεψιών, 65, b.

Πυγμαχία, 315, a.

Πυγμή, 315, a.

Πυγμοσύνη, 315, a.

Πυέλοι, 54, b; 185, b.

Πύθια, 315, b.

Πύθιοι, 316, a.

Πυκνόστυλος, 367, b.

Πύκται, 315, a.

Πυλαγόραι, 20, a.

Πυλαία, 20, a.

Πύλη, 305, a.

Πυλίς, 305, a.

Πυλών, 140, b; 305, b.

Πύξ, 315, a.

Πυξίδιον, 316, a.

Πύξις, 316, a.

Πυράγρα, 254, b.

Πυραί, 185, b.

Πύργος, 402, a.

Πυρία, 55, b.

Πυριατήριον, 55, b.

Πυῤῥίχη, 327, b.

Πυῤῥιχισταί, 328, a.

Πῶγων, 57, a.

Πωλῆται, 301, b.

Πῶμο, 207, a.

Ρ.

Ῥαβδίον, 295, b.

Ῥαβδονόμοι, 15, a.

Ῥαβδοῦχοι, 15, a; 249, a.

Ῥαιστήρ, 254, b.

Ῥαφίς, 6, b.

Ῥήτρα, 322, a.

Ῥινοπύλη, 305, b.

Ῥιπίς, 179, b.

Ῥόμβος, 198, a.

Ῥυμός, 31, b; 124, a.

Ῥυτόν, 322, b.

Σ.

Σαγήνη, 320, b.

Σάκκος, 101, b; 103, a; 323, a.

Σάκος, 41, b.

Σαλαμίνια, 283, b.

Σαλαμίνιοι, 283, b.

Σάλπιγξ, 399, a.

Σαμβύκη, 329, a.

Σαμβυκιστριαί, 329, a.

Σανδάλιον, 329, a.

Σάνδαλον, 329, a.

Σανίς, 215, a.

Σαρδών, 320, a.

Σάρισα, or Σάρισσα, 163, a.

Σαυρωτήρ, 200, a.

Σεβαστός, 53, a.

Σειραφόρος, 124, b.

Σεῖστρον, 344, a.

Σηκός, 367, a.

Σημαίαι, 343, a.

Σήματα, 186, a.

Σημειογράφοι, 272, a.

Σημεῖον, 343, a.

Σίγυννος, 289, a.

Σίκιννις, 85, b.

Σιτηρέσιον, 162, b.

Σιτοδεῖαι, 345, a.

Σιτοπῶλαι, 345, a.

Σῖτος, 344, b.

Σίτου δίκη, 345, a.

Σιτοφυλακεῖον, 207, b.

Σιτοφύλακες, 15, b; 344, b.

Σιτῶναι, 345, a.

Σκαλμοί, 264, b.

Σκαπέδρα, 198, a.

Σκάφη, 262, b.

Σκέπαρνον, 44, a.

Σκεύη κρεμαστά, 265, b.
ξύλινα, 265, b.

Σκηνή, 372, a.

Σκῆπτρον, 330, a.

Σκιάδειον, 404, b.

Σκιάδιον, 404, b.

Σκιαδίσκη, 404, b.

Σκιάθηρον, 206, a.

Σκιάς, 376, a.

Σκιροφοριών, 65, b.

Σκόλοψ, 121, a.

Σκύθαι, 129, b; 147, a.

Σκυτάλη, 331, a.

Σμίλη, 139, b.

Σοροί, 185, b.

Σπάθη, 364, b.

Σπάργανον, 212, a.

Σπεῖρα, 347, b.

Σπονδαί, 325, b.

Σπονδοφόροι, 274, a.

Στάδιον, 348, b.

Στάδιος, 348, b.

Σταθμός, 215, a; 239, a; 247, b.

Σταθμοῦχοι, 359, a.

Στάσιμον, 111, a; 384, a.

Στατήρ, 349, a.

Σταυρός, 121, a.

Στέφανος, 118, a.

Στῆλαι, 186, a.

Στήμων, 364, a.

Στλεγγίς, 17, b; 56, b.

Στοά, 140, b; 305, b.

Στόλος, 263, b.

Στόμιον, 182, b.

Στοιχεῖον, 206, a.

Στρατηγός, 3, b; 13, a; 308, a; 355, a.
ὁ ἐπὶ διοικήσεως, 363, a.

Στρατός, 160, b.

Στρεπτός, 381, b.

Στρόβιλος, 198, a.

Στρογγύλαι, 261, a; 262, a.

Στρῶμα, 154, a; 222, a.

Στύλος, 101, b; 354, a.

Στύραξ, 200, a.

Συγγένεια, 203, a.

Συγγενεῖς, 203, a.

Συγγραφή, 358, b.

Σύγκλητος ἐκκλησία, 146, b.

Συκοφάντης, 356, a.

Σῦλαι, 356, b.

Συλλογεῖς, 357, a.

Συμβόλαιον, 357, a.

Συμβολή, 95, b.

Σύμμαχοι, 345, b.

Συμμορία, 149, a; 393, a.

Συμπόσιον, 357, a.

Συνάλλαγμα, 357, a.

Σύνδικος, 271, b; 358, a.

Συνέδριον, 358, a.

Σύνεδροι, 358, a.

Συνηγορικόν, 358, b.

Συνήγορος, 160, b; 358, a.

Συνθήκη, 357, a.

Σύνθημα, 368, b.

Σύνοδος, 117, a.

Συνοικία, 358, b.

Σύνταγμα, 163, a.

Συντάξεις, 358, a.

Σύνταξις, 365, b.

Συντέλεια, 393, a.

Συντελεῖς, 393, a.

Συντριήραρχοι, 392, b.

Συνωρίς, 124, b.

Σύριγξ, 359, a.

Σύρμα, 359, b.

Σύσκηνοι, 116, b.

Συσσίτια, 359, b.

Σύστασις, 163, b.

Σύστυλος, 367, b.

Σφαγίς, 122, a.

Σφαῖρα, 296, a.

Σφαιρεῖς, 296, b.

Σφαιριστήριον, 198, a; 296, b.

Σφαιριστική, 198, a; 296, a.

Σφαιριστικός, 296, b.

Σφαιρίστρα, 296, b.

Σφενδόνη, 103, b; 184, b.

Σφενδονήται, 184, b.

Σφίδες, 246, a.

Σφραγίς, 25, b.

Σφύρα, 254, b.

Σφυρήλατον, 254, b.

Σχεδίαι, 260, a.

Σχοινία, 267, b; 268, a.

Σχοινοβάτης, 184, b.

Σχοῖνος, 330, b.

Σωφρονίσται, 197, b.

Σωφροσύνη, 197, b.

Τ.

Ταγός, 360, b.

Ταινία, 264, b; 355, b.

Ταινίδιον, 355, b.

Τάλαντα, 239, a.

Τάλαντον, 361, a.

Τάλαρος, 64, a.

Ταλασία, 363, b.

Ταλασιουργία, 363, b.

Ταμίας, 316, b; 362, a.

Ταξίαρχοι, 163, b; 363, a.

Τάξις, 163, b; 163, a.

Ταῤῥός, 265, b.

Τάφοι, 186, a.

Ταφροποιοί, 363, a.

Τάφρος, 406, b.

Ταχυγράφοι, 272, a.

Τέθριππος, 124, a.

Τειχοποιός, 363, b.

Τεῖχος, 257, a.

Τελαμών, 47, b; 57, a.

Ταλεταί, 258, b.

Τέλος, 163, b; 365, b.

Τελωνάρχης, 365, a.

Τελώνης, 289, b; 365, a.

Τέμενος, 366, b.

Τέρμα, 205, b.

Τετράδραχμον, 145, b.

Τετραλογία, 383, a.

Τετραορία, 124, a.

Τετράρχης, 370, a.

Τετραρχία, 163, a; 370, a.

Τετράστυλος, 367, a.

Τετρήρεις, 262, a.

Τετταράκοντα, οἱ, 16, a; 370, a.

Τεύχεα, 41, a.

Τήβεννος, 378, a.

Τιάρα, 376, b.

Τιάρας, 376, b.

Τίμημα, 81, b; 377, b.

Τιμητεία, 78, b.

Τιμητής, 78, b.

Τόκοι ἔγγειοι, 176, b.
ἔγγυοι, 176, b.
ναυτικοί, 176, b.

Τόκος, 176, b.

Τολύπη, 191, b.

Τόνοι, 222, a.

Τόξαρχοι, 129, b.

Τοξοθήκη, 37, b.

Τόξον, 37, b.

Τοξόται, 129, b; 147, a.

Τοπεῖα, 267, b.

Τορευτική, 63, b.

Τορύνη, 399, a.

Τραγῳδία, 381, b.

Τράπεζα, 253, b.

Τράπεζαι, 186, b.
δεύτεραι, 96, a.
πρῶται, 96, a.

Τραπεζίται, 39, a.

Τράφηξ, 264, b.

Τρίαινα, 191, b.

Τριακάδες, 389, a.

Τριακοσιομέδιμνοι, 81, b.

Τριβόλος, 385, a.

Τριτηρίς, 65, b.

Τριηραρχία, 224, b; 392, b.

Τριήραρχοι, 392, b.

Τριήρεις, 260, b.

Τριηροποιοί, 261, a; 363, a.

Τρίμιπος, 364, b.

Τρίπολος, 32, b.

Τρίπους, 253, b; 394, a.

Τρίπτυχα, 360, a.

Τρίτα, 187, a.

Τριταγωνιστής, 205, b.

Τριττύα, 325, a.

Τριττύς, 389, a.

Τριώβολον, 394, a.

Τροπαῖον, 398, a.

Τροπωτήρ, 265, a.

Τρόχιλος, 347, b.

Τροχός, 124, a; 178, b; 398, a.

Τρυβλίον, 120, b.

Τρύγοιπος, 101, b.

Τρυγῳδία, 110, b.

Τρυτάνη, 399, a.

Τρυφάλεια, 193, a.

Τυλεῖον, 222, a.

Τύλη, 222, a.

Τύμβος, 186, a.

Τύμπανον, 403, a.

Τύπος, 178, b.

Τυραννίς, 403, b.

Τύραννος, 403, a.

Υ.

Ὑακίνθια, 209, b.

Ὕαλος, 420, a.

Ὕβρεως γραφή, 16, b; 210, a.

Ὑδραγωγία, 29, b.

Ὑδραλέτης, 256, a.

Ὑδρανός, 150, a.

Ὑδραύλις, 210, a.

Ὑδρία, 345, a.

Ὑδριαφορία, 210, b.

Ὑδρόμελι, 418, b.

Ὕδωρ, 207, a.

Ὕλη, 260, b.

Ὑλλεῖς, 389, a.

Ὕπαιθρον, 140, b.

Ὕπαιθρος, 102, a.

Ὑπασπισταί, 161, b; 163, b.

Ὕπατος, 113, b.

Ὑπέραι, 260, b; 267, b.

Ὑπερῷον, 140, a; 141, b.

Ὑπεύθυνος, 34, a; 160, a; 393, b.

Ὑπήνη, 57, a.

Ὑπηρεσία, 393, b.

Ὑπηρέτης, 162, b.

Ὑπόγαιον, 186, a.

Ὑπόγειον, 186, a.

Ὑπογραφίς, 295, b.

Ὑπόδημα, 64, b; 329, a.

Ὑποζάκοροι, 10, a.

Ὑποζώματα, 267, a.

Ὑποκριτής, 205, b.

Ὑπολήνιον, 416, b.

Ὑπομείονες, 91, b; 206, a.

Ὑπόνομος, 122, b; 152, a.

Ὑποπόδιον, 376, a.

Ὑπόρχημα, 210, b; 327, a.

Ὑποστρατηγός, 3, b.

Ὑπωμοσία, 132, a.

Ὑσσός, 200, a.

Ὑφάνται, 363, b.

Φ.

Φάλαγγες, 163, b.

Φαλαγγαρχία, 163, b.

Φάλαγξ, 160, b; 163, b.

Φάλαρον, 292, a.

Φάλος, 192, b.

Φανός, 176, a.

Φαρέτρα, 292, b

Φαρμακείας γραφή, 292, b.

Φαρμακοί, 370, a.

Φαρμάκων γραφή, 292, b.

Φᾶρος, 280, b.

Φάρος, 292, b.

Φάσγανον, 196, a.

Φάσηλας, 293, a.

Φάσις, 293, a.

Φειδίτης, 360, a.

Φενάκη, 104, a.

Φερνή, 145, a.

Φεύγειν, 172, a.

Φθορά, 8, a.

Φιάλη, 285, b.

Φιμός, 182, b.

Φορβειά, 70, b.

Φορεῖον, 221, a.

Φόρμιγξ, 245, a.

Φόρος, 358, a.

Φορτηγοί, 262, a.

Φορτικά, 262, a.

Φρατρία, 389, a.

Φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον, 7, a.

Φυγή, 172, a.

Φῦκος, 183, b.

Φύλακες, 155, a.

Φυλακτήριον, 24, a.

Φύλαρχοι, 162, b; 293, a.

Φυλή, 162, a; 388, a.

Φυλοβασιλεῖς, 293, a.

Φῦλον, 388, a.

Φωταγωγία, 150, b.

Χ.

Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι, 45, b.

Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες, 45, b.

Χαλινός, 182, a.

Χαλκιοίκια, 83, a.

Χαλκός, 12, a.

Χαλκοῦς, 12, a; 83, a.

Χάρακες, 406, b.

Χειρόγραφον, 83, b.

Χειροτονεῖν, 83, b.

Χειροτονητοί, 83, b.

Χειροτονία, 34, a; 83, b.

Χέλυς, 245, b.

Χελώνη, 245, b; 369, a.

Χηνίσκος, 263, b.

Χιλαρχία, 163, b.

Χιτών, 400, a.
σχιστός, 400, a.

Χιτώνιον, 400, a; 401, a.

Χιτωνίσκος, 400, a.

Χλαῖνα, 220, a.

Χλαμύς, 84, a.

Χλαμύδιον, 84, a.

Χλιδών, 42, b.

Χοαί, 187, b.

Χόες, 136, a.

Χοεύς, 85, b.

Χοίνιξ, 84, b.

Χορηγία, 84, b.

Χορηγός, 84, b.

Χοροδιδάσκαλος, 84, b.

Χορός, 85, a; 198, b.
κύκλικος, 85, a.

Χοῦς, 85, b.

Χρέους δίκη, 377, b.

Χρησμόλογοι, 138, a.

Χρηστήριον, 276, b.

Χρονολογία, 85, b.

Χρυσός, 53, b.

Χρυσοῦς, 349, a.

Χύτρα, 273, b.

Χύτροι, 136, a.

Χῶμα, 14, b; 186, a.

Ψ.

Ψάλιον, 42, b.

Ψέλιον, or Ψέλλιον, 42, b.

Ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή, 314, a.

Ψευδοδίπτερος, 367, a.

Ψευδοπερίπτερος, 367, a.

Ψήφισμα, 62, a; 147, b; 272, a.

Ψῆφος, 221, a; 313, b.

Ψιλοί, 41, b.

Ψυκτήρ, 314, a.

Ω.

Ὠβαί, 191, b; 389, a.

Ὠδεῖον, 273, a.

Ὠρεῖον, 207, b.

Ὡρολόγιον, 206, b.

Ὡροσκόπος, 46, a.

Ὠσχοφόρια, 278, a.

LATIN INDEX.

Abacus, 1, a.

Ablegmina, 325, a.

Abolla, 1, a.

Abrogare legem, 225, b.

Absolutio, 216, a.

Accensi, 165, b; 168, b.

Accensus, 1, b.

Acclamatio, 2, a.

Accubatio, 2, a.

Accubitoria vestis, 359, a.

Accusatio, 121, a.

Accusator, 6, a; 216, a.

Accusatorum libelli, 237, b.

Acerra, 2, b.

Acetabulum, 2, b.

Achaicum fœdus, 3, a.

Acies, 199, b.

Acilia lex, 226, a.

Acilia Calpurnia lex, 18, b.

Acinaces, 3, b.

Acisculus, 44, b.

Aclis, 4, a; 201, a.

Acroama, 4, a.

Acropolis, 4, a.

Acroterium, 4, a.

Acta, 4, b.
diurna, 4, b.
forensia, 4 b.
jurare in, 4, b.
militaria, 4 b.
patrum, 4, b.
senatus, 4, b.

Actio, 5, a; 213, b.
exercitoria, 160, b.
fiduciaria, 179, a.
injuriarum, 213, a.
in jure, 6, a.
Legis or Legitima, 5, a.
de pauperie, 288, a.
de peculio, 339, b.
rei uxoriæ, or dotis, 145, b.
restitutoria, 213, b.
Sepulchri violati, 190, b.

Actionem dare, 5, b.
edere, 5, b.

Actor, 6, a.
publicus, 6, a.

Actuariæ naves, 6, a; 262, a.

Actuarii, 6, a; 272, b.

Actus, 6, b; 300, b.
minimus, 6, b.
quadratus, 6, b.
simplex, 6, b.

Acus, 6, b.

Adcrescendi jure, 204, a.

Addico, 48, b; 50, a.

Addicti, 269, b.

Ademptio equi, 80, b.

Adfines, 13, a.

Adfinitas, 13, a.

Adgnati, 98, a.

Adgnatio, 98, a.

Adlecti, 6, b.

Admissionales, 6, b.

Admissionum proximus, 6, b.

Adolescentes, 212, b.

Adoptio, 7, a.

Adoratio, 7, b.

Adrogatio, 7, a.

Adsertor, 45, a.

Adsessor, 45, a.

Adversaria, 8, a.

Adversarius, 6, a.

Adulterium (Greek), 7, b.

Adulterium (Roman), 8, a.

Adulti, 6, b; 212, b.

Advocatus, 8, b.

Aebutia lex, 226, a.

Aedes, 366, b.
sacra, 366, b.

Aediles, 8, b.
cereales, 9, b.

Aeditimi, 10, a.

Aeditui, 10, a.

Aeditumi, 10, a.

Aegis, 10, b.

Aelia lex, 226, a.
Sentia lex, 226, a.

Aemilia lex, 226, a.
Baebia lex, 228, a.
Lepidi lex, 235, b.
Scauri lex, 248, b.

Aenatores, 11, a.

Aenei nummi, 12, a; 341, b.

Aenum, 11, a.

Aeora, 11, a.

Aera, 12, a.

Aerarii, 11, a.
Tribuni, 12, b; 385, b.

Aerarium, 11, b.
militare, 11, b.
Praetores ad, 11, b.
sanctum, 11, b.

Aerii nummi, 341, b.

Aes, 12, a.

Aes (money), 12, a.
alienum, 12, a.
circumforaneum, 12, a.
equestre, 12, a; 156, b.
grave, 12, a; 43, b.
hordearium, or hordiarium 12, a; 156, b.
militare, 12, a.
uxorium, 12, b.

Aestivae feriae, 177, b.

Aetolicum fœdus, 13, a.

Affines, 13, a.

Affinitas, 13, a.

Agaso, 13, b.

Agema, 13, b.

Ager, 13, b.
iteratus, 32, b.
publicus, 13, b.
scriptuarius, 331, a.

