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Title: Poultry diseases, causes, symptoms and treatment, with notes on post-mortem examinations
Author: Wortley, E. J.
Language: English
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SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT, WITH NOTES ON POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS ***
Transcriber’s Notes
Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations
in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other
spelling and punctuation remains unchanged.
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[Illustration: _PROFIT OR LOSS_]
POULTRY
DISEASES
Causes
Symptoms
and Treatment
With Notes on
Post-Mortem Examinations
E. J. WORTLEY, F. C. S.
_Illustrated_
NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1915
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., Limited
Copyright, 1915, by
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
_All Rights Reserved_
Entered at Stationers’ Hall
_LONDON, ENGLAND_
PRINTED IN U. S. A.
PREFACE
Poultry farming as a means of profit can be made successful only by
maintaining the most vigorous and sustained campaign against disease.
The aim of the poultry rearer should be to stamp out disease by
preventive measures. Practical experience proves the inefficiency
of many so-called cures, and points to the urgency of poultrymen
endeavoring to understand more thoroughly the causes of the ailments to
which domestic fowls are liable.
My aim is to put a concise handbook into the hands of poultry rearers,
who should thus be assisted in determining the various diseases
and in taking the precautionary steps important in preventing the
introduction and spread of contagious diseases. No effort is made
to elaborate the scientific side of the subject. Those desirous of
obtaining full information about the types of organisms that have been
proved to be the specific causes of, or to be invariably associated
with, particular disorders, may do so with profit by obtaining fuller
works on the subject. Many scientific workers are devoting their time
to the problem of combating diseases among poultry, and assistance is
willingly given by officers of the experiment stations to farmers who
desire to identify any disease causing loss in their flocks.
The practical poultryman will recognize the fact that measures for the
control of disease cannot be limited to sanitation and the treatment
of sick birds, but, in reality, include such important matters as the
selection of healthy stock, intelligent feeding, proper housing, and
other details essential to the successful management of poultry.
I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to the works of Dr. D. E.
Salmon and John H. Robinson, editor of Farm Poultry, and to the recent
publication on poultry diseases by Dr. Raymond Pearl, Frank M. Surface,
and Maynie R. Curtis. My thanks are due to R. S. Martinez for the
care taken in making the photographs from which the drawings for the
illustrations in the chapter on Post-Mortem Examinations were prepared.
Much valuable information has also been obtained from bulletins issued
by the experiment stations of the United States and by the Ontario
Agricultural College of Canada.
E. J. WORTLEY.
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I
GENERAL METHODS OF CONTROLLING DISEASE 1
1. Importance of controlling disease.
2. Dangers of introducing disease.
3. Control measures.
4. Nursing sick birds.
5. The use of drugs and medicines.
6. Disinfection.
CHAPTER II
SUMMARY OF EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS AND
TREATMENT 14
1. Diseases affecting head and respiratory organs.
2. Diseases affecting organs of digestion and reproduction.
3. Diseases affecting legs and feet.
4. Parasites.
5. Miscellaneous.
CHAPTER III
DISEASES OF POULTRY OTHER THAN FOWLS 19
CHAPTER IV
DISEASES AND PESTS OF FOWLS 22
(In alphabetical order.)
CHAPTER V
POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS 99
1. Making the examination.
2. The normal condition of the internal organs.
3. Diagnosis of disease by post-mortem symptoms.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
Profit or Loss _Frontispiece_
2 Isolation 5
3 Desolation 6
4 Poultryman’s Medicine Shelves 8
5 How Disease Is Spread 10
6 Aids to Thorough Disinfection 12
7 Head Showing Brain Exposed 29
8 {Windpipe Cut Open } 30
{A Fungus That Causes Aspergillosis }
9 Bumblefoot 36
10 Chicken Pox 38
11 Diphtheritic Roup 50
12 {Chicken Affected with Gapes } 60
{Gape Worms }
13 Looking for Lice 67
14 Three Lice That Commonly Affect Fowls 68
15 The Air-Sac Mite 74
16 The Depluming Mite 74
17 The Red Mite 75
18 Organs of Reproduction of the Hen 78
19 Examining a Fowl with a Suspicious Cold 84
20 A Roupy Eye 87
21 Scaly Leg 88
22 The Mite That Causes Scaly Leg 89
23 The Fowl Tick 90
24 Organs Affected by Tuberculosis and Blackhead 91
25 Chickens Affected with White Diarrhea 93
26 Healthy Chickens 93
27 Worms in Intestinal Tract of Fowl 95
28 The Parts of a Fowl 96
29 Skeleton of a Fowl 97
30 Post-Mortem Examination No. 1 100
31 Post-Mortem Examination No. 2 102
32 Post-Mortem Examination No. 3 104
33 Post-Mortem Examination No. 4 106
34 Post-Mortem Examination No. 5 110
CHAPTER I
GENERAL METHODS OF CONTROLLING DISEASE
_1. Importance of Controlling Disease_
The ravages of disease add considerably to the difficulties of raising
poultry in all parts of the world. It is the experience of poultry
rearers that an annual toll has to be paid in the lives of young birds
and older stock. Sooner or later, in addition, an epidemic may break
out and result in heavy losses and much discouragement.