Agger, 14, b; 75, a; 302, b.

Agitator, 89, a.

Agmen, 167, a.
pilatum, 167, a.
quadratum, 167, a.

Agnati, 98, a.

Agnatio, 98, a.

Agnomen, 271, b.

Agonales, 326, b.

Agonalia, 15, a.

Agonensis, 326, b.

Agonia, 15, a.

Agonium Martiale, 15, a.

Agonus, 15, a.

Agoranomi, 15, b.

Agrariae leges, 14, b.

Agraulia, 15, b.

Agrimensores, 16, a.

Agronomi, 16, a.

Ahenum, 11, a.

Ala, 16, b.

Alae, 142, b; 171, b.

Alabaster, 16, b.

Alabastrum, 16, b.

Alares, 16, b.

Alarii, 16, b.

Alauda, 17, a.
legio, 17, a.

Albogalerus, 28, a.

Album, 17, a.
judicum, 17, a.
Senatorium, 17, a.

Alea, 17, a.

Aleator, 17, a.

Ales, 50, a.

Alicula, 17, a.

Alimentarii pueri et puellae, 17, b.

Alipilus, 17, b.

Aliptae, 17, b.

Alites, 50, a.

Allocutio, 17, b; 385, a.

Altare, 31, a.

Aluta, 65, b.

Amanuensis, 18, a.

Ambarvalia, 43, a.

Ambitus, 18, a.

Ambrosia, 19, a.

Ambubaiae, 19, a.

Ambulationes, 208, a.

Amburbiale, 19, a.

Amburbium, 19, a.

Amentum, 200, a.

Amicire, 19, a.

Amictorium, 19, a; 335, b.

Amictus, 19, a.

Amphictyones, 19, b.

Amphitheatrum, 21, a.

Amphora, 23, a; 316, b; 417, a.

Ampliatio, 23, b; 215, b.

Ampulla, 17, b; 23, b; 56, b.

Ampullarius, 24, a.

Amuletum, 24, a.

Amussis, or Amussium, 24, b.

Anagnostae, 24, b.

Anatocismus, 177, a.

Ancilia, 326, b.

Ancora, 268, a.

Ancones, 320, b.

Andabatae, 195, a.

Angaria, 25, a.

Angariarum exhibitio, or praestatio, 25, a.

Angiportus, or Angiportum, 25, a.

Angustus clavus, 92, b.

Animadversio censoria, 80, a.

Anio novus, 30, a.
vetus, 30, a.
Annales maximi, 175, b; 304, b.

Annalis lex, 226, b; 334, a.

Annona, 25, a.
civica, 183, b.

Annuli aurei jus, 25, b.

Annulorum jus, 25, b.

Annulus, 25, b.

Annus magnus, 66, a.

Anquina, 267, b.

Anquisitio, 26, a; 216 b.

Antae, 26, a.

Anteambulones, 26, b.

Antecessores, 26, b.

Antecoena, 96, b.

Antecursores, 26, b.

Antefixa, 26, b.

Antemeridianum tempus, 134, b.

Antenna, 267, a.

Antepilani, 165, b; 168, b.

Antesignani, 168, b.

Antia lex, 236, a.

Anticum, 214, b.

Antiquarii, 239, a.

Antlia, 27, a.

Antoniae leges, 226, b.

Apaturia, 27, b.

Aperta navis, 261, b.

Apex, 28, a.

Aplustre, 264, b.

Apodectae, 28, a.

Apodyterium, 56, a.

Apollinares ludi, 242, b.

Apophoreta, 28, b.

Apotheca, 28, b; 58, b.

Apotheosis, 28, b.

Apparitio, 29, a.

Apparitores, 29, a.

Appellatio (Greek), 29, a.
(Roman), 29, a.

Aprilis, 66, a.

Apuleia lex, 226, b.
agraria lex, 226, b.
frumentaria lex, 226, b.
majestatis lex, 226, b.

Aqua, 29, b.
Alexandrina, 30, b.
Algentia, 30, b.
Alsietina, or Augusta, 30, a.
Appia, 30, a.
Claudia, 30, a.
Crabra, 30, b.
Julia, 30, a.
Marcia, 30, a.
Septimiana, 30, b.
Tepula, 30, a.
Trajana, 30, b.
Virgo, 30, a.

Aquae ductus, 29, b.
et ignis interdictio, 173, a.

Aquarii, 31, a.

Aquila, 343, a.

Aquilifer, 169, b.

Ara, 31, a.

Aratrum, 31, b.

Arbiter, 215, b.

Arbiter bibendi, 357, b.

Arbitrium, 188, a.

Arca, 32, a; 188, b.

Arca, ex, 39, b.

Arca publica, 336, b.

Arcera, 33, a.

Archiater, 33, a.

Archimagirus, 97, a.

Archimimus, 188, a; 256, a.

Architectura, 33, a.

Archon, 34, b.

Arcus, 36, a; 37, b.
triumphalis, 36, b.
Constantini, 37, b.
Drusi, 37, a.
Gallieni, 37, b.
Septimii Severi, 37, a.
Titi, 37, a.

Area, 37, a.

Areiopagus, 37, a.

Arena, 21, a.

Aretalogi, 39, a.

Argei, 39, a.

Argentarii, 39, a.

Argentum, 40, a.

Argyraspides, 40, a.

Aries, 40, a.

Arma, Armatura, 41, a.

Armarium, 42, a.

Armatura levis, 170, a.

Armilla, 42, b.

Armilustrium, 42, a.

Arra, Arrabo, or Arrha, Arrhabo, 42, a.

Arrogatio, 7, a.

Ars Chaldaeorum, 45, b.

Artaba, 43, a.

Artopta, 297, a.

Artopticii, 297, a.

Arvales Fratres, 43, a.

Arundo, 364, a.

Arura, 43, a.

Aruspices, 199, b.

Arx, 43, b.

As, 43, b.

As libralis, 43, b.

Asamenta, 326, b.

Ascia, 44, a.

Asiarchae, 45, a.

Assamenta, 326, b.

Assarius, 44, a.

Asseres lecticarii, 221, b.

Assertor, 45, a.

Assertus, 45, a.

Asses Usurae, 176, b.

Assessor, 45, a.

Assidui, 240, b.

Assiduitas, 18, b.

Astragalus, 45, a.

Astrologi, 45, b.

Astrologia, 45, b.

Astronomi, 45, b.

Asyli jus, 46, a.

Asylum, 46, a.

Atellanae Fabulae, 46, b.

Aternia Tarpeia lex, 226, b.

Athenaeum, 46, b.

Athletae, 47, a.

Atia lex, 226, b.

Atilia lex, 226, b.

Atinia lex, 226, b.

Atlantes, 47, b.

Atramentum, 48, a.

Atrium, 48, a; 412, b.

Auctio, 48, b.

Auctor, 48, b.

Auctores fieri, 49, b.

Auctoramentum, 58, b; 194, b.

Auctorati, 194, b.

Auctoritas, 49, b.
senatus, 336, a.

Auditorium, 49, b.

Aufidia lex, 18, b.

Augur, 49, b.

Auguraculum, 43, b; 50, b; 366, a.

Augurale, 50, b; 74, b.

Augurium, 49, b; 138, b.

Augustales, 52, b.

Augustalia, 52, b.

Augustus, 53, a; 68, a.

Avia, 13, a.

Aulaeum, 372, a.

Aurelia lex, 226, b.

Aures, 32, a.

Aureus nummus, 53, b; 341, b.

Aurichalcum, 341, b.

Auriga, 89, a.

Aurum, 53, b.
coronarium, 54, a.
vicesimarium, 11, b.

Auspex, 49, b.

Auspicium, 49, b; 138, b.

Authepsa, 54, a.

Autonomi, 54, a.

Auxilia, 346, b.

Auxiliares, 170, b.

Auxiliarii, 170, b.

Axamenta, 326, b.

Axis, 124, a.

Babylonii, 45, b.
numeri, 45, b.

Bacchanalia, 136, b.

Baebia lex, 227, a.
Aemilia lex, 228, a.

Balineae, 54, b.

Balineum, 54, b.

Balista, Ballista, 381, a.

Balneae, 54, b.

Balneator, 55, b.

Balneum, 54, b.

Balteus, or Baltea, 379, b.

Balteus, 57, a.

Baptisterium, 56, a.

Barathrum, 57, a.

Barba, 57, a.

Barbati bene, 57, b.

Barbatuli, 57, b.

Bascauda, 57, b.

Basilica, 57, b.

Basis, 101, b.

Basterna, 58, a.

Baxa, or Baxea, 58, a.

Bellaria, 97, a.

Beneficiarius, 58, b.

Beneficium, 58, b.

Benignitas, 18, b.

Bes, 44, a.

Bessis, 176, b.

Bestiarii, 58, b.

Bibasis, 328, b.

Bibliopola, 58, b.

Bibliotheca, 58, b.

Bidens, 59, a; 268, b.

Bidental, 59, a.

Bidiaei, 59, a.

Biga, or Bigae, 124, b.

Bigati, 136, b.

Billix, 364, b.

Bipennis, 331, b.

Biremis, 59, b; 260, a.

Bissextilis annus, 67, b.

Bissextum, 67, b.

Bissextus, 67, b.

Bombycinum, 337, a.

Bona, 59, b.
caduca, 60, a.
fides, 60, a.

Bonorum cessio, 60, a.
collatio, 60, a.
emtio, et emtor, 60, b.
possessio, 5, b; 60, b.

Bracae, or Braccae, 62, a.

Bravium, 90, a.

Bruttiani, 62, b.

Buccina, 62, b.

Buccinator, 11, a.

Bucculae, 192, b.

Bulla, 62, b.

Bura, or Buris, 31, b.

Bustuarii, 63, a.

Bustum, 63, a; 189, a.

Buxum, 63, a.

Byssus, 63, a.

Caduceator, 63, b.

Caduceus, 63, a.

Caducum, 60, a.

Cadus, 23, b; 63, b.

Caecilia lex de censoribus, 227, a.
lex de vectigalibus, 227, a.
Didia lex, 227, a.

Caelatura, 63, b.

Caelia lex, 236, a.

Caementa, 258, a.

Caesar, 64, a.

Caetra, 83, a.

Calamistrum, 64, a.

Calamus, 64, a.

Calantica, 103, a.

Calathus, 64, a.

Calatores, 105, a.

Calceamen, 64, b.

Calceamentum, 64, b.

Calceus, 64, b.

Calculator, 65, a.

Calculi, 65, a; 221, a.

Calda lavatio, 56, a.

Caldarium, 56, a.

Calendae, 67, b.

Calendarium, 65, a; 176, b.

Calida, 77, a.

Caliga, 68, a.

Calix, 68, a.

Callis, 68, b.

Calones, 68, b.

Calpurnia lex de ambitu, 18, b.
lex de repetundis, 319, a.

Calvatica, 103, a.

Calumnia, 68, b.

Calx, 88, a.

Camara, 69, a.

Camera, 69, a.

Camillae, Camilli, 69, a; 252, a.

Caminus, 145, a.

Campestre, 69, a.

Canalis, 30, b.

Cancellarius, 69, b.

Cancelli, 69, a; 107, b.

Candela, 69, b.

Candelabrum, 69, b.

Candidarii, 297, b.

Candidatus, 18, b; 380, a.

Canephorus, 70, a.

Canistrum, 70, a.

Cantharus, 70, b.

Canthus, 124, a.

Canticum, 70, b.

Canuleia lex, 227, a.

Capistrum, 70, b.

Capite censi, 71, a.

Capitis deminutio, 71, a.

Capitis minutio, 71, a.

Capitolini, 242, b.
ludi, 242, b.

Capsa, 70, b.

Capsarii, 56, a; 71, a.

Captio, 303, b.

Capulum, 188, a.

Capulus, 32, a.

Caput, 71, a.
extorum, 71, b.

Caracalla, 72, a.

Carcer, 72, a.

Carceres, 87, b; 107, b.

Carchesium, 72, a; 266, b.

Carenum, 416, b.

Carmen seculare, 243, b.

Carmentalia, 72, a.

Carnifex, 72, b.

Carpentum, 72, b.

Carptor, 97, a.

Carrago, 73, a.

Carruca, 73, a.

Carrus, or Carrum, 73, a.

Caryatides, 73, a.

Caryatis, 73, a.

Cassia lex, 227, a.
agraria, 227, a.
tabellaria, 236, a.
Terentia frumentaria, 227, a.

Cassis, 41, b; 192, b.

Castellarii, 31, a.

Castellum aquae, 31, a.

Castra, 73, a.
stativa, 73, b.

Castrensis corona, 118, b.

Cataphracti, 76, a.

Catapulta, 381, a.

Cataracta, 76, a.

Catasta, 340, a.

Cateia, 76, b; 201, a.

Catella, 76, b.

Catena, 76, b.

Catervarii, 195, a.

Cathedra, 76, b.

Catillum, or Catillus, 77, a.

Catillus, 256, a.

Catinum, or Catinus, 77, a.

Cavaedium, 142, b.

Cavea, 87, a; 371, a.

Cavere, 217, b; 77, b.

Caupo, 77, a.

Caupona, 77, a.

Causia, 77, b.

Cauterium, 295, b.

Cautio, 77, b.

Cavum aedium, 142, b.

Celeres, 78, a.

Celerum tribunus, 385, a.

Cella, 78, a; 142, b; 367, a.
caldaria, 56, a.

Cellarius, 78, a.

Celtes, 139, b.

Cenotaphium, 78, b.

Censere, 336, a.

Censor, 78, b; 101, a.

Censura, 78, b.

Census, 78, b; 31, b; 248, a.
(Greek), 81, b.

Centesima, 82, a.
rerum venalium, 82, a.

Centesimae usurae, 176, b.

Centumviri, 82, a.

Centuria, 105, b; 166, b; 168, a; 217, a.

Centuriata comitia, 105, a.

Centurio, 165, a; 166, b; 169, a.
primus, 169, b.
primipili, 169, b.

Centussis, 44, a.

Cera, 82, b.

Cerae, 295, b; 360, b.

Ceratae tabulae, 360, a.

Cerealia, 82, b.

Cerevisia, 82, b.

Cernere hereditatem, 203, b.

Ceroma, 82, b.

Certamen, 52, b.

Ceruchi, 267, a.

Cessio bonorum, 60, a.

Cestius pons, 302, a.

Cestrum, 295, b.

Cestus, 82, b.

Cetra, 83, a.

Chaldaei, 45, b.

Charistia, 83, b.

Charta, 238, b.

Cheironomia, 83, b.

Cheniscus, 263, b.

Chirographum, 83, b.

Chlamys, 84, a.

Choregia, 84, b.

Choregus, 84, b.

Chorus, 85, a.

Chronologia, 85, b.

Chrysendeta, 86, b.

Cidaris, 376, b.

Cincia, or Muneralis, lex, 227, b.

Cinctus, 401, b.
Gabinus, 380, a.

Cinerarius, 64, a.

Cingulum, 41, b; 422, b.

Cinifio, 64, a.

Cippus, 86, b.

Circenses ludi, 89, a.

Circuitores, 31, a.

Circus, 87, a.

Cisium, 90, a.

Cista, 90, a; 345, b.

Cistophorus, 90, b.

Cithara, 245, a.

Civica corona, 118, a.

Civile jus, 218, a.

Civis, 91, b.

Civitas (Greek), 90, b.
(Roman), 91, b.

Clarigatio, 178, b.

Classica corona, 118, b.

Classici, 171, a.

Classicum, 118, a.

Clathri, 144, b; 409, a.

Claudia lex, 227, b.

Clavis, 398, a.

Claustra, 88, a; 215, a.

Clavus angustus, 92, b.
annalis, 92, b.
latus, 92, b.

Clepsydra, 207, a.

Clibanarii, 76, a.

Cliens, 93, b.

Clientela, 93, b.

Clipeus, 41, b; 94, a.

Clitellae, 94, a.

Cloaca, 94, a.

Cloacarium, 94, a.

Cloacarum curatores, 94, b.

Clodiae leges, 183, a; 227, b.

Coa vestis, 94, b.

Coactor, 82, a; 94, b; 407, b.

Cochlea, 27, a; 94, b.

Cochlear, 94, b.

Codex, 39, b; 95, a.

Codex Gregorianus et Hermogianus, 95, a.
Justinianus, 95, a.
Theodosianus, 95, a.

Coelia, or Caelia, lex, 236, a.

Coemptio, 251, a.

Coena, 95, a; 96, b.

Coenaculum, 143, b.

Coenatio, 97, b.

Coenatoria, 97, b; 359, a.

Cognati, 98, a.

Cognatio, 98, a.

Cognitor, 6, a.

Cognomen, 271, b.

Coheres, 203, b.

Cohors, 167, b.

Cohortes Alariae, 16, b.
equitatae, 171, a.
peditatae, 171, a.
vigilum, 171, a.
urbanae, 171, a.

Collectio, 215, b.

Collegae, 98, a.

Collegium, 98, a.

Colobium, 401, b.

Colonia, 98, b.

Colonus, 98, b.

Colores, 295, a.

Colossus, 101, a.

Colum, 101, a.

Columbarium, 101, b; 190, a.

Columna, 101, b.
rostrata, 102, b.

Columnarium, 102, b.

Colus, 191, b.

Coma, 103, a.

Commentarii senatus, 4, b.

Commissatio, 104, a; 357, a.

Comitia, 104, a.
calata, 105, a.
centuriata, 105, a.
curiata, 104, b.
tributa, 108, a.

Commeatus, 110, b.

Commentarii sacrorum, 304, a.

Commentarium, 110, b.

Commentarius, 110, b.

Commercium, 92, a.

Commissoria lex, 227, b.

Comoedia, 110, b.

Comperendinatio, 215, b.

Comperendini dies, 135, b.

Competitor, 18, b.

Compitalia, 112, b.

Compitalicii ludi, 112, b.

Compluvium, 142, b.

Concamerata sudatio, 56, a.

Conceptivae feriae, 112, b.

Concilium, 112, b.

Conditivum, 190, a.

Conditorium, 190, a.

Conditurae, 418, a.

Conductor, 81, a.

Condus, 78, a.

Confarreatio, 251, b.

Congiarium, 112, b.

Congius, 113, a.

Conjurati, 400, a.

Conjuratio, 400, a.

Connubium, 251, a.

Conopeum, 113, a.

Conquisitores, 113, a.

Consanguinei, 98, a.

Conscripti, 333, a.

Consecratio, 29, a; 211, b.

Consilium, 104, a.

Consualia, 113, a.

Consul, 113, b.

Consulares, 116, b.

Consularis, 116, b.

Consulti, 217, b.

Consultores, 217, b.

Contio, 116, b.

Controversia, 215, b.

Contubernales, 116, b.

Contubernium, 117, a; 168, b; 339, a.

Contus, 266, b.

Conventio in manum, 251, a.

Conventus, 112, b; 117, a.

Convicium, 212, b.

Convivii magister, 357, b.
rex, 357, b.

Convivium, 357, a.

Cooptari, 98, b.

Cophinus, 117, a.

Corbicula, 117, b.

Corbis, 117, b.

Corbitae, 117, b.

Corbula, 117, b.