It is most important, therefore, to be able to recognize the symptoms
and to know the causes of the many diseases to which various kinds of
poultry are subject. Every practical effort should be made to reduce
avoidable mortality. An unexplained death should be regarded with
concern. It may point to the presence of a serious disease. When there
is not sufficient external evidence for determining the cause of
death, a post-mortem examination should be made (see page 98).
The poultryman must know above all whether he is dealing with an
infectious disease or not. The discovery that a sudden death among
his fowls is due to apoplexy will set his mind at ease. On the other
hand, if a case of cholera occurs, the body of the dead fowl should be
burnt, and a vigorous campaign started to prevent the spread of the
disease; birds showing mopishness and other suspicious symptoms should
be isolated; the houses, the feed troughs, the water vessels, and the
yard to which the dead fowl has had access, should all be thoroughly
disinfected.
_2. Dangers of Introducing Disease_
Perhaps more loss has been caused by introducing birds with disease
into a healthy flock than by any other means. Readers will, doubtless,
be able to recall occasions on which their own, or their neighbors’,
flocks suffered. An instance was recently related to the writer. A
poultryman was offered two fowls, which he at first refused, but owing
to the vagrant seller’s importunity, he eventually bought the birds and
let them loose among the home flock. On the following day one died; but
no effort was made to discover the cause, nor was the dead fowl’s body
burnt. In a few days, a fowl belonging to the original flock died and,
in three to four weeks after the purchase, two-thirds of the stock had
died. It afterwards transpired that the vendor had lost several of his
fowls from cholera, and the fear of further mortalities had been his
reason for being so anxious to dispose of the survivors.
On every farm where poultry is kept, there should be a quarantine ward
for new purchases. The most careful breeders will isolate their own
birds that have returned from an exhibition, for fear they may have
contracted some disease there or on the journey.
_3. Control Measures_
Practical experience and scientific investigation have clearly proved
that preventive measures are more economical and effective than
curative. Failing prevention, everything points to the importance of
dealing promptly with the first cases, owing to the risk of infection
of the rest of the stock. Control measures may be divided into three
classes:
1. Proper housing and feeding of fowls.
2. General sanitation and disinfection.
3. Administration of medicine to sick birds.
The details to which special attention must be given are covered by the
following axiomatic rules:
1. Isolate birds recently purchased—for two or three weeks.
2. Isolate every bird that shows any sign of ill health.
3. Provide a fresh and pure supply of water in a shady position.
4. Add Epsom salts (one teaspoonful to a quart) once a week to the
drinking water. Give chickens daily a liberal supply of bran in
addition to their other food.
5. Feed birds on a varied diet, including green food.
6. Arrange that birds have to scratch for some of their food.
7. Construct houses, nest boxes, etc., so that they can be readily and
thoroughly disinfected. Houses should be free from drafts.
8. Disinfect contaminated soil by spraying, liming, and resting.
9. Visit the roosts at night to detect cases of wheezing due to colds,
and to search for mites and other pests.
10. Keep on hand disinfectants, lice powders and medicines likely to
be required.
_4. Nursing Sick Birds_
[Illustration: FIG. 2.—ISOLATION]
The small margin of profit on a single fowl makes dosing with medicines
and nursing an unprofitable occupation, except in the case of valuable
stock. If the treatment of a bird is undertaken, it should be borne
in mind that more depends upon attention to the rules of good nursing
than to the administration of drugs. Comfortable quarters, warm and
free from drafts, clean straw, and invalid’s diet of soft and easily
digested food will all turn the chances in favor of recovery.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.—ISOLATION]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.—DESOLATION]
Too often isolation is in effect a death sentence. The bird is put into
cramped quarters, exposed to cold winds and beating rains, and, being
in an out-of-the-way corner, is, perhaps, neglected instead of being
specially cared for.
Fowls that will not take food should be fed lightly, but frequently,
with a spoon in order that their strength may be kept up. All stale
food should be removed.
_5. The Use of Drugs and Medicines_
Drugs and medicines likely to be required should always be kept in
stock. The weekly use of Epsom salts, as a mild laxative for preventing
intestinal disorders, is strongly recommended. Little faith should be
put in drugs said to cure tuberculosis, cholera, etc. Below is given a
list of the medicines generally required. The doses given in the table
are for a medium-sized adult fowl; three-quarters as much should be
given for a half-grown bird, and about one-fifth for a young chicken.
Treatment should be repeated as necessary, and animals should be well
nursed.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.—POULTRYMAN’S MEDICINE SHELVES]
───────────────────────────┬──────────────────┬────────────────────────
MEDICINE │ DOSE OR STRENGTH │ DISEASE
───────────────────────────┼──────────────────┼────────────────────────
_Stimulants_— │ │
Brandy │3-10 drops in │
│ warm milk │
│ │
_Aperients_— │ │
Calomel │1 grain │ Diarrhea; liver disease.