Cornelia lex--
agraria, 228, a.
de alea, 17, a.
de civitate, 228, a.
de falsis, 173, b.
frumentaria, 183, a.
de injuriis, 212, b.
judiciaria, 216, b.
majestatis, 247, a.
de novis tabellis, 228, a.
nummaria, 228, a.
de parricidio, 228, a.
de proscriptione et proscriptis, 311, b.
de repetundis, 319, a.
de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
de sicariis et veneficis, 212, a; 228, a.
sumptuaria, 235, b.
testamentaria, 173, b; 228, a.
tribunicia, 228, a.
unciaria, 228, a.

Cornelia Baebia lex, 18, b; 228, a.
Caecilia lex, 183, a.
et Caecilia lex, 228, a.

Cornicines, 11, a.

Cornu, 117, a.

Cornua, 238, a; 245, b; 267, a.

Corona, 102, b; 118, a.
castrensis, 118, b.
civica, 118, a.
classica, 118, b.
convivialis, 119, b.
funebris, 119, a.
graminea, 118, a.
muralis, 118, b.
natalitia, 119, b.
navalis, 118, b.
nuptialis, 119, b.
obsidionalis, 118, a.
oleagina, 118, b.
ovalis, 118, b.
rostrata, 118, b.
sacerdotalis, 119, a.
sepulchralis, 119, a.
triumphalis, 118, b.
vallaris, 118, b.

Coronis, 102, b; 119, b.

Corporati, 98, a.

Corporatio, 98, a.

Corpus, 98, a.

Cortina, 119, b.

Corvus, 119, b.

Corytos, 37, b.

Cosmetae, 120, a.

Cosmi, 120, a.

Cothurnus, 120, a.

Cotyla, 120, b.

Covinarii, 121, a.

Covinus, 120, b.

Crater, Cratera, 121, a.

Creditum, 39, b.

Crepida, 121, a.

Crepidata tragœdia, 112, a.

Crepidines, 412, b.

Creta, 88, a.

Cretio hereditatis, 203, b.

Crimen, 121, a.

Crista, 192, b.

Crocota, 121, a.

Crotalistria, 126, a.

Crotalum, 126, a.

Crusta, 64, a; 152, a.

Crux, 121, a.

Crypta, 88, a; 121, b.

Cryptoporticus, 121, b.

Ctesibica machina, 27, a.

Cubicularii, 122, a.

Cubiculum, 22, b; 78, a; 122, a; 143, a.

Cubitoria, 97, b.

Cubitus, 122, a.

Cucullus, 122, a.

Cudo, or Cudon, 122, a.

Culcita, 222, a.

Culeus, 122, a.

Culina, 143, a.

Culleus, 122, a.

Culter, 32, a; 122, a.

Cultrarius, 122, b.

Cumatium, 125, b.

Cumera, 252, a.

Cumerum, 252, a.

Cunabula, 212, a.

Cuneus, 23, a; 122, b; 371, a.

Cuniculus, 122, b.

Cupa, 122, b; 417, a.

Curator, 101, a; 122, b.

Curatores, 123, a.
annonae, 123, a.
aquarum, 31, a.
ludorum, 123, a.
religionum, 123, a.
viarum, 413, a.

Curia, 100, b; 123, a.

Curiae, 100, b; 334, b.

Curiales, 100, b.

Curiata comitia, 104, b.

Curio, 123, b.
maximus, 123, b.

Curriculum, 123, b.

Currus, 123, b.

Cursores, 125, a.

Cursus, 89, a.

Curulis sella, 331, b.

Cuspis, 199, b.

Custodes, Custodiae, 75, b.

Custos urbis, 307, b.

Cyathus, 125, a.

Cyclas, 125, b.

Cyma, 125, b.

Cymatium, 125, b.

Cymba, 125, b.

Cymbalum, 125, b.

Dare actionem, 5, b.

Daricus, 126, b.

Decanus, 117, a.

December, 66, a.

Decempeda, 127, a.

Decemviri, 127, a.
legibus scribendis, 127, a; 228, b.
litibus, or stlitibus, judicandis, 127, b.
sacrorum, or sacris faciendis, 127, b.

Decennalia, or Decennia, 128, a.

Decimatio, 128, a.

Decretum, 128, a; 213, b; 336, a.

Decumae, 128, a.

Decumani, 128, a.

Decuncis, 128, b.

Decuriae, 330, b.

Decuriones, 100, b; 166, b.

Decursoria, 302, b.

Decussis, 44, a.

Dedicare, 145, a.

Dedicatio, 211, b.

Dediticii, 128, b.

Deditio, 128, a.

Deductores, 18, b.

Defrutum, 416, b.

Delator, 128, b.

Delectus, 167, a.

Delia, 128, b.

Delphinae, 87, b.

Delphinia, 129, a.

Delubrum, 366, b.

Demarchi, 129, a.

Demens, 123, a.

Demensum, 129, a; 341, a.

Dementia, 123, a.

Deminutio capitis, 71, a.

Demiurgi, 129, a.

Demus, 130, a.

Denarius, 130, a.
aureus, 53, b.

Denicales feriae, 190, b.

Dens, or Dentale, 31, b; 191, b.

Deportatio, 173, b.
in insulam, 173, b.

Deportatus, 173, b.

Depositum, 39, b.

Derogare legem, 225, b.

Designator, 188, a.

Desultor, 130, b.

Detestatio sacrorum, 105, a.

Deversorium, 77, a.

Deunx, 44, a.

Dextans, 44, a.

Diadema, 130, b.

Diaeta, 97, b; 143, b.

Diaetetae, 130, b.

Dialis flamen, 180, a.

Diarium, 341, a.

Dicere, 133, a.

Dictator, 132, b.

Didia lex, 235, b.

Diem dicere, 216, a.

Dies, 134, b.
Civilis, 134, b.
comitiales, 135, b.
comperendini, 135, b.
fasti, 135, a; 175, a.
feriati, 177, b.
festi, 135, a.
intercisi, 135, a.
Naturalis, 134, b.
nefasti, 135, a.
proeliales, 135, b.
profesti, 135, a.
stati, 135, b.

Diffarreatio, 139, b.

Digitus, 292, a.

Dimachae, 135, b.

Dimensum, 341, a.

Diminutio capitis, 71, a.

Dionysia, 135, b.

Diota, 137, a.

Diploma, 137, a.

Diptycha, 137, b.

Diribitores, 107, b.

Discessio, 336, a.

Discinctus, 401, b.

Discipula, 410, b.

Discus, 137, b.

Dispensator, 65, a.

Diversorium, 77, a.

Divinatio, 137, b.
(law term), 139, a.

Divisores, 18, b.

Divortium, 139, a.

Divus, 29, a.

Dodrans, 44, a.

Dolabella, 139, b.

Dolabra, 139, b.

Dolium, 140, b; 417, a.

Dolo, 140, a.

Dominium, 14, a; 140, a.

Dominus, 140, a; 194, b; 338, b.
funeris, 188, a.

Domitia lex, 324, a.

Domo, de, 39, b.

Domus, 140, a.

Dona, 145, a.

Donaria, 145, a.

Donatio, 182, b.

Donativum, 113, a.

Dormitoria, 143, a.

Dos (Greek), 145, a.
(Roman), 145, b.

Drachma, 145, b; 405, b.

Draco, 343, b.

Draconarius, 343, b.

Ducenarii, 146, a; 217, a.

Ducentesima, 82, a; 408, a.

Duillia lex, 228, b.
Maenia lex, 228, b.

Dulciarii, 297, b.

Duodecim scripta, 221, a.

Duplarii, 146, a.

Duplicarii, 146, a.

Duplicatio, 6, a.

Dupondium, 292, a.

Dupondius, 44, a.

Dussis, 44, a.

Duumviri, 101, a; 146, a.
juri dicundo, 100, b.
navales, 146, a.
perduellionis, 290, a.
quinquennales, 146, b.
sacri, 146, b.
sacrorum, 146, b.

Eculeus, 159, a.

Edere actionem, 5, b.

Edictum, 148, a.
novum, 148, a.
perpetuum, 148, a.
repentinum, 148, a.
tralatitium, 148, b.
vetus, 148, a.

Edititii, 216, a.

Editor, 194, b.

Elaeothesium, 56, a.

Electrum, 149, b.

Eleusinia, 149, b.

Ellychnium, 241, b.

Emancipatio, 151, b.

Emblema, 152, a.

Emeriti, 152, a; 167, b.

Emissarium, 152, a.

Emporium, 152, b.

Encaustica, 295, a.

Endromis, 152, b.

Ensis, 41, b; 196, a.

Entasis, 101, b; 152, b.

Ephebia, 153, b.

Ephippium, 154, a.

Ephori, 154, a.

Epibatae, 155, a.

Epidemiurgi, 129, b.

Epirhedium, 322, a.

Epistylium, 155, b.

Epitaphium, 189, a.

Epithalamium, 250, b; 252, b.

Epulones, 156, a.

Epulum Jovis, 156, a.

Equestris ordo, 157, b.

Equiria, 156, a.

Equites, 156, a; 314, b.

Equitum transvectio, 157, a.

Equuleus, 159, a.

Equus October, 280, a.
Publicus, 156, b.

Ergastulum, 159, a.

Ericius, 159, a.

Esseda, 159, b.

Essedarii, 159, b; 195, b.

Essedum, 159, b.

Everriator, 190, b.

Evocati, 167, b.

Euripus, 22, a; 408, b.

Exauctorati, 170, b.

Exauguratio, 160, b.

Exceptio, 5, b; 308, a.

Exceptores, 272, a.

Excubiae, 75, b.

Excubitores, 160, b.

Exedra, 143, a; 160, b.

Exercitor navis, 160, b.

Exercitoria actio, 160, b.

Exercitus, 160, b.

Exodia, 171, a.

Exostra, 171, b.

Expeditus, 170, a; 171, b.

Exploratores, 347, a.

Exsequiae, 188, a.

Exsilium, 172, a.
liberum, 173, b.

Exsul, 173, a.

Exta, 325, a.

Extispices, 199, b.

Extispicium, 199, b.

Extranei heredes, 203, b.

Extraordinarii, 167, a; 346, a.

Exverrae, 190, b.

Exverriator, 190, b.

Exuviae, 348, a.

Fabia lex, 297, b.

Fabiani, 244, a.

Fabii, 244, a.

Fabri, 173, b.

Fabula palliata, 112, a.
praetextata, 112, a.
togata, 112, a.
tabernaria, 112, a.

Fabula trabeata, 112, a.

Fabulae Atellanae, 46, b.

Factiones aurigarum, 89, a.

Falarica, 201, a.

Falcidia lex, 237, b.

Falcula, 173, b.

Falsum, 173, b.

Falx, 173, b.

Familia, 174, b; 194, b; 340, b.

Familiae emptor, 174, a.

Famosi libelli, 237, b.

Famulus, 174, a.

Fannia lex, 235, b.

Fanum, 366, a.

Farreum, 251, a.

Fartor, 174, a.

Fas, 218, a.

Fasces, 114, b; 174, a.

Fascia, 175, a; 222, a.

Fascinum, 175, a.

Fasti, 175, a.
annales, 175, b.
calendares, 175, b.
Capitolini, 175, b.
dies, 175, a.
historici, 175, b.
sacri, 175, b.

Fastigium, 175, b.

Fata Sibyllina, 342, b.

Fauces, 88, a; 143, a.

Favete linguis, 138, b.

Fax, 176, a.

Februare, 244, a.

Februarius, 67, a; 244, a.

Februum, 244, a.

Februus, 244, a.

Feciales, 178, a.

Feminalia, 176, a.

Fenestra, 144, b.

Fenus, 176, a.
nauticum, 176, b.

Feralia, 191, a.

Ferculum, 97, a; 177, a.

Ferentarii, 168, b.

Feretrum, 188, a.

Feriae, 177, b.
aestivae, 177, b.
conceptivae, or conceptae, 177, b.
denicales, 190, b.
imperativae, 177, b.
Latinae, 177, b.
publicae, 177, b.
stativae, 177, b.
stultorum, 182, a.
vindemiales, 177, b.

Ferre legem, 225, b.

Fescennina, 178, a.

Festi dies, 135, a.

Festuca, 248, a.

Fetiales, 178, a.

Fibula, 178, b.

Fictile, 31, a; 178, b.

Fideicommissarii praetores, 308, b.

Fideicommissum, 179, a.

Fides, 245, a.

Fiducia, 179, a.

Fiduciaria actio, 179, a.

Figulina ars, 178, b.

Figulus, 178, b.

Filiafamilias, 286, a.

Filiusfamilias, 286, a.

Filum, 191, b.

Fiscus, 11, b; 179, a.

Fistuca, 144, b.

Fistucatio, 412, b.

Fistula, 359, a.

Flabelliferae, 179, b.

Flabellum, 179, b.

Flagellum, 179, b.

Flagrum, 179, b.

Flamen, 180, a.
Dialis, 180, a.
Martialis, 180, a.
Quirinalis, 180, a.
Pomonalis, 180, a.

Flaminia lex, 229, a.

Flaminica, 180, b.

Flammeum, 252, a.

Flavia agraria lex, 229, a.

Flexumines, 157, a.

Floralia, 180, b.

Focale, 180, b.

Foculus, 145, a; 180, b.

Focus, 180, b.

Foederatae civitates, 181, a.

Foederati, 181, a.

Foedus, 181, a; 346, b.

Foenus, 176, a.
nauticum, 176, b.

Follis, 181, b; 296, b.

Fons, 181, a.

Fores, 88, a; 142, b.

Fori, 87, a; 265, b.

Foris, 215, a.

Forma, 178, b.

Formido, 319, b.

Formula, 5, b; 346, a.

Fornacalia, 182, a.

Fornax, 182, a.

Fornix, 36, a; 182, a.

Foro cedere, or abire, 39, b.
mergi, 39, b.

Foruli, 87, a.

Forum, 74, b; 117, a; 190, a.

Fossa, 14, b; 75, a.

Framea, 201, a.

Fratres arvales, 43, a.

Frenum, 182, a.

Frigidarium, 56, a.

Fritillus, 182, b.

Frontale, 24, a.

Fructuaria res, 406, a.

Fructuarius, 406, a.

Frumentariae leges, 182, b.

Frumentarii, 183, b.

Fucus, 183, b.

Fuga lata, 173, b.
libera, 173, b.

Fugalia, 318, b.

Fugitivarii, 339, b.

Fugitivus, 339, b.

Fulcra, 222, a.

Fullo, 184, a.

Fullonica, 184, a.

Fullonicum, 184, a.

Fullonium, 184, a.

Fumarium, 418, b.

Funalis equus, 124, b.

Funambulus, 184, b; 328, b.

Funda, 184, b; 320, b.

Funditores, 184, b.

Funes, 222, a; 267, b.

Funus, 184, b.
indictivum, 188, a.
plebeium, 188, a.
publicum, 188, a.
tacitum, 188, a.
translatitium, 188, a.

Furca, 191, a.

Furcifer, 191, a.

Furia, or Fusia Caninia lex, 229, a.

Furiosus, 123, a.

Fuscina, 191, b.

Fustuarium, 191, b.

Fusus, 191, b.

Gabinia lex, 229, b; 236, a.

Gabinus cinctus, 380, a.

Gaesum, 192, a.

Galea, 41, b; 192, b.

Galerus, -um, 104, a; 193, a.

Galli, 193, a; 195, b.

Ganea, 77, a.

Gausapa, 193, a.

Gausape, 193, a.

Gausapum, 193, a.

Geminae frontes, 238, a.

Gener, 13, a.

Genethliaci, 45, b.

Genitura, 46, a.

Gens, 193, a.

Gentilitia sacra, 193, b.

Germani, 98, a.

Gerrae, 194, a.

Gladiatores, 194, a.

Gladiatorium, 194, b.

Gladius, 41, b; 196, a.

Glandes, 184, b.

Glomus, 191, b.

Glos, 13, b.

Gomphi, 413, a.

Gradus, 21, b; 182, b.

Graecostasis, 196, a.

Graphiarium, 354, a.

Gregorianus codex, 95, a.

Gremium, 412, b.

Gubernaculum, 265, b.

Gubernator, 266, a.

Gustatio, 96, b.

Guttus, 17, b; 56, b.

Gymnasium, 197, a.

Haeres, 203, a.

Halteres, 198, b.

Harmamaxa, 199, a.

Harmostae, 199, a.

Harpago, 199, a.

Harpastum, 297, a.

Haruspices, 199, b.

Haruspicina ars, 138, a; 199, b.

Haruspicium, 138, a.

Hasta, 41, b; 82, a; 199, b.
celibaris, 201, a.
pura, 201, a.
vendere sub, 48, a.

Hastarium, 201, a.

Hastati, 165, a; 168, b.

Helepolis, 201, b.

Heliocaminus, 145, a.

Hellanodicae, 201, b.

Hellenotamiae, 201, b.

Helotes, 201, b.

Hemina, 120, b; 202, b.

Heraea, 202, b.

Hereditas, 203, b.

Heredium, 217, a.

Heres (Greek), 203, a.
(Roman), 203, a.

Hermae, 204, a.

Hermaea, 204, a.

Hermanubis, 204, b.

Hermares, 204, b.

Hermathena, 204, b.

Hermeracles, 204, b.

Hermogenianus codex, 95, a.

Hermuli, 88, a; 204, a.

Hexaphoron, 221, b.

Hexeres, 262, a.

Hieronica lex, 229, b.

Hieronicae, 47, a.

Hilaria, 205, a.

Hippodromus, 205, a.

Hister, 205, b.

Histrio, 188, a; 205, b.

Honorarii, 116, b.

Honorarium, 8, b.

Honores, 206, b.

Hoplomachi, 195, b.

Hora, 135, a.

Hordearium aes, 12, b; 156, b.

Horologium, 206, b.

Horreum, 207, b; 417, a.

Hortator, 305, b.

Hortensia lex, 229, b; 300, b.

Hortus, 207, b.

Hospes, 209, a.

Hospitium, 208, a.

Hostia, 324, b.

Hostia ambarvalis, 43, b.

Hostis, 208, a.

Humare, 189, b.

Hyacinthia, 209, b.

Hydraulis, 210, a.

Hypaethrae, 102, a.

Hypocaustum, 56, a.

Hypogeum, 186, a.

I, J.

Jaculatores, 201, a.

Jaculum, 209, b; 320, b.

Janitor, 142, b; 215, a.

Janua, 142, b; 214, b.

Januarius, 67, a.

Iconicae statuae, 351, a.

Idus, 67, a.

Jentaculum, 96, a.

Ignominia, 80, a; 212, a.

Ilicet, 189, a.

Imagines, 210, b; 270, a.

Immunitas, 210, b.

Imperativae feriae, 177, b.

Imperator, 211, a.

Imperium, 211, a.

Impluvium, 142, b.

Impubes, 211, a.

In bonis, 59, b.

Inauguratio, 211, b.
regis, 321, a.

Inauris, 211, b.

Incendium, 211, b.

Incensus, 71, b; 79, b.

Inceramenta navium, 295, a.

Incestum, -us, 212, a.

Incunabula, 212, a.

Index, 238, b.

Induere, 19, a.

Indumentum, 359, a; 401, b.