Castor oil │1 teaspoonful │ Diarrhea.
│ │
Epsom salts │20 grains to 50 │ }
│ grains in │ } Constipation; diarrhea;
│ food or │ } liver disease.
│ warm water │ }
│ │
_Astringents_— │ │
Chlorodyne │ 6-12 drops │ Diarrhea; dysentery.
Laudanum (relieves pain)│ 4-6 drops │ Diarrhea; dysentery.
│ │
_Tonic and Febrifuge_— │ │
Quinine │1 grain │ }
Aconite │1 drop │ } Colds; fever; roup.
│ │
_For Worms_— │ │
Turpentine │ 5 to 10 drops │ }
│ in 1 teaspoonful│ }
│ castor oil │ } Worms (intestinal).
Santonin │ 3 to 5 grains │ }
│ │
_Antiseptic Washes_— │ │
(a) Carbolic acid │ 1-5% sol. │ }
(b) Hydrogen peroxide │ 50% │ }Colds; roup;
(c) Creolin │ 2-5% sol. │ } diphtheria;
(d) Permanganate of │ ½-2% sol. │ }cuts and injuries.
potash │ │
│ │
_Dressing Flesh Wounds_— │ │
½ creolin and │ │
½ sweet oil │ │ Cuts and injuries.
│ │
_To Reduce Swellings_— │ │
Iodine │Tincture │
Embrocation: │ │
Turpentine │10 drops │ } Cramp.
Sweet oil │1 ounce │ } Rheumatism.
│ │
_Insecticides_— │ │
Lice powders │ │ Lice, mites.
Kerosene │ │ Scaly legs.
Sulphur ointment: │ │ Lice, scaly legs,
Sulphur │1 part │ mites, ticks.
Kerosene │1 part │
Lard │2 parts │
───────────────────────────┴──────────────────┴────────────────────────
NOTE.—By accepting that 1¼ teaspoonfuls made up to a pint with water
gives approximately a 1% solution, any of the weak dilutions required
by poultrymen can be easily prepared.
_6. Disinfection_
[Illustration: FIG. 5.—HOW DISEASE IS SPREAD
Germs of tuberculosis in the excrement of a fowl. (After Edwards.)]
The important part played by micro-organisms in causing and spreading
disease must be understood before the value of disinfection can be
fully appreciated. The poultryman must develop a sense of sight that
sees lurking microbes at every turn, especially in unclean corners.
Figure 5 shows germs revealed by the microscope in the excrement of a
bird suffering from tuberculosis. The fact that this speck contained
so many germs, although it was far too small to be seen with the naked
eye, will give an idea of how epidemics may be caused by food, water,
and soil contaminated by excreta, nasal discharges, etc.
Regular and thorough disinfection of woodwork, of feeding vessels,
and of the drinking water should form part of the routine of poultry
management, and a stock of disinfectants should always be kept on
hand. It will be found convenient to have an iron drum with a tap
for a diluted solution, say 5%, of some standard disinfectant—e. g.,
creolin—that can be further diluted as required.
_Water._ A stock solution of permanganate of potash, made by adding
ten grains to one quart of water, should always be kept on hand for
purposes of disinfection. When there is danger of infection, two
tablespoonfuls of this solution should be added to every gallon of
drinking water.
_Feeding Vessels._ Clean with boiling water.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.—AIDS TO THOROUGH DISINFECTION]
_Houses and Fixtures._ Spray with 2% to 5% creolin (or other
disinfectant) and whitewash afterwards, or use whitewash to which 2%
of creolin has been added. The whitewash should be prepared with
quick-lime. The house should first be cleaned out with an iron scraper
and scrubbing brush, using a liberal supply of water (see Fig. 6).
_Soil._ The most convenient of the following methods should be adopted:
(1) Spray surface with 5% creolin.
(2) Spread straw over ground and set fire to it.
(3) Fork over and lime. This method is not sufficient if serious
contamination is suspected.
CHAPTER II
SUMMARY OF EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT
───────────────────────┬────────────────────┬──────────────────────────
DISEASE │ EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS │ TREATMENT
───────────────────────┼────────────────────┼──────────────────────────
│
_1. Diseases affecting head_ │
_and respiratory organs_: │
│
Air under skin (see Emphysema). │
│
Apoplexy │ Staggering gait and│ Keep fowl quiet; put in a
│ appearances of a │ dark place;
│ sudden fit │ give Epsom salts.
│ │
Aspergillosis │ Loss of weight │ Avoid musty grain and straw.
│ │
Brooder pneumonia │ Affects chickens; │ No cure; prevent by strict
│ whitish diarrhea;│ sanitary methods.
│ many deaths │
│ │
Bronchitis (croup) │ Rattling in throat│ Paint throat with iodine.
│ │
Canker (see Roup). │ │
│
Catarrh, contagious (see Roup). │
│
Chicken pox │ Scabby, wart-like │ Gently scrape off scab
│ growths on head │ and paint with iodine.