Indusium, 401, b.

Indutus, 19, a; 401, b.

Infamia, 212, a.

Infans, 212, b.

Infantia, 212, b.

Inferiae, 191, a.

Infula, 212, b.

Infundibulum, 256, a.

Ingenui, 212, b.

Injuria, 212, b.

Injuriarum actio, 213, a.

Inlicium, 106, b.

Inquilinus, 173, a.

Insigne, 263, b.

Instita, 213, a; 222, a.

Insula, 213, a.

Intentio, 5, b.

Intercessio, 213, a.

Intercisi dies, 135, a.

Interdictio aquae et ignis, 173, a.

Interdictum, 213, a.
prohibitorium, 213, a.
restitutorium, 213, a.

Interpres, 18, b; 39, b; 213, b.

Interregnum, 214, a.

Interrex, 213, b; 320, b.

Interula, 401, b.

Iselastici ludi, 47, a.

Iter, 302, b.

Iterare, 32, b.

Jubere, 336, a.

Judex, 215, a.

Judices editi, 216, a.
edititii, 216, a.

Judicium, 215, a.
album, 216, b.
populi, 215, b; 216, a.
privatum, 215, b.
publicum, 215, b.

Jugerum, 217, a.

Jugum, 217, a; 239, a; 364, a.

Jugumentum, 215, a.

Juliae leges, 229, b.

Julia lex de civitate, 181, b; 229, b.
de foenore, 230, a.
judiciaria, 216, b.
de liberis legationibus, 224, a.
majestatis, 247, a.
municipalis, 230, a.
et Papia Poppaea, 230, a.
peculatus, 230, b.
et Plautia, 230, b.
de provinciis, 312, b.
repetundarum, 319, b.
de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
de sacrilegis, 230, b.
sumptuaria, 236, a.
theatralis, 230, b.
et Titia, 230, b.
de vi publica et privata, 212, a.
vicesimaria, 414, b.

Julius, 67, b.

Junea, or Junia, Norbana lex, 230, b.

Junia lex repetundarum, 319, a.

Juniores, 105, b.

Junius, 66, a.

Jure, actio in, 5, b.
adcrescendi, 204, a.
agere, 5, a.

Jure cessio, in, 7, b; 60, a.

Jureconsulti, 217, b.

Juris auctores, 217, b.

Jurisconsulti, 217, b.

Jurisdictio, 117, a; 218, a.

Jurisperiti, 217, b.

Jurisprudentes, 217, b.

Jus, 218, a.
annuli aurei, 25, b.
annulorum, 25, b.
applicationis, 173, a.
augurium, or augurum, 52, b.
Censurae, 79, a.
civile, 218, a.
civile Papirianum, or Papisianum, 233, b.
civitatis, 92, a.
commercii, 92, a.
connubii, 92, a.
edicendi, 9, a; 148, a.
exsulandi, 173, a.
fetiale, 219, a.
honorum, 92, a.
Latii, 92, a; 220, b.
liberorum, 230, b.
Pontificium, 218, a; 304, a.
postliminii, 306, a.
privatum, 92, a.
publice epulandi, 337, a.
publicum, 92, a.
Quiritium, 79, b; 218, a.
senatus, 333, b.
suffragiorum, 92, a.
vocatio, in, 5, a.

Jusjurandum, 218, a.
judiciale, 219, a.

Justa funera, 188, a.

Justinianeus codex, 95, a.

Justitium, 191, a; 219, a.

Juvenalia, or juvenales ludi, 219, b.

Labarum, 344, a.

Labrum, 56, a.

Labyrinthus, 219, b.

Lacerna, 219, b.

Laciniae, 220, a.

Laconicum, 56, a.

Lacunar, 144, b.

Lacus, 182, a; 416, b.

Laena, 220, a.

Laesa majestas, 246, b.

Lancea, 200, a.

Lances, 239, a.

Lanificium, 363, b.

Lanista, 194, b.

Lanx, 220, b.

Lapicidinae, 221, a.

Lapis, 255, b.
specularis, 144, b.

Laquear, 144, b.

Laqueatores, 195, b.

Laqueus, 220, b.

Lararium, 220, b.

Larentalia, 220, b.

Larentinalia, 220, b.

Largitio, 18, b.

Larva, 291, a.

Lata fuga, 173, b.

Later, 220, b.

Lateraria, 220, b.

Laticlavius, 92, b.

Latii jus, 220, b.

Latinae feriae, 177, b.

Latinitas, 220, b.

Latinus, 92, a; 181, a.

Latium, 220, b.

Latomiae, 221, a.

Latrones, 221, a.

Latrunculi, 221, a.

Latumiae, 221, a.

Latus clavus, 92, b.

Lavatio calda, 56, a.

Laudatio funebris, 188, b.

Laurentalia, 220, b.

Lautomiae, 221, a.

Lautumiae, 221, a.

Lectica, 221, a.

Lecticarii, 221, b.

Lectisternium, 221, b.

Lectus, 222, a.
funebris, 188, a.

Legatio libera, 224, a.

Legatum, 222, b.

Legatus, 222, b; 313, a.

Leges, 225, a.
censoriae, 81, a.
centuriatae, 79, a; 225, a.
curiatae, 225, a.
Juliae, 226, a.

Legio, 164, a; 170, b.

Legis actiones, 5, a.

Legitima hereditas, 203, b.

Legitimae actiones, 5, a.

Lembus, 224, b.

Lemniscus, 224, b.

Lemuralia, 224, b.

Lemuria, 224, b.

Lenaea, 135, b.

Leria, 402, a.

Lessus, 188, a.

Levir, 13, b.

Lex, 225, a; 229, a.
Acilia, 226, a.
Acilia Calpurnia, 18, b.
Aebutia, 226, a.
Aelia, 226, a.
Aelia Sentia, 226, a.
Aemilia, 226, a.
Aemilia, de censoribus, 226, a.
Aemilia Baebia, 228, a.
Aemilia Lepidi, 235, b.
Aemilia Scauri, 248, b.
agraria, 14, b; 226, a.
ambitus, 18, b.
Ampia, 226, b.
annalis, or Villia, 226, b; 334, a.
annua, 148, b.
Antia, 236, a.
Antonia, 226, b.
Apuleia, 226, b.
Apuleia agraria, 226, b.
Apuleia frumentaria, 226, b.
Apuleia majestatis, 247, a.
Aternia Tarpeia, 226, b.
Atia de sacerdotiis, 226, b.
Atilia, 226, b.
Atilia Marcia, 226, b.
Atinia, 226, b.
Aufidia, 18, b.
Aurelia, 226, b.
Aurelia Tribunicia, 226, b.
Baebia, 227, a.
Baebia Aemilia, 228, a.
Caecilia de Censoribus, or Censoria, 227, a.
Caecilia de Vectigalibus, 227, a.
Caecilia Didia, 227, a.
Calpurnia de ambitu, 18, b.
Calpurnia de repetundis, 319, a.
Campana, 235, a.
Canuleia, 227, a.
Cassia, 227, a.
Cassia agraria, 227, a.
Cassia tabellaria, 236, a.
Cassia Terentia frumentaria, 227, b.
Centuriata, 79, a.
Cincia, 227, b.
Claudia, 227, b.
Claudia de Senatoribus, 227, b.
Clodiae, 183, a; 227, b.
Coelia or Caelia, 236, a.

Lex Cornelia--
agraria, 228, a.
de civitate, 228, a.
de falsis, 173, b.
frumentaria, 183, a.
de injuriis, 212, b.
judiciaria, 216, b.
de magistratibus, 228, a.
majestatis, 247, a.
de novis tabellis, 228, a.
nummaria, 228, a.
de parricidio, 228, a.
de proscriptione et proscriptis, 311, b.
de repetundis, 319, a.
de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
de sicariis et veneficis, 212, a; 228, a.
sumptuaria, 235, b.
testamentaria, 173, b; 228, a.
tribunicia, 228, a.
unciaria, 228, a.
Baebia, 18, b; 228, a.
Caecilia, 183, a.
et Caecilia, 228, a.

Lex Curiata de imperio, 49, a; 104, b; 233, b.
Curiata de adoptione, 7, b.
Decemviralis, 228, b.
Decia de duumviris navalibus, 228, b.
Didia, 235, b.
Domitia de sacerdotiis, 324, a.
Duilia, 228, b.
Duilia maenia, 228, b.
Duodecim Tabularum, 228, b.
Fabia de plagio, 297, b.
Fabia de numero sectatorum, 229, a.
Falcidia, 237, b.
Fannia, 235, b.
Flaminia, 229, a.
Flavia agraria, 229, a.
frumentariae, 182, b; 229, a.
Fufia de religione, 229, a.
Fufia judiciaria, 217, a.
Furia or Fusia Caninia, 229, a.
Furia or Fusia testamentaria, 229, a.
Gabinia tabellaria, 229, b; 236, a.
Gellia Cornelia, 229, b.
Genucia, 229, b.
Hieronica, 229, b.
Hortensia de plebiscitis, 229, b; 300, b.
Icilia, 229, b.
Julia de adulteriis, 8, a.
Julia de ambitu, 18, b.
Juliae, 229, b.
Junia de peregrinis, 230, b.
Junia Licinia, 231, a.
Junia Norbana, 230, b.
Junia repetundarum, 319, a.
Laetoria, 230, b.
Licinia de sodalitiis, 19, a.
Licinia de ludis Apollinaribus, 231, a.
Licinia Junia, 231, a.
Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis, 231, a.
Licinia sumptuaria, 235, a.
Liciniae rogationes, 231, a.
Liviae, 231, a.
Lutatia de vi, 231, b.
Maenia, 231, b.
majestatis, 246, b.

Lex Mamilia de Jugurthae Fautoribus, 231, b.
Mamilia finium regundarum, 231, b.
mancipii, 247, b.
Manilia, 231, b.
Manlia de vicesima, 231, b.
Marcia, 231, b.
Maria, 231, b.
Memmia, or Remmia, 69, a.
Mensia, 231, b.
Minucia, 231, b.
Nervae Agraria, 231, b.
Octavia, 182, b; 231, b.
Ogulnia, 232, a.
Oppia, 235, b.
Orchia, 235, b.
Ovinia, 232, a.
Papia de peregrinis, 232, a.
Papia Poppaea, 230, a.
Papiria, or Julia Papiria de mulctarum aestimatione, 232, a.
Papiria, 232, a.
Papiria Plautia, 232, a.
Papiria Poetelia, 232, a.
Papiria tabellaria, 236, a.
Pedia, 232, a.
Peducaea, 232, a.
Pesulania, 232, a.
Petreia, 232, a.
Petronia, 232, b.
Pinaria, 232, b.
Plaetoria, 122, b.
Plautia, or Plotia de vi, 231, b.
Plautia, or Plotia judiciaria, 232, b.
Plautia Papiria, 232, a.
Poetelia, 232, b.
Poetelia Papiria, 232, b.
Pompeia, 232, b.
Pompeia de ambitu, 217, a.
Pompeia de civitate, 232, b.
Pompeia de imperio Caesari prorogando, 232, b.
Pompeia judiciaria, 217, b.
Pompeia de jure magistratuum, 232, b.
Pompeia de parricidiis, 285, b.
Pompeia tribunitia, 232, b.
Pompeia de vi, 212, a; 232, b.
Pompeiae, 232, b.
Popilia, 232, a.
Porciae de capite civium, 232, b.
Porcia de provinciis, 232, b.
Publicia, 232, b.
Publilia, 232, b.
Publiliae, 233, a.
Pupia, 233, a.
Quina vicemaria, 122, b.
Quintia, 233, a.
regia, 233, a.
regiae, 233, b.
Remmia, 69, a.
repetundarum, 319, a.
Rhodia, 233, b.
Roscia theatralis, 233, b.

Lex Rubria, 234, a.
Rupiliae, 234, a.
sacratae, 234, a.
Saenia de patriciorum numero augendo, 234, a.
Satura, 226, a.
Scantinia, 234, a.
Scribonia, 234, a.
Scribonia viaria, 234, a.
Sempronia de foenore, 234, b.
Semproniae, 234, a.
Servilia agraria, 235, a.
Servilia Glaucia de civitate, 319, a.
Servilia Glaucia de repetundis, 319, a.
Servilia judiciaria, 235, a.
Silia, 235, a.
Silvani et Carbonis, 92, a.
Sulpicia Sempronia, 235, a.
Sulpiciae, 235, a.
Sumptuariae, 235, a.
Tabellariae, 236, a.
Tarpeia Aternia, 226, b.
Terentia Cassia, 183, a.
Terentilia, 236, b.
Testamentariae, 236, b.
Thoria, 236, b.
Titia, 236, b.
Titia de alea, 17, a.
Titia de tutoribus, 230, b.
Trebonia, 236, b.
Trebonia de provinciis consularibus, 236, b.
Tribunicia, 233, a; 236, b.
Tullia de ambitu, 18, b.
Tullia de legatione libera, 224, a.
Valeria, 237, a.
Valeriae, 236, b.
Valeriae et Horatiae, 29, b; 237, a.
Varia, 247, a.
Vatinia de provinciis, 237, a.
Vatinia de colonis, 237, a.
Vatinia de rejectione judicum, 237, a.
de vi, 420, a.
viaria, 237, a.
vicesimaria, 414, b.
Villia annalis, 226, b.
Visellia, 237, a.
Voconia, 237, b.

Libatio, 325, b.

Libella, 90, a; 237, b.

Libellus, 194, b; 237, b.

Liber, 238, a.

Libera fuga, 173, b.

Liberales ludi, 137, a.

Liberalia, 137, a.

Liberalis causa, 45, a.
manus, 45, a.

Liberalitas, 18, b.

Liberi, 238, b.

Libertus, 238, b.

Libertinus, 212, b; 238, b.

Libitinarii, 187, b.

Libra, 239, a.
or as, 239, a.

Librarium, 48, a.

Libraria taberna, 58, b.

Librarii, 58, b; 239, a.

Librator, 239, a.

Libripens, 247, b.

Liburna, 239, a; 262, b.

Liburnica, 239, a; 262, b.

Liceri, 48, b.

Licia, 364, b.

Liciatorum, 364, b.

Licinia lex de sodalitiis, 19, a.
Junia lex, 231, a.
Mucia lex, 231, a.
lex sumptuaria, 235, b.

Liciniae rogationes, 231, a.

Licitari, 48, b.

Lictor, 239, b.

Ligula, 239, b.

Limen, 215, a.

Linteones, 363, b.

Linter, 239, b.

Linteum, 17, b; 222, b.

Linum, 360, b.

Lirare, 32, b.

Literae, 360, a.

Lithostrotum, 144, b.

Lituus, 240, a.

Lixae, 68, b.

Locatio, 80, b.

Loculus, 32, b; 188, b.

Locuples, 240, b.

Locus liberatus et effatus, 366, a.

Lodix, 240, b.

Logistae, 160, b.

Lorica, 41, a; 240, b.

Lucar, 206, a.

Lucerences, 286, b.

Luceres, 286, b.

Lucerna, 241, b.

Lucta, 242, a.

Luctatio, 242, a.

Ludi, 242, a.
Apollinares, 242, a.
Augustales, 52, b.
Capitolini, 242, b.
Circenses, 89, a; 242, a.
compitalitii, 112, b.
Florales, 180, b.
funebres, 191, b; 242, b.
liberales, 137, a.
magni, 242, b.
Megalenses, 253, b.
Osci, 46, b.
plebeii, 242, b.
Romani, 242, b.
saeculares, 242, b.
scenici, 206, a; 242, a.
Tarentini, 242, b.
Taurii, 242, b.

Ludus, 194, b.
Trojae, 90, a.

Lupanar, 77, a.

Lupatum, 182, b.

Lupercalia, 243, b.

Luperci, 243, b; 244, b.

Lupus ferreus, 244, a.

Lustratio, 43, b; 244, a.

Lustrum, 66, a; 244, b.

Lyra, 245, a.

Maceria, 257, a.

Maculae, 319, b.

Maenia lex, 231, b.

Maenianum, 22, b; 246, a.

Magadis, 245, b.

Magister, 246, a.
admissionum, 6, b.
auctionis, 48, b.
equitum, 134, b.
populi, 132, b.
societatis, 246, a.

Magistratus, 246, b.

Maius, 66, a.

Majestas, 246, b.

Majores, 212, b; 246, b.

Malleolus, 247, a.

Malus, 266, a.

Malus oculus, 175, a.

Mamilia lex, 231, b.

Manceps, 81, a; 247, a.

Mancipatio, 247, b.

Mancipi res, 247, b.

Mancipium, 247, b.

Mandatum, 247, b.

Mangones, 339, b.

Manilia lex, 231, b.

Manipulares, 168, a.

Manipularii, 168, a.

Manipulus, 165, a; 168, a; 343, a.

Manlia lex, 231, b.

Mansio, 247, b.

Mansionarius, 248, a.

Mansiones, 248, a.

Manubiae, 306, b; 348, a.

Manum, conventio in, 251, a.

Manumissio, 248, a.

Manus ferrea, 199, b.

Mappa, 97, b.

Marcia lex, 231, b.

Margines, 412, b.

Maria lex, 231, b.

Marsupium, 248, b.

Martialis flamen, 180, a.

Martius, 66, a.

Materfamilias, 251, a.

Mathematici, 45, b.

Mathesis, 45, b.

Matralia, 249, a.

Matrimonium, 249, b.

Matrona, 251, a.

Matronales feriae, 249, b.

Matronalia, 249, b.

Matura, 201, a.

Mausoleum, 190, a; 253, a.

Mediastini, 253, a; 340, b.

Medicamina, 418, a.

Medimnus, 253, a.

Medix tuticus, 253, b.

Megalenses ludi, 253, b.

Megalensia, 253, b.

Megalesia, 253, b.

Membrana, 238, b.

Memmia lex, 69, a.

Mensa, 253, b.
de, 39, b.

Mensae scripturam, per, 39, b.

Mensam per, 39, b.

Mensarii, 254, a.

Mensularii, 254, a.

Mensia lex, 231, b.

Mensis, 66, a.

Menstruum, 341, a.

Mercedonius, 66, b.

Meridiani, 195, b.

Meridies, 134, b.

Metae, 87, a.

Metallum, 254, a.

Metator, 73, b.

Metretes, 23, b; 255, b.

Mille passuum, 255, b.

Milliare, 255, b.

Milliarium, 255, b.
aureum, 255, b.

Mimus, 255, b.

Minores, 123, a; 246, b.

Minucia lex, 231, b.

Minutio capitis, 71, a.

Mirmillones, 195, b.

Missio, 167, b; 195, a.
causaria, 167, b.
honesta, 167, b.
ignominiosa, 167, b.

Missus, 90, a.
aerarius, 90, a.

Mitra, 104, a; 256, a.

Modiolus, 124, a.

Modius, 256, a.

Moenia, 257, a.

Mola, 256, a.
aquaria, 256, a.
asinaria, 256, a.
manuaria, 256, a.
trusatilis, 256, a.
versatilis, 256, a.
salsa, 325, a.

Monarchia, 256, b.

Monaulos, 376, b.

Moneris, 261, a.

Moneta, 256, b.

Monetales triumviri, 256, b.

Monile, 256, b.

Monstrum, 310, b.

Monumentum, 190, a.

Morator, 89, b.

Morbus comitialis, 108, a.

Mortarium, 257, a.

Morum cura, or praefectura, 79, a.

Mos, 251, b.

Motio e senatu, 80, b.
e tribu, 80, b.

Mulleus, 65, b.

Mulsa, 418, b.

Mulsum, 418, a.

Munerator, 194, b.

Municeps, 100, b.

Municipes, 100, b.

Municipium, 100, b.

Munus, 194, b; 206, b.

Muralis corona, 118, b.

Muries, 411, a.

Murrea vasa, 257, a.

Murrhina vasa, 257, a.

Murus, 257, a.

Musculus, 258, b.

Museum, 258, b.

Musica muta, 283, a.

Musivum opus, 144, b; 296, a.

Mustum, 416, b.

Mysteria, 258, b.

Nacca, 184, a.

Naenia, 188, a.

Narthecia, 405, b.

Natatio, 56, a.

Natatorium, 56, a.

Nationes, 170, b.

Navales Socii, 171, a.

Navalis corona, 118, b.

Navarchus, 259, a.

Navis, 259, b.
aperta, 261, b.

Naumachia, 268, a.

Naumachiarii, 268, a.

Necessarii heredes, 203, b.

Nefasti dies, 135, a.

Negotiatores, 269, a.

Nenia, 188, a.

Neptunalia, 269, b.

Nexum, 269, b.

Nexus, 269, b.

Nobiles, 270, a.

Nobilitas, 270, a.

Nomen, 270, b.
expedire, or expungere, 39, b.
Latinum, 345, b.
(Greek), 270, b.
(Roman), 270, b.

Nomenclator, 18, b.

Nonae, 66, a.

Nota, 272, a.
censoria, 80, a.

Notarii, 272, a.

Notatio censoria, 80, a.

Novale, 32, b.

Novare, 32, b.

November, 66, a.

Novendiale, 190, b; 272, b.

Noverca, 13, b.

Novi homines, 270, a.

Novitas, 270, a.

Nucleus, 412, b.

Nudus, 272, b.

Numeratio, 336, a.

Numeri, 168, a.

Nummularii, 254, a.

Numularii, 254, a.

Nummus, or Numus, 341, a.
aureus, 53, b.

Nuncupatio, 369, a.

Nundinae, 66, a; 272, b.

Nundinum, 273, a.

Nuntiatio, 51, a.

Nuptiae, 249, b.

Nurus, 13, a.

Obices, 215, a.

Obnuntiatio, 51, a.

Obolus, 145, a; 405, b.

Obrogare legem, 225, b.

Obsidionalis corona, 118, a.

Obsonium, 276, b.

Occatio, 32, b.

Ocrea, 41, a; 273, a.

Octavae, 408, a.

Octavia lex, 182, b; 231, b.

October, 66, a.
equus, 280, a.

Octophoron, 221, b.

Odeum, 273, a.

Oecus, 143, a.

Oenomelum, 418, a.

Officium admissionis, 6, b.

Offringere, 32, b.

Ogulnia lex, 232, a.

Olea, 273, b.

Oleagina corona, 118, b.

Oleum, 273, b.

Oliva, 273, b.

Olla, 190, b; 273, b.

Olympia, 274, a.

Onager, 381, a.

Onerariae naves, 117, b; 262, a.

Onyx, alabaster, 16, b.

Opalia, 276, b; 330, a.

Opifera, 267, b.

Opima spolia, 348, a.

Oppia lex, 235, b.

Oppidum, 87, b.

Opsonator, 276, b.

Opsonium, 276, b.

Optio, 166, b.

Optimates, 270, b.

Opus incertum, 258, a.

Oraculum, 276, b.

Orarium, 277, b.

Oratio, 7, b.

Orator, 277, b.

Orbis, 178, b.

Orca, 345, a.

Orchestra, 371, b.

Orchia lex, 235, b.

Orcinus senator, 333, a.

Ordinarii servi, 340, b.

Ordinum ductores, 166, b; 168, b; 169, a.

Ordo, 100, b; 165, b; 168, a; 278, a.
decurionum, 100, b.
equestris, 157, b.
senatorius, 333, b.

Oreae, 182, b.

Orichalcum, 278, a.

Ornamenta triumphalia, 397, a.

Ornatrix, 103, b.

Oscines, 50, a.

Oscillum, 278, a.

Ostentum, 310, b.

Ostiarium, 278, b.

Ostiarius, 142, b.

Ostium, 88, a; 142, b; 214, b.

Ova, 87, b.

Ovalis corona, 118, b.

Ovatio, 278, b.

Ovile, 107, b.

Ovinia lex, 232, a.

Paean, 279, a.

Paedagogia, 279, a.

Paedagogus, 279, a.

Paenula, 279, a.

Paganalia, 279, b.

Pagani, 279, b.

Paganica, 296, b.

Pagi, 279, b.

Pala, 26, a.

Palaestra, 198, a; 279, b.

Palangae, 160, b.

Palilia, 280, a.

Palimpsestus, 238, a.

Palla, 280, a.

Palliata fabula, 112, a.

Palliolum, 280, a.

Pallium, 280, a.

Palmipes, 281, a.

Palmus, 281, a.

Paludamentum, 281, a.

Paludatus, 395, a.

Panathenaea, 281, b.

Pancratiastae, 282, b.

Pancratium, 282, b.

Panegyris, 283, a.

Pantomimus, 283, a.

Papia lex de peregrinis, 232, a.
Poppaea lex, 230, a.

Papiria lex, 232, a.
Plautia lex, 232, a.
Poetelia lex, 232, a.
tabellaria lex, 236, a.

Papyrus, 238, a.

Paradisus, 283, b.

Parapherna, 145, b.

Parasiti, 284, b.

Parentalia, 191, a.

Paries, 144, a.

Parma, 285, a.

Parmula, 285, a.

Parochi, 285, a.

Paropsis, 285, a.

Parricida, 285, b.

Parricidium, 285, b.

Partes, 314, b.

Particulae, 314, b.

Pascua, 407, a.
publica, 330, b.

Passum, 417, b.

Passus, 285, b.

Patella, 285, b.

Pater, 286, b.
familias, 174, a.
patratus, 178, a.

Patera, 285, b.

Patibulum, 191, a.

Patina, 286, a.

Patres, 286, b.
conscripti, 333, a.

Patria potestas, 286, a.

Patricii, 286, b.

Patrimi et matrimi, or Patrimes et matrimes, 287, b.

Patrimonium, 174, a.

Patronomi, 287, b.

Patronus, 93, b; 287, b.

Pavimentum, 144, b; 412, b.

Pauperie, aetio de, 288, a.

Pauperies, 288, a.

Pausarii, 305, b.

Pecten, 288, a; 364, b.

Peculator, 288, a.

Peculatus, 288, a.

Peculio, actio de, 339, b.

Peculium, 339, b.

Pecunia, 12, a; 40, a; 53, b.
vacua, 39, b.

Pecuniae repetundae, 318, b.

Pecus, 288, a.

Pedarii senatores, 334, a.

Pedisequi, 288, a.

Peducaea lex, 232, a.

Pedum, 288, a.

Pegma, 288, b.

Pegmares, 288, b.

Pelta, 288, b.

Penicillus -um, 295, b.

Pentacosiomedimni, 81, b; 390, a.

Pentathli, 289, a.

Pentathlon, 289, a.

Peplum, 289, b.

Pera, 290, a.

Perduellio, 247, a; 290, a.

Perduellionis duumviri, 290, a.

Peregrinus, 92, a; 290, a.

Perferre legem, 225, b.

Peripetasmata, 222, b.

Periscelis, 291, a.

Peristroma, 222, b; 291, a.

Peristylium, 102, a; 143, a.

Peritiores, 217, b.

Permutatio, 39, b.

Pero, 291, a.

Perscriptio, 39, b.

Persona, 291, a.

Pes, 267, b; 292, a.
sestertius, 292, a.

Pessulus, 215, a.

Pesulania lex, 232, a.

Petasus, 297, a; 405, a.

Petauristae, 292, a.

Petaurum, 292, a.

Petitor, 6, a; 18, b.

Petorritum, 292, a.

Petreia lex, 232, a.

Petronia lex, 232, b.

Phalangae, 160, b.

Phalanx, 160, b; 163, b.

Phalarica, 201, a.

Phalera, 292, a.

Pharetra, 292, b.

Pharos, or Pharus, 292, b.

Phaselus, 293, a.

Pictura, 293, b.

Pignoris captio, 334, b.

Pila, 257, a; 296, a; 343, b.

Pilani, 168, b.

Pileati, 188, a.

Pilentum, 297, a.

Pileum, 297, a.

Pileus, 297, a.

Pilum, 200, a; 257, a.

Pinacotheca, 143, a.

Pinaria lex, 232, b.

Piscina, 30, a; 31, a; 56, a.

Pistor, 297, b.

Pistrinum, 257, a.

Plaetoria lex, 122, b.

Plagiarius, 297, b.

Plagium, 297, b.

Planetarii, 45, b.

Planipedes, 256, a.

Plaustrum, or Plostrum, 297, b.

Plautia, or Plotia lex de vi, 231, b.
judiciaria, 232, b.

Plebeii, 298, a.
ludi, 242, b.

Plebes, 298, a.

Plebiscitum. 225, b; 300, b.

Plebs, 298, a.

Plectrum, 246, a.

Pluteus, 58, a; 222, a; 301, a.

Pnyx, 146, b.

Poculum, 301, a.

Podium, 21, b; 101, b.

Poena, 301, a.

Poetelia Papiria lex, 232, b.

Pollinctores, 187, b.

Polus, 206, a.

Polychromy, 295, b.

Pomeridianum tempus, 134, b.

Pomoerium, 301, b.

Pompa, 301, b.
Circensis, 89, b.

Pompeiae leges, 232, b.

Pons, 107, b; 302, a.
Aelius, 302, b.
Cestius, 302, a.
Fabricius, 302, b.
Janiculensis, 302, a.
Milvius, 302, b.
Palatinus, 302, b.
Sublicius, 302, b.
suffragiorum, 303, a.
Vaticanus, 302, b.

Pontifex, 303, a.

Pontificales libri, 304, a.

Pontifices minores, 305, a.

Pontificii libri, 304, a.

Pontificium jus, 218, a; 304, a.

Popa, 77, a; 122, b; 325, a.

Popilia lex, 232, a.

Popina, 77, a.

Popularia, 23, a.

Populi scitum, 225, b.

Populifugia, or Poplifugia, 305, a.

Populus, 300, a; 286, a.

Porcae, 32, b.

Porciae leges, 232, b.

Porta, 305, a.
decumana, 75, a.
pompae, 88, a.

Porta praetoria, or extraordinaria, 75, a.
principalis, 75, a.

Portentum, 138, b; 199, b.

Porticus, 305, b.

Portisculus, 305, b.

Portitores, 306, a.

Portorium, 305, b.

Portula, 305, b.

Possessio, 14, a.

Possessor, 14, a.

Postes, 215, a.

Posticum, 214, b.

Postliminium, 306, a.

Postmeridianum tempus, 135, a.

Postsignani, 168, b.

Potestas, 286, a.

Praecinctio, 23, a; 371, a.

Praecinctus, 401, b.

Praecones, 306, b.

Praeconium, 306, b.

Praeda, 306, b; 347, b.

Praedes, 216, a.

Praedia, 308, a.

Praediator, 308, a.

Praefecti sociorum, 167, a.

Praefectus, 307, a.
aerarii, 11, b.
annonae, 182, b; 307, a.
aquarum, 31, a.
castrorum, 307, a.
classis, 307, a.
fabrûm, 173, a.
juri dicundo, 100, b.
praetorio, 307, a.
vigilum, 171, a.
urbi, 10, a; 307, b.

Praefectura, 101, a.
morum, 79, a.

Praeficae, 188, a.

Praejudicium, 308, a.

Praelusio, 194, b.

Praemium, 167, b.

Praenomen, 270, b.

Praerogativa tribus, 109, a.

Praerogativae, 109, a.

Praes, 308, a.

Praescriptio, 308, a.

Praeses, 313, a.

Praesidia, 75, b.

Praeteriti senatores, 80, b; 333, b.

Praetexta, 380, b.

Praetextata fabula, 46, b; 112, a.

Praetor, 308, a.
peregrinus, 308, b.
urbanus, 308, b.

Praetoria cohors, 309, a.

Praetoriani, 309, a.

Praetorium, 308, a; 309, b.

Prandium, 96, b.

Prehensio, 388, a.

Prelum, or Praelum, 416, b.

Prensatio, 18, b.

Primipilus, 169. b.

Primitiae, 325, b.

Princeps juventutis, 159, a.

Princeps senatus, 333, b.

Principes, 165, b; 168, b.

Principia, 168, b.
via, 75, a.

Principium, 109, a.

Privatum jus, 92, a.

Privilegium, 225, b.

Privigna, 13, b.

Privignus, 13, b.

Probatio nummorum, 39, b.

Proconsul, 310, a.

Procubitores, 168, b.

Procuratio prodigiorum, 310, b.

Procurator, 6, a; 65, a; 179, b; 310, b; 313, a.
peni, 78, a.

Prodigium, 310, b.

Prodigus, 123, a.

Proeliales dies, 135, b.

Profesti dies, 135, a.

Progener, 13, b.

Proletarii, 71, a.

Promulsis, 96, b; 418, a.

Promus, 78, a; 97, a.

Pronubae, 252, b.

Pronubi, 252, b.

Pronurus, 13, b.

Propraetor, 308, b.

Propugnaculum, 381, a.

Proquaestor, 317, b.

Prora, 263, a.

Proscenium, 372, a.

Proscindere, 32, b.

Proscribere, 311, b.

Proscripti, 311, b.

Proscriptio, 311, b.

Prosecta, 325, a.

Prosiciae, 325, a.

Prosocrus, 13, b.

Provincia, 311, b.

Provocatio, 29, b.

Provocatores, 195, b.

Proximus admissionum, 6, b.

Prudentiores, 217, b.

Pteron, 253, a.

Pubertas, 211, a.

Pubes, 212, b.

Publicae feriae, 177, b.

Publicani, 314, a.

Publicia lex, 232, b.

Publicum, 314, a.
jus, 92, a.

Publicus ager, 13, b.

Publilia lex, 232, b.

Publiliae leges, 232, b.

Pugilatus, 315, a.

Pugiles, 315, a.

Pugillares, 360, a.

Pugio, 315, a.

Pugna equestris et pedestris, 90, a.

Pullarius, 50, b.

Pullati, 23, a.

Pulmentarium, 276, b.

Pulpitum, 372, a.

Pulvinar, 87, a; 315, a.

Pulvinus, 315, a.

Punctae, 107, a.

Pupia lex, 233, a.

Pupillus, 315, a.

Puppis, 264, b.

Puteal, 315, a.

Puteus, 56, a.

Puticulae, 189, b.

Puticuli, 189, b.

Pyra, 188, b.

Pyrgus, 182, b.

Pythia, 277, a; 315, b.

Pyxidula, 316, a.

Pyxis, 316, a.

Quadragesima, 316, b.

Quadrans, 44, a.

Quadrantal, 316, b.

Quadriga, 124, b.

Quadrigati, 130, b.

Quadriremes, 261, b.

Quadrupes, 288, a.

Quadruplatores, 316, b.

Quadruplicatio, 6, a.

Quadrussis, 44, a.

Quaesitor, 216, a.

Quaestiones, 216, a; 316, b.
perpetuae, 309, a.

Quaestor, 316, b.

Quaestores classici, 316, b.
parricidii, 216, a; 316, b.
rerum capitalium, 216, a.
urbani, 317, b.

Quaestorium, 74, b.

Quaestura Ostiensis, 317, b.

Qualus, 64, b.

Quasillariae, 64, b.

Quasillus, 64, b.

Quatuorviri juri dicundo, 100, b.
viarum curandarum, 318, a; 413, a.

Quinctiliani, 244, a.

Quinctilii, 244, a.

Quinctilis, 66, a.

Quincunx, 44, a.

Quindecemviri, 128, a.

Quinquatria, 318, a.

Quinquatrus, 318, a.
minores or minusculae, 318, a.

Quinquennalia, 318, a.

Quinquennalis, 101, a.

Quinqueremes, 261, b.

Quinquertium, 289, a.

Quinqueviri, 318, a.
mensarii, 254, a.

Quintana, 74, b.

Quintia lex, 233, a.

Quirinalia, 318, a.

Quirinalis flamen, 180, a.

Quiritium jus, 79, b; 281, a.

Radius, 124, a; 364, b.

Ramnenses, 286, b.

Ramnes, 286, b.

Rationes, 39, b.

Rationes Chaldaicae, 45, b.

Recuperatores, 5, b; 215, b.

Reda, 322, a.

Redemptor, 81, a; 318, b.

Redimiculum, 318, b.

Regia, 15, a.
lex, 233, a.

Regifugium, 318, b.

Regimen morum, 80, a.

Regina sacrorum, 322, a.

Rei uxoriae, or dotis actio, 145, b.

Relatio, 335, b.

Relegatio, 173, a.

Relegatus, 173, b.

Religiosus, 190, b.

Remancipatio, 139, b.

Remmia lex, 69, a.

Remulcum, 318, b.

Remuria, 224, b.

Remus, 265, b.

Renuntiatio, 109, a.

Repagula, 88, a; 215, a.

Repetundae, 318, b.

Replicatio, 6, a.

Repositorium, 97, a.

Repotia, 252, b.

Repudium, 139, b.

Res mancipi, 247, b.
nec mancipi, 247, b.
privatae, 225, b.
singulae, 225, b.

Responsa, 217, b.

Restitutoria actio, 213, b.

Rete, 319, b.

Retiarii, 195, b.

Reticulum, 103, a; 319, b.

Retinaculum, 268, a; 320, b.

Retis, 319, b.

Reus, 6, a; 216, a.

Rex, 320, a.
sacrificulus, 321, b.
sacrificus, 15, a; 321, b.
sacrorum, 304, a; 321, b.

Rheda, 322, a.

Rhinthonica, 112, a.

Rhodia lex, 233, b.

Rica, 322, b.

Ricinium, 322, b.

Robigalia, 322, b.

Robur, 72, a.

Rogare legem, 225, b.

Rogatio, 107, a; 216, b; 225, b.

Rogationem accipere, 225, b.
promulgare, 225, b.

Rogationes Liciniae, 231, a.

Rogator, 107, b.

Rogus, 188, b.

Romphea, 201, a.

Rorarii, 165, b; 168, b.

Roscia theatralis lex, 233, b.

Rostra, 322, b.

Rostrata columna, 102, b.
corona, 118, b.

Rostrum, 264, a.

Rota, 124, a; 178, b.

Rubria lex, 234, a.

Rubrica, 179, a.

Ruderatio, 144, b.

Rudiarii, 195, a.

Rudis, 194, b.

Rudus, 412, b.

Rupiliae leges, 234, a.

Saccus, 101, b; 323, a; 417, a.

Sacellum, 193, b; 323, a; 366, a.

Sacer, 234, a.

Sacerdos, 323, b.

Sacerdotes Augustales, 53, a.