│ and comb │
│ │
Cold (catarrh) │ Running at nose and│ Isolate and syringe
│ eyes │ nostrils with 2%
│ │ carbolic acid.
│ │
Congestion of lungs │ │
(see Pneumonia). │ │
│ │
Conjunctivitis—sore │ │
eyes (see Roup). │ │
│ │
Diphtheria │Yellowish patches on│ Isolate; paint patches
(diphtheritic roup) │ throat following an│ with hydrogen peroxide or
│ attack of roup │ iodine; best to kill fowl.
│ │
Emphysema │ Skin puffed out │ Puncture with needle.
│ │
Epilepsy │ Bird has fit │ If worms are believed to be
│ │ the cause give santonin.
│ │
Favus │ Scurfy patches on │ Anoint with sulphur
│ comb and upper │ ointment or iodine.
│ portion of neck │
│ │
Frost bite │ Frozen wattles │ Rub with vaseline.
│
Influenza—grippe (see Cold). │
│
Roup │ Nostrils caked with│ Isolate; syringe nostrils
│ offensive smelling │ with 5% carbolic acid;
│ exudate │ best to kill fowl with
│ │ bad attack.
│ │
Pip │ Hardened scale on │ Soften and remove.
│ tip of tongue │
│ │
Pneumonia │ Great difficulty │ Paint shoulders above lungs
│ in breathing │ with iodine; generally
│ │ incurable.
│ │
Sore head (see Chicken pox). │
│
Vertigo (see Epilepsy). │
│
White comb (see Favus). │
│
_2. Diseases affecting_ │
_organs of digestion_ │
_and reproduction_: │
│
Blackhead of turkeys │ Drooping wings; │ Strict sanitary measures;
│ dullness; many │ difficult to control.
│ deaths │
Cancer (see Liver diseases │
and Ovary diseases). │
│ │
Catarrh of crop │ Distended crop with│ Empty crop; diet
│ offensive liquid │ sparingly.
│ │
Catarrh of stomach │ │
(see Gastritis). │ │
│ │
Cholera │ Yellow feces; bad │ No cure known; kill fowl
│ diarrhea; sudden │ and burn body; take every
│ death of several │ precaution to prevent
│ birds │ spread.
│ │
Cloacitis │Offensive discharges│ Syringe out cloaca.
│ from cloaca │
│ │
Constipation │Unsuccessful efforts│ Give castor oil; supply
│ to evacuate │ green food and make bird
│ │ scratch for grain.
│ │
Coccidiosis of adult │Loss of weight, │ No remedies.
fowls │ diarrhea │
│ │
Coccidiosis of chickens│ │
(see White diarrhea). │ │
│ │
Coccidiosis of turkeys │ │
(see Blackhead). │ │
│ │
Crop-bound │ Distended crop │ Pour sweet oil down throat
│ │ and knead crop, holding
│ │ fowl’s head down; or slit
│ │ crop and remove food.
│ │
Diarrhea │ Frequent passing of│ Isolate for fear of
│ liquid excreta; │ epidemics; in bad cases
│ soiled vent │ give 6 to 10 drops
│ │ chlorodyne.
│ │
Dropsy │ Distention of │ Kill bird or puncture
│ abdomen │ abdomen.
│ │
Dysentery │Bad form of diarrhea│ Treat as for bad cases
│ distinguished by │ of diarrhea.
│blood in the excreta│
│ │
Egg-bound │ Unsuccessful │ Remove egg.
│ efforts to lay │
│
Enteritis (see Diarrhea). │
│
Fatty degeneration │Sudden death; │ Change diet of others.
│ excessively fat │
│
Fowl typhoid (see Cholera). │
│
Gastritis │Dullness; loss of │ Empty stomach; give castor
│ appetite │ oil and easily digested
│ │ food.
Impaction of crop │ │
(see Crop-bound). │ │
│ │
Indigestion │Difficult to │ Change diet.
│ diagnose │
│ │
Jaundice │Yellowish comb │ One grain of calomel and
│ │ green food.
Leukemia (see Cholera).│ │
│ │
Liver diseases │Difficult to │ Change diet.
│ diagnose │
│ │
Ovary diseases │Irregularity in egg │ No remedies.
│ production │
│ │
Oviduct diseases │Prolapse of oviduct │ Vaseline and replace.
│ │
Peritonitis │Fever; pain in │ Aconite and opium.
│ abdomen │
│ │
Pyæmia │No external symptoms│ No remedy.
│ │
Soft crop │Distended and soft │ Empty crop; diet
│ crop │ sparingly.
│ │
Tuberculosis │Wasting away; │ Kill affected birds;
│ lamenesss │ disinfect poultry houses,
│ │ etc.
│ │
White diarrhea of │ Dullness; many │ Proper feeding; thorough
chickens │ deaths; whitish │ disinfection; difficult
│ diarrhea │ to control.
│
_3. Diseases affecting legs_ │
_and feet_: │
│ │
Bumblefoot │ Swelling on pad of │ Lance, if bad; paint with
│ foot │ iodine; lower perches.