Sacerdotium, 323, b.

Sacra, 268, b; 324, a.
gentilitia, 193, b.
privata, 324, a.
publica, 324, a.

Sacramentum, 218, b; 324, a.

Sacrarium, 324, a; 366, a.

Sacratae leges, 234, a.

Sacrificium, 324, a.

Sacrilegium, 325, b.

Sacrorum detestatio, 105, a.

Sacrum novemdiale, 272, b.

Saeculares ludi, 242, b.

Saeculum, 325, b.

Sagittarii, 37, b.

Sagmina, 326, a.

Sagulum, 326, a.

Sagum, 326, a.

Salaminia, 283, b.

Salii, 326, a.

Salinae, 327, a.

Salinum, 327, a.

Saltatio, 283, a; 327, b.

Saltus, 217, a; 330, b.

Salutatores, 328, b.

Sambuca, 329, a.

Samnites, 195, a.

Sandalium, 329, a.

Sandapila, 188, a.

Sapa, 416, b.

Sarcophagus, 188, b.

Sarissa, 201, a.

Sarracum, 329, a.

Satira, 329, a.

Satura, 329, a.
lex, 226, a; 329, a.

Saturnalia, 329, a.

Scabellum, 330, a.

Scalae, 23, a; 266, a.

Scalmi, 264, b.

Scalptura, 330, a.

Scamnum, 222, a; 330, a.

Scantinia lex, 234, a.

Scapha, 1, b; 262, b.

Scapus, 101, b.

Scena, 372, a.

Scenici ludi, 206, a; 242, a.

Sceptrum, 330, a.

Schoenus, 330, b.

Sciothericum, 207, a.

Scire, 336, a.

Scissor, 97, a.

Scitum populi, 225, b.

Scorpio, 180, a; 381, a.

Scotia, 347, b.

Scribae, 330, b.

Scribere, 331, a.

Scribonia lex, 234, a.

Scrinium, 70, b.

Scriplum, 331, a.

Scripta, 221, a.

Scriptura, 330, b.

Scripturarii, 331, a.

Scripulum, 331, a.

Scrupulum, 53, b; 331, a; 405, b.

Sculptura, 330, a.

Scutica, 180, a.

Scutum, 41, b; 331, a.

Scytale, 331, a.

Secespita, 331, b.

Sectatores, 18, b.

Sectio, 331, b.

Sector, 331, b.

Secundarium, 417, b.

Securis, 331, b.

Secutores, 195, b.

Seges, 32, b.

Segestre, 222, b.

Sella, 154, a; 331, b.

Sembella, 237, b.

Semis, Semissis, 44, a; 54, a.

Semproniae leges, 234, a.

Sempronia lex de foenere, 234, b.

Semunciarium fenus, 177, a.

Senator, 333, a.

Senatores Orcini, 333, a.
pedarii, 334, a.

Senatus, 332, a.
auctoritas, 336, a.
consultum, 336, a.
jus, 333, b.

Seniores, 105, b.

Sepelire, 189, b.

September, 66, a.

Septemviri Epulones, 156, a.

Septimontium, 337, a.

Septum, 107, b.

Septunx, 44, a.

Sepulchri violati actio, 190, b.

Sepulchrum, 189, b.

Sequestres, 18, b.

Sera, 215, a.

Seriae, 417, a.

Sericum, 337, a.

Serrati, _sc._ nummi, 130, b.

Serta, 337, a.

Servare de coelo, 51, a.

Servilia agraria lex, 235, a.
Glaucia lex, 319, a.
judiciaria lex, 235, a.

Servus (Greek), 337, a.
(Roman), 338, b.
ad manum, 18, a.
publicus, 340, a.

Sescuncia, 44, a.

Sescunx, 44, a.

Sestertium, 341, b.

Sestertius, 341, b.

Sevir turmae equitum, 159, a.

Seviri, 53, a.

Sex suffragia, 156, a.

Sextans, 44, a.

Sextarius, 342, a; 405, b.

Sextilis, 66, a.

Sibina, 201, a.

Sibyllini libri, 342, b.

Sica, 342, b.

Sicarius, 343, a.

Sicila, 342, b.

Sidus natalitium, 46, a.

Sigillaria, 330, a.

Signa militaria, 343, a.

Signifer, 166, b; 343, b.

Signum, 138, b; 168, a.

Silentium, 51, a.

Silia lex, 235, a.

Silicarii, 31, a.

Silicernium, 190, b.

Siliqua, 405, b.

Silvae, 330, b.

Silvani et Carbonis lex, 92, a.

Simpulum, or Simpuvium, 331, b; 344, a.

Siparium, 344, a; 372, a.

Sistrum, 344, a.

Sitella, 345, a.

Siticines, 188, a.

Situla, 345, a.

Socculus, 345, b.

Soccus, 345, b.

Socer, 13, a.
magnus, 13, b.

Societas, 39, b.

Socii, 170, b; 181, a; 345, b.

Socrus, 13, a.
magna, 13, b.

Sodales, 98, a.
Augustales, 53, a.
Titii, 43, a.

Sodalitium, 19, a.

Solarium, 135, a; 143, b; 207, a.

Solea, 346, b.

Solidorum venditio, 39, b.

Solidus, 54, a.

Solitaurilia, 325, a; 244, b.

Solium, 56, a; 376, a.

Solum, 144, b.

Sophronistae, 179, b.

Sordidati, 380, a.

Sortes, 345, a; 347, a.

Sparus, 200, b.

Spectacula, 87, a.

Spectio, 51, a.

Specularia, 144, b.

Specularis lapis, 144, b.

Speculatores, 347, a.

Speculum, 347, a.

Specus, 30, b.

Sperata, 252, b.

Sphaeristerium, 296, b.

Spiculum, 199, b; 200, b.

Spina, 87, a.

Spira, 101, b; 347, b.

Spirula, 347, b.

Spolia, 347, b.

Sponda, 222, a.

Sponsa, 251, b.

Sponsalia, 251, b.

Sponsus, 251, b.

Sportula, 348, a.

Stadium, 348, b.

Stalagamia, 211, b.

Stamen, 191, b; 364, a.

Stater, 349, a.

Statera, 399, a.

Stati dies, 135, b.

Stationes, 75, b.

Stativae feriae, 177, b.

Stator, 349, a.

Statuaria ars, 349, a.

Statumen, 412, b.

Stesichorus, 362, a.

Stilus, 354, a.

Stipendiarii, 354, a.

Stipendium, 354, b.

Stiva, 32, a.

Stola, 354, b.

Stragulum, 222, b.

Stratum, 154, a.

Strena, 355, b.

Strigil, 56, b.

Strophium, 355, b.

Structor, 97, a.

Stultorum feriae, 182, a.

Stuprum, 8, a.

Stylus, 354, a.

Subitarius exercitus, 167, a.

Subitarii, 400, a.

Subrogare legem, 225, b.

Subscriptores, 139, a.

Subscriptio censoria, 80, a.

Subsellium, 376, a.

Subsignanus, 168, b; 355, b.

Subtegmen, 364, a.

Subtemen, 364, a.

Subucula, 401, b.

Suburana, 390, b.

Succinctus, 401, b.

Sudatio concamerata, 56, a.

Sudatorium, 56, a.

Suffibulum, 412, a.

Suffitio, 190, b.

Suffragia sex, 156, a.

Suffragium, 355, b.

Suggestus, 22, b; 322, b; 356, a.

Suggrundarium, 188, b.

Sui heredes, 203, b.

Sulci, 412, b.

Sulcus, 32, b.

Sulpiciae leges, 235, a.

Sulpicia Sempronia lex, 235, a.

Sumptuariae leges, 235, a.

Suovetaurilia, 244, b; 325, a.

Supparum, 267, b; 401, b.

Supparus, 401, b.

Supplicatio, 356, a.

Supposititii, 195, b.

Susceptores, 81, a.

Suspensura, 56, a.

Sutorium, 48, a.

Symposium, 357, a.

Syndicus, 358, a.

Syngrapha, 358, b.

Synthesis, 329, b; 359, a.

Syrinx, 359, a.

Syssitia, 359, b.

Tabella, 360, a.

Tabellariae leges, 236, a.

Tabellarius, 360, a.

Taberna, 39, b; 77, a.
diversoria, 77, a.

Tabernaria fabula, 112, a.

Tablinum, 142, b.

Tabulae, 39, b; 360, a.
censoriae, 79, b.
novae, 360, b.
publicae, 317, a.

Tabulam, adesse ad, 48, b.

Tabularii, 360, b.

Tabularium, 360, b.

Tabulatum, 417, a.

Talaria, 361, a.

Talasius, 252, b.

Talassio, 252, b.

Talentum, 361, a.

Talio, 361, b.

Talus, 361, b.

Tarentini ludi, 242, b.

Tarpeia Aternia lex, 226, b.

Taurii ludi, 242, b.

Tectores, 31, a.

Tectorium, 48, a.

Tegula, 363, b.

Tela, 363, b.

Telamones, 47, b.

Temo, 31, b; 124, a; 297, b.

Templum, 322, b.

Temporis praescriptio, 308, a.

Tensae, 373, b.

Tepidarium, 56, a.

Terentilia lex, 236, b.

Terentini ludi, 242, b.

Terminalia, 368, a.

Termini, 204, b.

Tertiare, 32, b.

Teruncius, 44, a; 237, b.

Tessera, 368, b.
hospitalis, 209, b.
nummaria, or frumentaria, 183, a.

Testamentariae leges, 236, b.

Testamentifactio, 368, b.

Testamentum, 248, a; 368, b.

Testator, 368, b.

Testis, 248, a; 218, b.

Testudo, 40, b; 245, b; 369, a.

Tetrarcha, 370, a.

Tetrarches, 370, a.

Textores, 363, b.

Textrices, 363, b.

Textrinum, 363, b.

Thalassites, 418, b.

Thargelia, 370, a.

Theatrum, 370, b.

Thensae, 373, b.

Theodosianus codex, 95, a.

Thermae, 54, b.

Thermopolium, 77, a.

Thesmophoria, 375, b.

Thorax, 240, b.

Thoria lex, 236, b.

Thraces, 195, b.

Threces, 195, b.

Thronus, 376, a.

Thyrsus, 376, a.

Tiara, 376, b.

Tiaras, 376, b.

Tibia, 376, b.

Tibicinium, 377, a.

Tintinnabulum, 378, a.

Tirocinium, 378, a.

Tiro, 378, a.

Titia lex, 236, b.

Titienses, 286, b.

Tities, 286, b.

Titii Sodales, 378, a.

Titulus, 189, a; 238, b.

Toga, 378, a.
candida, 380, a.
palmata, 380, b.
picta, 380, b.
praetexta, 380, b.
pulla, 380, b.
pura, 380, a.
sordida, 380, a.
virilis, 380, a.

Togata fabula, 112, a.

Togatus, 378, b.

Tonsor, 381, a.

Topiaria ars, 208, b.

Topiarius, 208, a.

Toralia, 222, b.

Torcular, 416, b.

Torculum, 416, b.

Tormentum, 267, a; 381, a.

Torques, 381, b.

Torquis, 381, b.

Torus, 222, a; 347, b; 381, b.

Trabea, 380, b.

Trabeata fabula, 112, a.

Tragoedia, 381, b.

Tragula, 201, a; 320, b.

Tragum, 320, b.

Trama, 364, a.

Transactio in via, 5, a.

Transtillum, 245, b.

Transtra, 265, b.

Transvectio equitum, 158, b.

Trebonia lex, 236, b.

Tremissis, 54, a.

Tressis, 44, a.

Tresviri, 397, a.

Triarii, 165, b; 168, b.

Tribula, 385, a.

Tribulum, 385, a.

Tribulus, 385, a.

Tribunal, 385, a.

Tribuni Laticlavii, 169, a.
militum, 166, a; 169, a.

Tribunicia lex, 233, a; 236, b.
potestas, 387, a.

Tribunus, 385, a.
celerum, 78, a.

Tribus (Greek), 388, a.
(Roman), 390, b.

Tributa comitia, 108, a.

Tributum, 391, a.

Tricliniarchia, 392, a.

Triclinium, 391, b.

Tridens, 191, b.

Triens, 44, a.

Trifax, 381, a.

Triga, 124, a.

Trilix, 364, b.

Trinum nundinum, 273, a.

Trinundinum, 273, a.

Triplicatio, 6, a.

Tripos, 394, a.

Tripudium, 50, b.

Triremes, 260, b.

Triticum, 182, b.

Triumphalia ornamenta, 397, a.

Triumphalis corona, 118, b.

Triumphus, 394, a.
castrensis, 397, a.
navalis, 397, a.

Triumviri, 397, a.
agro dividundo, 397, b.
capitalis, 397, b.
coloniae deducendae, 99, b; 397, b.
epulones, 156, a.
equitum turmas recognoscendi, or legendis equitum decuriis, 397, b.
mensarii, 254, a.
monetales, 256, b.
nocturni, 397, b.
reficiendis aedibus, 397, b.
reipublicae constituendae, 397, b.
sacris conquirendis donisque
persignandis, 398, a.
senatus legendi, 398, a.

Trochleae, 267, a.

Trochus, 398, a.

Trojae ludus, 90, a.

Tropaeum, 398, a.

Trossuli, 157, a.

Trua, 399, a.

Trulla, 399, a.

Trutina, 399, a.

Tuba, 399, a.

Tubicen, 11, a.

Tubilustrium, 318, a.

Tullia lex de ambitu, 18, b.
de legatione libera, 224, a.

Tullianum, 72, a.

Tumultuarii, 400, a.

Tumultuarius Exercitus, 167, a.

Tumultus, 399, b.

Tunica, 400, a.

Tunica recta, 252, a.

Tunicati, 402, b.

Turibulum, 402, b.

Turma, 166, b.

Turricula, 182, b.

Turris, 402, a.

Tutela, 264, b.

Tutor, 122, b.

Tympanum, 27, a; 298, a; 403, a.

U, V.

Vacatio, 152, a; 167, b.

Vadari reum, 5, b.

Vades, 216, a.

Vades dare, 5, b.

Vadimonium, Vas, 5, b.

Vagina, 196, a.

Valeriae leges, 236, b.

Valeriae et Horatiae leges, 29, b; 237, a.

Valeria lex, 237, a.

Vallaris corona, 118, b.

Vallum, 14, b; 75, a; 406, a.

Vallus, 75, a; 406, b.

Valva, 215, a.

Vannus, 407, a.

Vari, 320, b.

Varia lex, 247, a.

Vas, 407, a.

Vatinia lex, 237, a.

Udo, 404, b.

Vectigal rerum venalium, 82, a.

Vectigalia, 407, a.

Velarium, 23, a.

Velites, 166, b; 168, b; 408, a.

Velum, 267, a; 408, a.

Venabulum, 408, a.

Venatio, 21, a; 408, a.

Venditio, 80, b.

Veneficium, 409, a.

Venereus jactus, 362, a.

Venus, 362, a.

Ver sacrum, 410, a.

Verbena, 31, b; 326, a.

Verbenarius, 178, a.

Verna, 340, a.

Verriculum, 320, b.

Versura, 177, a.

Veru, 200, b.

Vervactum, 32, b.

Verutum, 200, b.

Vespae, 188, a.

Vespillones, 188, a.

Vestalis, 410, a.
maxima, 410, b.

Vestibulum, 142, a.

Veteranus, 167, b; 378, a.

Veteratores, 340, a.

Vexillarii, 165, b; 170, b.

Vexillum, 165, b; 343, b.

Via Principalis, 75, a.

Viae, 412, a.

Viaria lex, 237, a.

Viaticum, 414, a.

Viator, 414, b.

Victima, 324, b.

Vicesima, 11, b; 414, b.
hereditatum et legatorum, 414, b.
manumissionis, 248, b; 414, b.

Vicesimaria lex, 414, b.

Vicesimarii, 414, b.

Vico magistri, 415, a.

Vicus, 414, b.

Victoriatus, 130, a.

Vigiles, 171, a.

Vigiliae, 75, b.

Vigintisexviri, 415, a.

Vigintiviri, 415, a.

Villa, 415, a.
publica, 79, a.
rustica, 415, a.

Villia annalis lex, 226, b.

Villicus, 31, a; 208, a; 340, b; 415, b.

Vinalia, 415, b.

Vindemialis feria, 177, b.

Vindex, 5, a.

Vindicta, 248, a.

Vinea, 415, b.

Vinum, 416, a.

Virgines Vestales, 410, a.

Virgo maxima, 411, a.

Viridarium, 208, b.

Viridarius, 208, a.

Virilis toga, 380, a.

Vis, 420, a.

Visceratio, 190, b.

Viscellia lex, 237, a.

Vitis, 169, a.

Vitium, 51, a.

Vitrearii, 420, b.

Vitricus, 13, b.

Vitrum, 420, a.

Vitta, Vittae, 421, a.

Vittata sacerdos, 421, b.

Ulna, 404, b.

Umbella, 404, b.

Umbilicus, 238, a.

Umbo, 94, a; 379, b; 412, b.

Umbraculum, 404, b.

Uncia, 44, a; 176, b; 405, a.

Unciarum fenus, 177, a.

Unctores, 17, b.

Unctorium, 56, a.

Unguenta, 405, b.

Unguentaria, 405, b.

Unguentariae, 405, b.

Unguentarii, 405, b.

Universitas, 98, a.

Vocatio, 388, a.

Voconia lex, 237, b.

Volones, 421, b.

Volumen, 238, a.

Voluntarii, 421, b.

Vomer, 32, a.

Vomitoria, 23, a.

Vorticellum, 191, b.

Urceus, 406, a.

Urna, 189, a; 345, a; 406, a.

Ustrina, 63, a; 189, a.

Ustrinum, 189, a.

Usucapio, 406, a.

Usurae, 176, b.

Usus, 251, a.

Ususfructuarius, 406, a.

Ususfructus, 406, a.

Uterini, 98, a.

Utres, 418, a.

Utricularius, 376, b.

Vulcanalia, 421, b.

Vulgares, 340, b.

Uxor, 251, a.

Uxorium, 12, b.

Xystus, 208, a.

Zona, 422, b.

Zophorus, 102, a; 422, b.

ENGLISH INDEX.

Actors (Greek), 205, b.
(Roman), 205, b.

Adoption (Greek), 7, a.
(Roman), 7, a.

Advocate, 358, a.

Adze, 44, a.

Altar, 31, a.

Ambassadors, 223, a.

Anchor, 268, a.

Anvil, 254, b.

Aqueduct, 29, b.

Arch, 36, a.

Archers, 37, b.

Armour, 41, a.

Arms, 41, a.

Army (Greek), 160, b.
(Roman), 164, a.

Astronomy, 45, b.

Auction (sale), 48, b.

Axe, 331, b.

Axle, 124, a.

Bail (Greek), 152, b.
(Roman), 5, b.

Bakers, 297, b.

Balance, the, 239, a.

Ball, game at, 181, b; 296, a.

Bankers, 39, a.

Banishment (Greek), 172, a.
(Roman), 173, a.

Barber, 57, a.

Basket, 57, b.

Baths (Greek), 54, a.
(Roman), 55, b.

Beard, 57, a.

Beds, 222, a.