│ │
Cramp │ Difficulty in │ Hold legs in warm water;
│ standing straight │ rub with embrocation;
│ │ keep bird in dry place.
│ │
Fractures │Broken shank or wing│ Splints.
│ │
Gout │ Pain in joints of │ Difficult to cure; rub
│ legs and difficulty│ joints with embrocation.
│ in standing │
│ │
Leg weakness │ Unsteady walk │ Select breeders.
│ │
Rheumatism │Stiffness in joints;│ Rub legs with embrocation;
│ difficult to │ keep bird in dry place.
│ distinguish from │
│ cramp and gout │
│ │
_4. Parasites_: │ │
│ │
Fleas │ On hen and in nest │ Dust with insect powder;
│ straw │ burn infested straw
│ │
Gape worms │Gaping of chicks and│ Extract by pushing feather
│ effort to dislodge │ moistened with turpentine
│ something in throat│ down windpipe.
│ or windpipe │
│ │
Lice │Unthrifty condition │ Dust fowl with insect
│ of birds; desertion│ powder; grease head and
│ of nests by setting│ neck of chickens; spray
│ hens │ woodwork.
│ │
Maggots │ Running wound │ Remove maggots; treat with
│ │ creolin or carbolic acid.
│ │
Mites (air sac) │ In bad cases, │ Difficult to treat.
│ suffocation │
│ │
Mites (depluming) │ Bare patches │ Sulphur ointment.
│ │
Mites (red) │ Examine roosts at │ Kerosene.
│ night │
Scabies (see Mites, │ │
depluming). │ │
│ │
Scaly leg │ Uneven crusts on │ Scrub with soap and water;
│ legs │ kerosene oil or sulphur
│ │ ointment.
Ticks │Birds suffering │ Remove ticks from fowl;
│from the fever; │ spray perches, etc., with
│ticks found on body,│ 5% creolin.
│especially at night │
│ │
Worms │ Loss of weight; │ Give 3 to 5 grains santonin,
│ segments of worms │ followed by 2 teaspoonfuls
│ in excreta │ castor oil.
_5. Miscellaneous_: │ │
│ │
Abscesses │ Swelling with pus │ Lance and dress with
│ │ healing oil.
│ │
Anæmia │ Loss of weight and │ Search for cause and treat.
│ unthrifty condition│
│ │
Breakdown │ Enlarged and │ No satisfactory treatment.
│ pendulent abdomen │
│ │
Egg-eating │ Remains of eggs │ Trap nests.
│ │
Feather-eating │ Injured plumage │ Isolation of culprit.
│ │
Going light (see Anæmia) │
│ │
Heart, diseases of │No external symptoms│ No treatment possible.
│ │
Limber-neck │ Muscles of neck │ Try purgative to correct
│ unable to support │ cause.
│ head │
│ │
Kidney diseases │No external symptoms│ No treatment except for
│ except in gout │ gout.
│ │
Molting │ Unthrifty condition│ Feed up and give tonic.
│ of bird │
│ │
Poisoning │ Evidence of pain │ Give milk, white of egg
│ and depression │ and a stimulant.
CHAPTER III
DISEASES OF POULTRY OTHER THAN FOWLS
All classes of domestic poultry are to a great extent subject to
the same diseases that affect the common fowl. The symptoms of such
diseases are for the most part similar to those noticed when fowls are
affected, and treatment must be on the same lines. In the management of
turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowls and pigeons, the strictest sanitary
measures must be enforced, as in the rearing of fowls.
Owing to its importance, blackhead of turkeys is dealt with separately.
It is one of the most serious of poultry diseases and causes heavy
losses to turkey rearers. Careful study should be made of the reports
of the recent investigations at the Rhode Island Experiment Station.
Severe epidemics of diarrhea or cholera occur among all classes of
poultry. Geese are subject to a form of cholera that appears to be
different from any kind that attacks fowls. Water fowl are not commonly
infested with external parasites. Pigeons, on the other hand, are
worried by fleas and ticks as well as mites. Smallpox of pigeons is
similar to chicken pox of fowls, but pustular swellings may be found on
the rump and the cloaca of the pigeon as well as on the head. The scaly
leg mite attacks turkeys and the gape worm is sometimes a serious pest
of poults. Below is given a list of some of the diseases of turkeys,
ducks, geese, guinea fowls and pigeons:
TURKEYS
Blackhead
Diphtheria
Gapes
Leg weakness
Lice
Mites
Roup
Tuberculosis
Scaly leg
White comb
Worms
DUCKS
Aspergillosis
Catarrh
Congestion of lungs
Cholera
Diphtheria
Lice
Mites
Worms
GEESE
Aspergillosis
Cholera
Congestion of lungs
Diphtheria
Lice
Mites
Worms
GUINEA FOWLS
Aspergillosis
Cholera
Diphtheria
Lice
Mites
Worms
PIGEONS
Aspergillosis
Canker
Chicken pox (smallpox)
Diphtheria
Dovecot bug
Flea
Lice
Mites
Ticks
Worms
CHAPTER IV
DISEASES AND PESTS OF FOWLS
Abscesses.