Beer, 82, b.

Bell, 378, a.

Bellows, 181, b.

Belt, 57, a.

Bit (of horses), 182, b.

Boeotian constitution, 59, b.

Books, 238, a.

Bookseller, 239, a.

Boots, 64, b; 120, a.

Bottomry, 176, b.

Bow, 37, b.

Boxing, 315, a.

Bracelet, 42, b.

Brass, 12, a; 278, a.

Brazier, 180, b.

Breakfast, 95, a.

Bribery (Greek), 127, a.
(Roman), 18, b.

Bricks, 220, b.

Bridge, 302, a.

Bridle, 182, a.

Bronze, 12, a.

Brooch, 178, b.

Burial (Greek), 184, a.
(Roman), 187, b.

Calendar (Greek), 65, a.
(Roman); 66, a.

Cameos, 330, a.

Camp, 73, a.
breaking up of, 76, a.
choice of ground for, 73, b.
construction of, 74, a.

Candle, 69, b.

Candlestick, 69, b.

Canvassing, 18, a.

Capital (of columns), 101, b.

Cart, 72, b.

Casque, 192, b.

Ceilings, 144, b.

Celt, 139, b.

Censer, 402, b.

Chain, 76, b.

Chariot, 123, b.

Chimneys, 145, a.

Chisel, 139, b.

Circumvallation, 406, b.

Citizenship (Greek), 90, b.
(Roman), 91, b.

Clerks (Athenian), 196, a.
(Roman), 6, a.

Clocks, 206, b.

Coffins, 185, b; 188, b.

Colony (Greek), 98, b.
(Roman), 99, b.

Column, 101, b.

Combs, 288, a.

Comedy (Greek), 110, b.
(Roman), 111, b.

Cooks, 97, a.

Cordage, 267, b.

Corn crops, 344, b.
preservation of, 345, a.

Couches, 221, a.

Cowl, 122, a.

Cretan constitution, 120, a.

Criers, 306, b.

Crook, 288, a.

Crops, 344, b.

Cross, 121, a.

Crown, 118, a.

Crucifixion, 121, a.

Cubit, 122, a.

Cup, 68, a.

Cymbal, 125, b.

Daggers, 315, a; 342, b.

Dance, the Pyrrhic, 328, a.

Dancing, 327, b.

Day, 134, a.

Dice, 368, b.

Dice-box, 182, b.

Dinner, 95, a.

Dish, 77, a; 285, a.

Distaff, 191, b.

Dithyramb, 381, b.

Divorce (Greek), 139, a.
(Roman), 139, a.

Door, 214, b.

Dowry (Greek), 145, a.
(Roman), 145, b.

Drains, 94, a.

Draughts, game of, 221, a.

Drum, 403, a.

Dynasty, 34, b.

Ear-ring, 211, b.

Earthenware, 178, b.

Eleven, the, 202, b.

Ensigns, military, 343, a.

Era, 86, a.

Evil Eye, 175, a.

Executioner, 72, b.

Fan, 179, b.

Felting, 297, a.

Fire-place, 180, b.

Floors of houses, 144, b.

Fresco, 295, a.

Fuller, 184, a.

Funerals (Greek), 184, b.
(Roman), 187, b.

Furnace, 56, a; 182, a.

Gambler, Gaming, 17, a.

Garden, 207, b.

Gates of cities, 305, a.

Girdle, 422, b.

Gladiators, 194, a.

Glass, 420, a.

Gold, 53, b.

Granary, 207, b.

Greaves, 273, a.

Guards, 75, b.

Hair (Greek), 103, a.
(Roman), 103, b.

Hammers, 247, a; 254, b.

Harp, 329, a.

Hatchet, 331, b.

Hearth, 180, b.

Heir (Greek), 203, a.
(Roman), 203, a.

Helmet, 192, b.

Hemlock, 202, b.

Heraclean tablet, 230, a.

Holidays, 177, b.

Hoop, 398, a.

Hospitality, 208, a.

Hour, 207, a.

House (Greek), 140, a.
(Roman), 142, a.

Hunting, 408, a.

Hunting-spear, 408, a.

I, J.

Informer, 128, b.

Inheritance (Greek), 203, a.
(Roman), 203, a.

Ink, 48, a.

Inn, 77, a.

Intaglios, 330, a.

Intercalary month, 66, b.

Interest of money (Greek), 176, b.
(Roman), 176, b.

Istumian games, 214, a.

Italy, 100, b.

Judges (Greek), 121, a; 131, a.
(Roman), 215, a.

Kiln, 182, a.

King (Greek), 320, a.
(Roman), 320, b.

Kitchen, 143, a.

Knife, 122, a.

Knights (Athenian), 81, b.
(Roman), 156, a.

Knockers, 215, a.

Ladders, 266, a.

Lamps, 241, b.

Law, 218, a; 225, a.

Legacy, 222, b.

Legion, 164, a.

Letter-carrier, 360, a.

Levy, 167, a.

Library, 58, b.

Light-house, 293, a.

Litters, 221, b.

Liturgies, 224, a.

Looking-glass, 347, a.

Loom, 363, b.

Lots, 347, a.

Luncheon, 95, a.

Lyre, the, 245, a.

Marriage (Greek), 249, b.
(Roman), 250, b.

Masks, 291, a.

Masts, 266, a.

Meals (Greek), 95, a.
(Roman), 96, a.

Mile, 255, b.

Mile-stones, 255, b; 413, a.

Mills, 256, a.

Mines, 407, b.

Mint, 256, b.

Mirror, 347, a.

Money, coined, 12, a.
(Greek), gold, 53, b.
(Roman), ” 53, b.

Month (Greek), 65, a.
(Roman), 66, a.

Mortars, 257, a; 258, a.

Mosaics, 141, b; 144, b.

Mourning for the dead, 190, b; 187, a.

Names (Greek), 270, b.
(Roman), 270, b.

Necklaces, 256, b.

Nemean games, 269, a.

Nets, 319, b.

Notary, 360, b.

Oars, 265, b.

Oath (Greek), 218, a.
(Roman), 218, b.

October-horse, 280, a.

Officers, duty of, 75, b.
parade of, 75, b.

Olympiad, 276, a.

Olympic games, 274, a.

Oracles, 276, b.

Orders of architecture, 101, b; 102, a.

Organ, 210, a.

Ostracism, 172, a.

Oven, 182, a.

Ounce, 105, a.

Painting, 293, b.

Paper, 238, b.

Parasol, 404, b.

Parchment, 238, b.

Pay of soldiers, 354, b.

Pediment, 176, a.

Pen, 64, a.

Perfumes, 405, b.

Pipe, 376, b.

Plough, 31, b.

Poisoning, 409, a.

Poles, 266, a.

Portcullis, 76, a.

Pottery, 178, b.

Priests, 323, b.

Prison, 72, a.

Prodigies, 310, b.

Property-tax (Greek), 148, b.
(Roman), 391, b.

Prow, 263, a.

Purification, 244, a.

Purses, 248, b.

Pyrrhic dance, 328, a.

Pythian games, 315, b.

Quiver, 292, b.

Races, 87, a.

Rings, 25, b.

Road, 412, a.

Rope-dancers, 184, b.

Ropes, 267, b.

Rounds, 75, b.

Rudder, 265, b.

Sacrifices, 324, a.

Saddles, 154, a.

Sails, 267, a.

Salt, 327, a.

Salt-cellar, 327, a.

Salt-works, 327, a.

Sandal, 58, a.

Scales, 239, a.

Screw, 94, b.

Scythe, 173, b.

Senate (Greek), 61, a; 193, b.
(Roman), 332, b.

Sentinels, 75, b.

Shawl, 289, b.

Shields, 94, a; 285, a; 331, a; 288, b.

Ships, 259, b.

Shoe, 64, b; 151, b.

Shops, 39, b.

Sibyl, 342, b.

Sickle, 342, b.

Silk, 337, a.

Silver, 40, a.

Slaves (Greek), 337, a.
(Roman), 338, b.

Sling, 184, b.

Slingers, 184, b.

Spartan constitution, 193, b.

Spear, 199, b.

Speusinians, 129, b.

Spindle, 191, b.

Standards, military, 343, a.

Statuary, 349, a.

Stern, 264, b.

Stoves, 145, a.

Sun-dial, 206, b.

Sword, 196, a.

Tables, 253, b.

Talent, 361, a.

Tapestry, 344, a.

Taxes (Greek), 365, b.
(Roman), 365, b; 391, a.

Temple, 366, a.

Testament, 368, b.

Theatre, 370, b.

Thessalian constitution, 360, b.

Threshold, 214, b.

Throne, 376, a.

Tiles, roofing, 363, b.

Tombs, 186, a.

Torch, 176, a.

Torture, 381, a.

Tower, 402, a.

Tragedy (Greek), 381, b.
(Roman), 384, a.

Triangle, the, 181, a.

Tribes (Greek), 388, b.
(Roman), 390, b.

Tribunes, 385, a.

Trident, 191, b.

Tripod, 394, a.

Trophy, 398, a.

Trousers, 62, a.

Trumpet, 62, b; 399, a.

Tumblers, 328, a.

U, V.

Vase-painting, 295, b.

Veil, 408, a.

Voting (Greek), 355, b.
(Roman), 107, a; 355, b.

Usurers, 176, b.

Waggon, 297, b.

Wall, 257, b; 301, b.

Weaving, 364, a.

Wheel, 124, a.

Whip, 179, b.

Wills, 368, b.

Window, 144, b.

Wine, 416, a.

Witnesses (Greek), 248, b.
(Roman), 218, a.

Wrestling, 242, a.

Yards of a sail, 267, a.

Year (Greek), 65, a.
(Roman), 66, b.

Yoke, 217, a.

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

_Under each head the names of the articles in the Index are given in
which the subject is explained._

AGRICULTURE.
Hortus.
Olea, Oliva.
Oscillum.
Scamnum.
Sitos.
Villa rustica.
Vinum.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
Aratrum.
Jugum.
Pala.
Pecten.
Pedum.
Plaustrum.
Prelum.
Sarracum.
Stilus.
Tintinnabulum.
Torculum.
Tribula.
Tympanum.
Vannus.

AMUSEMENTS AND PLAYTHINGS.
Abacus.
Aenigma.
Alea.
Ascoliasmus.
Buxum.
Calculi.
Cottabos.
Follis.
Fritillus.
Latrunculi.
Talus.
Tessera.
Trochus.

ARCHITECTURE.
Abacus.
Acroterium.
Antae.
Antefixa.
Apsis.
Architectura.
Arcus.
Astragalus.
Atlantes.
Balteus.
Camara.
Canalis.
Columbaria.
Columna.
Coronis.
Cortina.
Crypta.
Cyma.
Entasis.
Epistylium.
Fascia.
Fastigium.
Janua.
Jugum.
Later.
Maenianum.
Metopa.
Peristylium.
Podium.
Porticus.
Spira.
Testudo.
Tholus.
Tympanum.
Zophorus.

ARITHMETIC.
Abacus.
Calculi.

ARMOUR AND WEAPONS.
Acinaces.
Aegis.
Arcus.
Arma.
Armatura.
Capulus.
Cateia.
Cetra.
Clipeus.
Dolo.
Funda.
Galea.
Gerrha.
Gladius.
Hasta.
Lorica.
Ocrea.
Palma.
Pelta.
Pharetra.
Pugio.
Scutum.
Securis.
Sica.
Venabulum.

ASSEMBLIES AND COUNCILS.
Agora.
Amphictyones.
Areiopagus.
Boule.
Comitia calata.
curiata.
centuriata.
tributa.
Concilium.
Concio.
Conventus.
Curia.
Ecclesia.
Eccleti.
Gerousia.
Myrii.
Panegyris.
Panionia.
Senatus.
Synedri.

ASTRONOMY.
Astrologia.

CAMPS AND FORTS.
Acropolis.
Agger.
Arx.
Carrago.
Castra.
stativa.
Pagi.
Praetorium.
Turris.
Vallum.

CHARITIES AND DONATIONS.
Alimentarii.
Congiaria.
Dianomae.
Donaria.
Frumentariae Leges.
Strena.

CIVIL PUNISHMENTS.
Arca.
Barathron, or Orugma.
Carcer.
Ceadas.
Crux.
Equuleus.
Ergastulum.
Flagrum.
Furca, patibulum.
Laqueus.
Latumiae.
Sestertium.

CLASSES OF CITIZENS AND OTHERS.
Adlecti.
Aerarii.
Agela.
Aretalogi.
Camilli.
Canephoros.
Dediticii.
Delator.
Demos.
Eiren.
Emphruri.
Ephebus.
Equites.
Eupatridae.
Geomori.
Hetaerae.
Hippobotae.
Homoei.
Libertus.
Locupletes.
Metoeci.
Naucraria.
Nobiles.
Ordo.
Parasiti.
Patricii.
Patrimi et Matrimi.
Perioeci.
Plebes.
Quadruplatores.
Salutatores.

COLONIES & MOTHER COUNTRY.
Apoikia.
Cleruchiae.
Colonia.
Metropolis.

CRIMES.
Ambitus.
Calumnia.
Falsum.
Incendium.
Injuria.
Leges Corneliae et Juliae.
Majestas.
Parricidium.
Plagium.
Sacrilegium.
Sodalitium.
Stuprum.
Talio.
Veneficium.
Vis.

DIVISION OF LAND.
Ager publicus.
Cippus.
Pyrgos.
Temenos.

DRAMA, DRAMATIC ENTERTAINMENTS.
Comoedia.
Exodia.
Exostra.
Mimus.
Pantomimus.
Periactos.
Persona.
Siparium.
Theatrum.
Tragoedia.
Velum.

DRESS, ORNAMENTS, THE TOILET.
Abolla.
Alicula.
Amictorium.
Amictus.
Ampyx.
Annulus.
Apex.
Armilla.
Barba.
Baxa.
Braccae.
Bulla.
Calamistrum.
Calceus.
Campestre.
Candys.
Caracalla.
Catena.
Causia.
Cestus.
Chlamys.
Clavus latus.
angustus.
Coma.
Cothurnus.
Crepida.
Crocota.
Cucullus.
Cudo.
Cyclas.
Diadema.
Embas.
Emblema.
Endromis.
Exomis.
Fascia.
Feminalia.
Fibula.
Fimbriae.
Flabellum.
Focale.
Fucus.
Galerus.
Inauris.
Incunabula.
Infula.
Instita.
Lacerna.
Laciniae.
Laena.
Lemniscus.
Marsupium.
Mitra.
Monile.
Nudus.
Orarium.
Paenula.
Pallium.
Pecten.
Peplum.
Pera.
Periscelis.
Pero.
Phalera.
Pileus.
Redimiculum.
Reticulum.
Ricinium.
Saccus.
Sandalium.
Serta.
Soccus.
Solea.
Stola.
Strophium.
Synthesis.
Tiara.
Toga.
Torques.
Tunica.
Udo.
Velum.
Vitta.
Umbraculum.
Unguenta.
Zona.

ENGINEERING.
Aquae ductus.
Cloaca.
Crypta.
Emissarium.
Fistula.
Fons.
Librator aquae.
Murus, moenia.
Navalia.
Pharos.
Piscina.
Pons.
Porta.
Syrinx.

ENGRAVING AND CHASING.
Caelatura.

ENTERTAINMENTS. FOOD.
Apophoreta.
Calida.
Cerevisia.
Coena.
Commissatio.
Erani.
Opsonium.
Paropsis.
Posca.
Sportula.
Symposium.
Syssitia.
Vinum.

EPOCHS AND DIVISIONS OF TIME.
Calendarium, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Chronologia.
Clavus annalis.
Dies.
fasti et nefasti.
Fasti.
sacri, or kalendares.
annales, or historici.
Feriae.
Hora.
Horologium.
Lustrum.
Nundinae.
Olympias.
Saeculum.

EXERCISES.
Ceroma.
Cestus.
Cheironomia.
Desultor.
Discus.
Gymnasium.
Halteres.
Harpastum.
Hippodromus.
Lucta, luctatio.
Palaestra.
Pancratium.
Pentathlon.
Petaurum.
Pila.
Pugilatus.
Saltatio.

FESTIVALS, GAMES, AND SHOWS.
Actia.
Adonia.
Aeora.
Agonalia.
Agones.
Agraulia.
Agroteras thusia.
Aloa or haloa.
Amarynthia.
Ambrosia.
Amphidromia.
Anagogia.
Androgeonia.
Anthesphoria.
Apaturia.
Aphrodisia.
Apollonia.
Ariadneia.
Armilustrium.
Arrhephoria.
Artemisia.
Asclepieia.
Augustales.
Bendideia.
Boedromia.
Boreasmus.
Brauronia.
Cabeiria.
Callisteia.
Carmentalia.
Carneia.
Carya.
Cerealia.
Chalcioikia.
Charistia.
Compitalia.
Consualia.
Cotyttia.
Daedala.
Decennalia.
Delia.
Delphinia.
Diipoleia.
Diocleia.
Dionysia.
Eleusinia.
Eleutheria.
Ellotia.
Equiria.
Floralia.
Fornacalia.
Gymnopaedia.
Heraea.
Hermaea.
Hestiasis.
Hilaria.
Hyacinthia.
Inoa.
Isthmia.
Juvenalia.
Lampadephoria.
Laphria.
Larentalia.
Lectisternium.
Lemuralia.
Ludi.
[_In the text an alphabetical list of the principal ludi
is given._]
Lupercalia.
Lycaea.
Matralia.
Matronalia.
Megalensia.
Mysia.
Mysteria.
Neptunalia.
Novendiale.
Olympia.
Opalia.
Oschophoria.
Palilia.
Pamboeotia.
Panathenaea.
Plynteria.
Poplifugia.
Prometheia.
Pyanepsia.
Pythia.
Quinquatrus.
Quinquennalia.
Quirinalia.
Regifugium.
Robigalia.
Saturnalia.
Septimontium.
Sthenia.
Synoikia.
Terminalia.
Theophania.
Theseia.
Thesmophoria.
Vinalia.
Vulcanalia.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
Aristocratia.
Democratia.
Monarchia.
Ochlocratia.
Oligarchia.

FUNERALS.
Arca.
Cenotaphium.
Cippus.
Columbarium.
Crypta.
Funus, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Mausoleum.
Urna.

FURNITURE.
Abacus.
Armarium.
Balnea.
Cathedra.
Conopeum.
Cortina.
Incitega.
Lectus.
Mensa.
Pluteus.
Pulvinar.
Scamnum.
Sella.
Speculum.
Thronus.
Torus.
Triclinium.
Tripos.

GREEK LAW.
Adoptio.
Aikias dike.
Anakrisis.
Androlepsia.
Antidosis.
Antigraphe.
Apographe.
Apophasis.
Aporrheta.
Apostasiou dike.
Appellatio.
Asebeias graphe.
Astrateias graphe.
Ateleia.
Atimia.
Axones.
Civitas, politeia.
Cleteres.
Decasmus.
Diaetetae.
Diapsephisis.
Dicastes.
Dike.
Divortium.
Dokimasia.
Dos.
Ecmartyria.
Eisangelia.
Embateia.
Emmeni dikae.
Endeixis, ephegesis.
Epangelia.
Epibole.
Epiclerus.
Epitropus.
Epobelia.
Euthyne.
Exomosia.
Exsilium.
Fenus.
Gamelia.
Graphe.
Heres.
Hieromenia.
Hybreos graphe.
Jusjurandum.
Prodosia.
Proeisphoras dike.
Prostates tou demou.
Prothesmia.
Psephus.
Pseudengraphes graphe.
Pseudocleteias graphe.
Rhetrae.
Sitou dike.
Sycophantes.
Sylae.
Syndicus.
Synegorus.
Syngraphe.
Timema.
Tormentum.
Xenias graphe.