Abnormal eggs (see Oviduct diseases).
Air under skin (see Emphysema).
Air sac mite (see Mites, air sac).
Anæmia.
Apoplexy.
Aspergillosis.
Atrophy of liver (see Liver diseases).
Bacterial enteritis (see Diarrhea)
Baldness (see Favus).
Biliary repletion (see Jaundice).
Blackhead of turkeys.
Breakdown.
Broken limbs (see Fractures).
Bronchitis.
Brooder pneumonia.
Bumblefoot.
Cancer (see Liver diseases and Ovary diseases).
Canker (see Diphtheria).
Catarrh (see Cold).
Catarrh, contagious (see Roup).
Catarrh of crop.
Catarrh of stomach (see Gastritis).
Chicken pox.
Cholera.
Cloacitis.
Coccidiosis of adult fowls.
Coccidiosis of chickens (see Brooder pneumonia).
Coccidiosis of turkeys (see Blackhead).
Cold.
Congestion of the liver (see Liver diseases).
Congestion of the lungs (see Pneumonia).
Conjunctivitis (see Roup).
Constipation.
Cramp.
Crop-bound.
Crop, soft (see Soft crop).
Crop, Catarrh of.
Depluming mite.
Diarrhea, bacterial.
Diarrhea, mycotic.
Diarrhea, protozoan.
Diarrhea, simple.
Diarrhea, severe.
Diarrhea, white.
Diphtheria.
Diphtheritic roup.
Dislocations (see Fractures).
Dropsy.
Dysentery.
Egg-bound.
Egg-eating.
Emphysema.
Enlargement of heart (see Heart, diseases of).
Enlargement of liver (see Liver diseases).
Enlargement of kidneys (see Kidney diseases).
Enteritis (see Diarrhea).
Entero-hepatitis (see Blackhead).
Epilepsy.
Fatty degeneration.
Favus.
Feather-eating.
Fits (see Epilepsy).
Fleas.
Fowl typhoid.
Fractures.
Frost bite.
Gangrenous Ovary (see Ovary diseases).
Gapes.
Gastritis.
Going light (see Anæmia).
Gout.
Grippe (see Cold).
Heart, diseases of.
Heart, dropsy of.
Heart, enlargement of.
Heart, rupture.
Hypertrophy of the liver (see Liver diseases).
Impaction of the crop (see Crop-bound).
Indigestion.
Influenza (see Cold).
Jaundice.
Kidney diseases.
Leg weakness.
Leukemia (see Cholera).
Lice.
Limber-neck.
Liver diseases.
Lungs, congestion of (see Pneumonia).
Maggots.
Mites, air sac.
Mites, depluming.
Mites, red.
Mites, scaly leg (see Scaly leg).
Molting.
Nodular tæniasis (see Worms).
Ovary diseases.
Oviduct diseases.
Peritonitis.
Pip.
Pneumonia.
Poisoning.
Prolapse of oviduct (see Oviduct diseases).
Puffed skin (see Emphysema).
Pyæmia.
Rheumatism.
Roup.
Scabies (see Mites, depluming).
Scaly leg.
Soft crop.
Sore head (see Chicken pox).
Ticks.
Tuberculosis.
Vertigo (see Apoplexy).
White comb (see Favus).
White diarrhea of chickens.
Worms.
ABSCESSES
_Not a common poultry complaint_
_Symptoms._ The flesh becomes inflamed and swollen and forms a “head”
containing pus.
_Cause._ A scratch or a small injury followed by inflammation due to
pus-forming organisms.
_Treatment._ Lance the abscess when “ripe” with a clean, sharp knife,
cutting low so that the sore may drain readily. Squeeze out the pus;
wash with 1% carbolic acid or creolin and dress with creolin and sweet
oil (half and half) until healed.
The most common abscess is that which forms on the pad of the foot and
develops into bumblefoot.
ANÆMIA, OR GOING LIGHT
_A condition that should incite the poultryman to investigate the
cause_
_Symptoms._ Birds lose weight, or ”go light,” without any apparent
reason.
_Cause._ A general lack of thriftiness in the flock may be due to
insufficient or poor food, to lack of exercise, or to bad ventilation
of houses; lice or mites may be infesting the birds. On the other hand,
birds may gradually lose weight as the result of some such disease as
tuberculosis (see page 90}, aspergillosis (see page 29), or worms (see
page 94).
_Treatment._ Make any changes in feeding or management that may appear
desirable. Search at night for mites or lice on the birds; in the
daytime examine the straw in nest boxes, the roosts, and the cracks and
crevices of the woodwork for parasites. Much time may often be saved in
discovering what is wrong with the flock by killing one or more of the
affected birds and making a post-mortem examination to discover if a
specific disease is the cause.
APOPLEXY
_Not a common trouble_
_Symptoms._ Staggering gait and bewildered appearance; bird generally
drops dead suddenly.
_Cause._ Attributed to high feeding or over-laying.
_Treatment._ There is usually no time for treatment, but if the attack
is mild, put the bird in a dark place and give no food for a few hours;
give a dose of Epsom salts and add green food to diet. Bleeding from
under a wing is sometimes tried.
_Post-mortem examination_ shows clotted blood on the brain, the other
organs being normal.
The name vertigo is applied to congestion of the brain as distinct
from apoplexy due to hemorrhage of the brain. The fowl has fits. It is
difficult to distinguish this disease from epilepsy (see page 55). The
cause is little understood.
ASPERGILLOSIS
_A disease that exists more commonly than is usually suspected, and is
the cause of the death of large numbers of young chickens_
_Symptoms._ Fowls gradually lose weight, mope, and die without any
pronounced ailment except difficulty in breathing. In adults the
disease may be mistaken for tuberculosis and in chickens for white
diarrhea. Aspergillosis of chickens is dealt with under brooder
pneumonia. Post-mortem symptoms are whitish or yellowish growths on the
windpipe, that can only be definitely diagnosed under the microscope.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.—HEAD SHOWING BRAIN EXPOSED]
_Cause._ A fungoid growth in the windpipe and bronchial tubes,
sometimes extending to the lungs and liver. Fig. 8 shows the spores and
filaments of the species of aspergillosis most commonly responsible
for this disease. Infection may be due to musty grain or dirty straw.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.—ASPERGILLOSIS
On left—Windpipe cut open. On right—A fungus that causes aspergillosis]
_Treatment._ No medicines are of any avail. Protection lies in not
using musty grain or moldy litter. Burn dead birds.
BLACKHEAD OF TURKEYS
_A very serious disease, making the successful rearing of turkeys
difficult and in some cases impossible_.
_Symptoms._ Young turkeys, or poults, are most commonly attacked; there
is loss of weight and loss of appetite; the bird appears listless and
stands by itself with drooping wings and tail. Diarrhea is generally
one of the symptoms. The comb often turns a dark purple—a symptom that
has given rise to the name blackhead. Death generally follows an attack
fairly rapidly, but in some cases the disease may take a chronic form,
while it is believed that recovery is occasionally effected.
_Post-mortem symptoms._ The cæca (see Fig. 32) are enlarged, are
diseased in parts, and are more or less plugged with cheesy matter
and pus. The liver is diseased, being sometimes very much enlarged
and covered with yellowish necrotic areas, generally depressed in the
centre (see Fig. 24_d_). In cases of an acute attack, especially in
young birds, one of the cæca only may be affected and the liver may
not be invaded. The extent of the necrotic areas and the degree of the
enlargement of the infected organs may vary greatly in different cases.
_Cause._ The cause of blackhead has been shown by Drs. Cole and Hadley
to be a coccidium. A full account of their work is published in
Bulletin 141 of the Rhode Island Experiment Station. Coccidia enter
the digestive tract of the healthy turkey by means of food or water
infected by the excrement of a sick bird. The organisms pass along
the alimentary canal until they reach the cæca, the lining of which
they attack, giving rise to the conditions mentioned under post-mortem
symptoms. How the infection spreads from the cæca to the liver is not
clear.
It has been conclusively proved that fowls, as well as pigeons,
sparrows, etc., act as hosts for these parasites. Although adult fowls
have a great degree of resistance themselves, they are a means of
carrying infection to turkeys.
Eggs may be one of the means of spreading the disease, as they may
become contaminated in the oviduct or the cloaca of birds affected with
blackhead.
_Treatment._ No remedy or satisfactory method of prevention has been
discovered. The difficulty of effecting a cure is obvious when the
nature of the disease is considered. Drs. Cole and Hadley summarize
measures of prevention as follows:
1. Protect the yards and flocks which may have the good fortune to be
uninfected with the blackhead organism by a thorough examination of
all new stock, whether turkeys, fowls, geese or other domestic birds.
2. Keep the turkeys on grounds which are as fresh as can be obtained,
and above all, keep them isolated from fowls and other domestic birds.
3. Keep every turkey in the flock under close observation in order
to separate and at once isolate any bird which gives evidence of the
disease. To facilitate such observations it is helpful to leg-band
each individual, and to record its weight from time to time. Such a
course makes it possible to learn whether any birds are losing weight,
and if this is the case, these birds must be regarded with suspicion,
and separated from the rest of the flock.
4. If it is known that blackhead is present in any of the poultry, the
yard should be kept free from English sparrows, and the poultry houses
and grain boxes from rats and mice, which have been shown to carry the
causative organism.
5. When it is desired to fatten birds for the market, begin to
increase the rations gradually. Never attempt to fatten birds which,
in successive weighings, show a loss of weight. Overfeeding does not
cause blackhead, but frequently causes the sudden death of birds in
which blackhead is present.
6. When birds have died of blackhead, their bodies should be promptly
burned or buried in order to prevent the dissemination of the
coccidia, either through the ravages of rats or skunks, or consequent
to the natural processes of decay.
BREAKDOWN
_Not often seen in the poultry yard_
_Symptoms._ The abdomen becomes enlarged, hangs down at the back, and
sometimes touches the ground.