HORSE FURNITURE.
Ephippium.
Frenum.
Habenae.
Hippoperae.

INCOME, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
Aes uxorium.
Apophora.
Arca.
Census.
Centesima.
Columnarium.
Decumae.
Eicoste.
Eisphora.
Epidoseis.
Fiscus.
Ostiarium.
Pentecoste.
Phoros.
Portorium.
Quadragesima.
Salinae.
Scriptura.
Stipendiarii.
Telones.
Telos.
Theorica.
Tributum.
Vectigalia.
Vicesima.

INSIGNIA AND ATTRIBUTES.
Caduceus.
Fasces.
Insignia.
Sceptrum.
Talaria.
Thyrsus.

LEAGUES.
Achaicum Foedus.
Aetolicum Foedus.
Socii.

LITERATURE.
Commentarius.
Fescennina.
Logographi.
Paean.
Satura.

MACHINES AND CONTRIVANCES.
Antlia.
Catena.
Clitellae.
Cochlea.
Columbarium.
Ephippium.
Exostra.
Ferculum.
Fistula.
Follis.
Forma.
Fornax.
Jugum.
Libra, Libella.
Mortarium, pila.
Pegma.
Phalangae.
Retis, Rete.
Scalae.
Tela.
Tintinnabulum.
Torculum.
Trutina.

MAGISTRATES AND RULERS.
Acta.
Adlecti.
Aesymnetes.
Alabarches.
Amphictyones.
Archon.
Areiopagus.
Bidiaei.
Boetarches.
Boule.
Censor.
Centumviri.
Consul.
Consularis.
Cosmi.
Decaduchi.
Decarchia.
Decemviri.
legibus scribendis.
litibus judicandis.
sacris faciundis.
agris dividundis.
Demarchi.
Demiurgi.
Dictator.
Duumviri.
Ephetae.
Ephori.
Epimeletae.
Eponymus.
Gerousia.
Gynaeconomi.
Harmostae.
Hendeka, hoi.
Hieromnemones.
Interrex.
Magistratus.
Medix tuticus.
Nomophylaces.
Paedonomus.
Patronomi.
Perduellionis duumviri.
Phylarchi.
Phylobasileis.
Polemarchus.
Poletae.
Poristae.
Praetor.
Proconsul.
Rex.
Senatus.
Tetrarches.
Tribunus.
Triumviri.
Tyrannus.
Vigintisexviri.

MANUFACTURES AND MATERIALS.
Byssus.
Coa vestis.
Fictile.
Gausapa.
Lodix, lodicula.
Salinae.
Sericum.
Serta.
Vitrum.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
Acclamatio.
Acta.
Angaria.
Cheirotonia.
Chelidonia.
Chirographum.
Corona convivialis.
nuptialis.
natalitia.
Crypteia.
Diploma.
Hospitium.
Hydriaphoria.
Immunitas.
Jusjurandum, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Leiturgia.
Matrimonium, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Nomen.
Nudus.
Proscriptio.
Prytaneium.
Suffragium.
Synoikia.
Syssitia.
Tabella.
Tribus, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Trierarchia.
Venatio.
Viaticum.
Xenelasia.

MARITIME AFFAIRS.
Camara.
Carchesium.
Cataphracti.
Corbitae.
Cymba.
Delphis.
Dolo.
Epibatae.
Epistoleus.
Harpago.
Insignia.
Jugum.
Lembus.
Navarchus.
Navis.
Naumachia.
Paralus.
Phaselus.
Portisculus.
Praefectus classis.
Remulcum.
Rudens.

MARKETS.
Agora.
Deigma.
Emporium.
Forum.
Macellum.

MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
Acaena.
Acetabulum.
Actus.
Amphora.
Artaba.
Arura.
As.
Choenix.
Chous.
Congius.
Cotyla.
Cubitus.
Culeus.
Cyathus.
Dactylus.
Decempeda.
Gradus.
Hecte.
Hemina.
Hippicon.
Jugerum.
Libra, as.
Ligula.
Litra.
Medimnus.
Metretes.
Milliare.
Modius.
Obolus.
Orgyia.
Palmipes.
Palmus.
Parasanga.
Passus.
Pes.
Plethron.
Quadrantal.
Schoenus.
Scrupulum.
Sextarius.
Stadium.
Ulna.
Uncia.
Urna.
Xestes.

METALS.
Aes.
Argentum.
Aurum.
Electrum.
Metallum.
Orichalcum.

MILITARY COSTUME.
Abolla.
Alicula.
Balteus.
Bulla.
Caliga.
Paludamentum.
Sagum.

MILITARY ENGINES.
Aries.
Catapulta.
Cataracta.
Corvus.
Cuniculus.
Ericius.
Helepolis.
Lupus ferreus.
Pluteus.
Scalae.
Stylus.
Testudo.
Tormentum.
Tribulus.
Turris.
Vinea.

MILITARY ENSIGNS.
Signa Militaria.

MILITARY LEVIES.
Catalogus.
Conquisitores.
Emphruri.
Epariti.
Tumultus.

MILITARY MANŒUVRES.
Cuneus.
Forfex.
Testudo.

MILITARY PAY AND ALLOWANCES.
Acta.
Aes equestre.
hordearium.
militare.
Praeda.
Stipendium.

MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.
Decimatio.
Fustuarium.

MILITARY REWARDS.
Aurum coronarium.
Corona obsidionalis.
civica.
navalis.
muralis.
castrensis, vallaris.
ovalis.
oleagina.
Hasta pura.
Ovatio.
Praeda.
Spolia.
Triumphus.
Tropaeum.

MONEY.
Aes.
circumforaneum.
Argentum.
As.
Assarius nummus.
Aurum.
Chalcus.
Cistophorus.
Damaretion.
Danace.
Daricus.
Denarius.
Drachma.
Hecte.
Libella.
Litra.
Nummus.
Obolus.
Sestertius.
Stater.
Uncia.

MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Acroama.
Aeneatores.
Buccina.
Canticum.
Capistrum.
Chorus.
Cornu.
Crotalum.
Cymbalum.
Hydraula.
Lituus.
Lyra.
Pecten.
Sambuca.
Sistrum.
Syrinx.
Testudo.
Tibia.
Tuba.
Tympanum.

OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS.
Accensi.
Aeneatores.
Agathoergi.
Ala.
Alauda.
Antecessores.
Argyraspides.
Catalogus.
Cataphracti.
Celeres.
Conquisitores.
Contubernales.
Damosia.
Dimachae.
Ducenarii.
Duplarii.
Epariti.
Evocati.
Excubitores.
Exercitus, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Libratores.
Phylarchi.
Praefectus castrorum.
praetorio.
Praetor.
Praetoriani.
Strategus.
Tagus.
Taxiarchi.
Tiro.
Volones.
Xenagi.

ORACLES AND DIVINATION.
Augurium, auspicium.
Caput extorum.
Oraculum.
Sibyllini Libri.
Sortes.

PRIESTS AND PRIESTLY OFFICES.
Aeditui.
Agyrtae.
Arvales fratres.
Asiarchae.
Augur, auspex.
Augustales.
Curio.
Epulones.
Eumolpidae.
Exegetae.
Fetiales.
Flamen.
Galli.
Haruspices.
Luperci.
Neocori.
Pausarii.
Pontifex.
Rex sacrificulus.
Sacerdos.
Salii.
Theori.
Titii sodales.
Vestales.

PRIVATE BUILDINGS.
Aithousa.
Apotheca.
Armarium.
Atrium.
Bibliotheca.
Caupona.
Cella.
Cubiculum.
Domus, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
vestibulum.
ostium.
atrium.
alae.
tablinum.
fauces.
perystylum.
cubicula.
triclinia.
oeci.
exedrae.
culina.
coenacula.
diaeta.
solaria.
Exedrae.
Focus.
Fornax.
Fornix.
Hemicyclium.
Janua.
Lararium.
Later.
Paries cratitius.
formaceus.
lateritius.
reticulata structura.
Paries structura antiqua.
emplecton.
e lapide quadrato.
Pergula.
Pinacotheca.
Pluteus.
Puteal.
Scalae.
Synoikia.
Taberna.
Tegula.
Triclinium.
Villa.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS.
Aerarium.
Amphitheatrum.
Archeion.
Arcus triumphalis.
Argyrocopeion.
Athenaeum.
Auditorium.
Balneae.
Basilica, chalcidicum.
Bibliotheca.
Carcer.
Circus.
Cochlea.
Curia.
Forum.
Graecostasis.
Hippodromus.
Horreum.
Labyrinthus.
Lautumiae.
Lesche.
Moneta.
Museum.
Paradisus.
Porticus.
Prytaneion.
Rostra.
Stadium.
Suggestus.
Tabularium.
Thesaurus.
Tribunal.

PUBLIC OFFICERS.
Accensi.
Actuarii.
Adlecti.
Admissionales.
Aediles.
Agathoergi.
Agonothetae.
Agoranomi.
Agrimensores.
Agronomi.
Apodectae.
Apostoleis.
Apparitores.
Asiarchae.
Astynomi.
Boonae.
Carnifex.
Choregus.
Coactor.
Critae.
Curatores.
[_An alphabetical list of curatores is given._]
Diaetetae.
Diribitores.
Ducenarii.
Ecdicus.
Episcopi.
Epistates.
Euthyni.
Exetastae.
Frumentarii.
Grammateus.
Hieropoii.
Hodopoei.
Legatus.
Leiturgia.
Lictor.
Magister.
[_An alphabetical list of magistri is given._]
Manceps.
Mastigophori.
Mensarii.
Notarii.
Paredri.
Parochi.
Practores.
Praecones.
Praefectus Annonae.
Urbi.
Probouli.
Procurator.
Publicani.
Pythii.
Quaestores classici.
parricidii.
Quinqueviri.
Scribae.
Sitophylaces.
Stator.
Stratores.
Syllogeis.
Tabularii.
Tamias.
Teichopoeus.
Tettaraconta, hoi.
Theori.
Trierarchia.
Triumviri.
Viatores.
Zetetae.

ROADS AND STREETS.
Angiportus.
Callis.
Mansio.
Viae.
Vicus.

ROMAN LAW.
Actio.
Actor.
Adoptio.
Advocatus.
Aediles.
Affinitas.
Agrariae leges.
Album.
Ambitus.
Appellatio.
Arra, Arrha.
Arrabo, Arrhabo.
Assertor.
Assessor.
Auctio.
Auctor, Auctoritas.
Basilica.
Beneficium.
Bona.
caduca.
fides.
Bonorum cessio.
collatio.
emptio.
possessio.
Calumnia.
Caput.
Caupo.
Cautio, cavere.
Centumviri.
Certi, incerti actio.
Chirographum.
Civitas.
Cliens.
Codex Gregorianus.
Hermogenianus.
Justinianeus.
Theodosianus.
Cognati.
Collegium.
Colonia.
Commissoria lex.
Crimen, delictum.
Curator.
Decretum.
Dediticii.
Depositum.
Divortium.
Dominium.
Dominus.
Dos.
Edictum.
Theodorici.
Emancipatio.
Exercitoria actio.
Exsilium.
Falsum.
Familia.
Fenus.
Fidei commissum.
Fiducia.
Fiscus.
Foederatae civitates.
Frumentariae leges.
Gens.
Heres.
Honores.
Imperium.
Impubes.
Incendium.
Incestum.
Infamia.
Infans.
Ingenui.
Injuria.
Intercessio.
Interdictum.
Judex.
Jure, cessio in.
Jurisconsulti.
Jurisdictio.
Jus.
Civile Papirianum.
Jusjurandum.
Latinitas.
Legatum.
Lex.
[_Under this head an alphabetical list of the principal laws
is given._]
Libelli accusatorum.
famosi.
Libertus.
Magistratus.
Majestas.
Mancipium.
Mandatum.
Manumissio.
Negotiatores.
Nexum.
Orator.
Patria potestas.
Patronus.
Pauperies.
Peculatus.
Plagium.
Plebiscitum.
Poena.
Possessio.
Postliminium.
Praedium.
Praejudicium.
Praes.
Praescriptio.
Praetor.
Procurator.
Proscriptio.
Provincia.
Repetundae pecuniae.
Sectio.
Senatus consultum.
Societas.
Sumptuariae leges.
Tabellariae leges.
Talio.
Testamentum.
Tormentum.
Tutor.
Vindicta.
Vis.
Universitas.
Usufructus.

SACRIFICES AND RELIGIOUS RITES.
Acerra.
Amburbium.
Anakleteria.
Antigoneia.
Apotheosis.
Ara.
Canephoros.
Corona sacerdotalis.
Cortina.
Diamastigosis.
Eisiteria.
Eleusinia.
Exauguratio.
Inauguratio.
Lituus.
Lustratio.
Lustrum.
Sacra.
Sacrificium.
Sagmina.
Secespita.
Simpulum.
Supplicatio.
Thensae.
Tripos.
Turibulum.

SLAVES AND BONDSMEN.
Agaso.
Alipilus.
Aliptae.
Amanuensis.
Anagnostae.
Anteambulones.
Aquarii.
Bruttiani.
Calones.
Capsarii.
Coloni.
Cosmetae.
Cubicularii.
Cursores.
Demosii.
Fartor.
Gymnesii.
Helotes.
Ieroduli.
Librarii.
Mediastini.
Notarii.
Paedagogus.
Pedisequi.
Penestae.
Servus, 1. Greek.
2. Roman.
Tabellarius.
Thetes.
Villicus.

STATUARY.
Acrolithi.
Caryatides.
Colossus.
Daedala.
Hermae.
Imago.
Sculptura.
Statuaria ars.
Typus.

SUPERSTITIONS.
Amuletum.
Apophrades hemerai.
Astrologia.
Fascinum.
Oscillum.
Prodigium.
Sortes.

TEMPLES AND HOLY PLACES.
Argei.
Asylum.
Bidental.
Docana.
Propylaea.
Sacellum.
Sacrarium.
Templum.
Velum.

TITLES.
Augustus.
Caesar.

TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS.
Acus.
Amussis.
Apsis.
Ascia.
Colus.
Contus.
Culter.
Dolabra, Dolabella.
Falx.
Fistuca.
Follis.
Fuscina.
Fusus.
Harpago.
Jugum.
Malleolus.
Norma.
Securis.

TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS.
Ambubaiae.
Argentarii.
Athletae.
Bestiarii.
Bibliopola.
Calculator.
Caupo.
Fabri.
Fullo.
Funambulus.
Gladiatores.
Hemerodromi.
Histrio.
Interpres.
Notarii.
Pelatae.
Pistor.
Redemtor.

VEHICLES AND THEIR PARTS.
Antyx.
Arcera.
Basterna.
Canathron.
Capistrum.
Carpentum.
Carruca.
Chiramaxium.
Cisium.
Covinus.
Currus.
Esseda.
Harmamaxa.
Jugum.
Lectica.
Petorritum.
Pilentum.
Rheda.
Sella.

UTENSILS.
Acetabulum.
Aenum.
Alabastrum.
Amphora.
Ampulla.
Anaglypha.
Authepsa.
Bascauda.
Bicos.
Cadus.
Calathus.
Calix.
Candela.
Candelabrum.
Cantharus.
Capsa.
Carchesium.
Catinus.
Chrysendita.
Cista.
Cochlear.
Colum.
Cophinus.
Corbis, Corbula, Corbicula.
Cortina.
Crater.
Cupa.
Cyathus.
Fax.
Ferculum.
Guttus.
Lanx.
Lecythus.
Lucerna.
Modiolus.
Murrhina vasa.
Oenophorum.
Olla, aula.
Patera, Patella.
Patina.
Poculum.
Psycter.
Pyxis.
Rhyton.
Salinum.
Situla, Sitella.
Tripos.
Trua, Trulla.
Vas.
Urceus.

WRITING AND WRITING MATERIALS.
Adversaria.
Album.
Atramentum.
Buxum.
Calamus.
Codex.
Libellus.
memorialis.
Liber.
Nota.
Regula.
Scytale.
Stylus.
Tabulae.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Most illustrations have been placed at the start, or the end, of
a dictionary entry. In some long multi-page entries with several
illustrations, a paragraph break has been inserted to allow
placement of an illustration at a relevant point of the text.

The original text used Y with breve (Ῠ) in 49 entry headings that
were latinized versions of a Greek word, for example ĂLῨTAE (ἀλύται).
These have been changed to Y with tilde (Ỹ), ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται),
because there is no Y with breve in the Unicode Latin tables.

There are a few references in the main text to entries that do not
exist in this (Shorter) version of the Dictionary, for example:
FURTUM, ATTICURGES, and in the Classified Index there are several
dozen more, for example: Pala, Follis, Dianomae, Pyrgos.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the
text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

Pg 24: ‘ἀμπυκτῆρ’ replaced by ‘ἀμπυκτήρ’.
Pg 33: ‘ἀρχιτεκτονια’ replaced by ‘ἀρχιτεκτονία’.
Pg 37: ‘corytus’ has been italicized for consistency.
Pg 42: ‘ἀμφιδεᾶ’ replaced by ‘ἀμφιδέα’.
Pg 46: ‘by the Emperior’ replaced by ‘by the Emperor’.
Pg 51: ‘of each parties’ replaced by ‘of such parties’.
Pg 57: ‘Basilica Portia, in’ replaced by ‘Basilica Porcia, in’.
Pg 146: ‘have tried causes’ replaced by ‘have tried cases’.
Pg 150: ‘oath of secresy’ replaced by ‘oath of secrecy’ (twice).
Pg 154: ‘στρῶματα’ replaced by ‘στρώματα’.
Pg 157: ‘traduc equum’ replaced by ‘traducere equum’.
Pg 180: ‘εστια’ replaced by ‘ἑστία’.
Pg 211: ‘once distinguised’ replaced by ‘once distinguished’.
Pg 212: ‘be distingushed’ replaced by ‘be distinguished’.
Pg 215: ‘μοχλόν’ replaced by ‘μοχλὸν’.
Pg 222: ‘ἀνάκλίντρον’ replaced by ‘ἀνάκλιντρον’.
Pg 249: ‘ἠγεμὼν’ replaced by ‘ἡγεμὼν’.
Pg 250: ‘this conventio.’ replaced by ‘this convention.’.
Pg 266: ‘ἱστός’ replaced by ‘ἱστὸς’.
Pg 299: ‘In (B.C. 445), the’ replaced by ‘In B.C. 445, the’.
Pg 332: ‘the downfal of’ replaced by ‘the downfall of’.
Pg 350: ‘the developement of’ replaced by ‘the development of’.
Pg 419: ‘gave headachs’ replaced by ‘gave headaches’.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities" ***

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