_Cause._ Old layers are generally affected. The cause may be the strain
of heavy laying, or may in cases be due to too much internal fat.
_Treatment._ No satisfactory treatment can be recommended and the bird
had best be killed. Such birds should not be used for breeding purposes.
BRONCHITIS (CROUP)
_Not very common_
_Symptoms._ Bronchitis may be distinguished by the rattling in the
throat of the bird affected and by the rapid breathing and cough. The
rattling is due to mucus in the inflamed bronchial tubes. In bad cases,
birds mope, refuse to eat, and soon die.
_Cause._ Bronchitis may develop from an ordinary cold, or may be due to
sudden changes of temperature, or to exposure to rain, cold, and damp.
_Treatment._ Keep affected bird away from drafts and in a warm
place; dose with Epsom salts (see page 9) and give soft food, e. g.,
bread, bran, and middlings, with milk. Wine of ipecacuanha has been
recommended for cases in which breathing is very difficult owing to
excessive inflammation.
BROODER PNEUMONIA
_A very serious disease, causing the death of many chickens_
_Symptoms._ Chickens affected stand by themselves with roughened
plumage. There is a whitish diarrhea, and this disease can easily be
mistaken for white diarrhea. (See page 92.) Post-mortem examination
will show yellowish spots on the lungs, on the walls of the air sacs,
and on the liver and other organs, due to infection by the aspergillus
fungus. (See page 29.)
_Cause._ Infection by a species of the aspergillus fungus, the spores
of which are probably inhaled. This fungus is common. The spores may be
in the straw used for nests or for litter, or in the food, especially
if it is at all moldy.
_Treatment._ There is no cure for an affected chicken, and the
poultryman must aim at prevention. Vigorous sanitary measures are
imperative. Clean straw or excelsior should be used for nests; eggs for
hatching should be disinfected by wiping with 80% alcohol; incubators
and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected.
BUMBLEFOOT
_Not serious if treated early_
[Illustration: FIG. 9.—BUMBLEFOOT]
_Symptoms._ Lameness with swelling on pad of foot.
_Cause._ Injury to sole of foot, developing into an abscess. Heavy
birds are more subject than light ones to bumblefoot, especially if
made to roost on perches that are too high.
_Treatment._ Paint with iodine. Lance the abscess if it is sufficiently
advanced. Lower perches. Birds under treatment should have their feet
bandaged, and should be put on deep straw to prevent further injury
while the wounds are healing. Not serious if taken in hand promptly.
CATARRH OF THE CROP
_Not a common trouble_
_Symptoms._ Distention of crop with soft pasty matter of a more or less
offensive character.
_Cause._ Eating stale, putrifying food or some poisonous matter.
_Treatment._ Empty the bird’s crop by holding the head downwards and
gently pressing the contents out through the mouth. Feed sparingly on
soft food.
CHICKEN POX OR SORE HEAD
_An infectious disease that causes considerable loss among chickens
and young birds in warm climates_
_Symptoms._ Small, scabby, wart-like growths and eruptions on the head,
especially on the comb and the wattles and around the eyes—in bad cases
extending to the lids and even the mouth. Chickens and young birds are
most commonly attacked by this disease, which spreads rapidly.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.—CHICKEN POX]
_Cause._ The specific organism has not been definitely determined.
Chicken pox may be started by the introduction of an infected bird,
and mosquitoes and other insects are suspected of being agents in its
spread.
_Treatment._ Prompt treatment may be very successful. Isolate affected
birds. Apply tincture of iodine, first scraping off the scabs. Creolin
2%, or other disinfectants, may be used instead of iodine. Dirty coops
are a contributing cause, and cleanliness of chicken runs and houses
is important. Disinfect soil (see page 13) and woodwork (see page 12)
regularly and with extra care when the first cases are noticed. When
roupy lesions develop, as is sometimes the case, treat as for roup.
(See page 83.)
CHOLERA
_A serious and epidemic form of diarrhea for which no remedy is known_
_Symptoms._ Fowls die suddenly with apparently little reason. There are
symptoms of diarrhea and examination shows that the feces are a bright
yellow or green instead of the normal color. Before death, fowls have
fever and may be seen moping and showing evidences of distress. For
post-mortem symptoms see page 112.
_Cause._ A contagious disease, due to bacteria, that, owing to
infection of soil and drinking water by birds suffering from the
disease, spreads rapidly through a flock. It is often introduced by the
purchase of an infected bird that appears at the time of purchase to be
well.
_Treatment._ Prevention by strict sanitary measures is what must be
aimed at. It is believed that no cure is known for genuine cases of
cholera. Isolate all new birds brought into the flock, especially
when cases of cholera are reported in the neighborhood. The bodies of
birds that have died of this disease are best burnt without delay.
The germ of cholera appears to be both persistent and easily spread,
and too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of preventing its
introduction, failing that, of quickly stamping it out. The sacrifice
of a few birds to prevent the spread of the disease will be well
repaid, for it has been necessary on occasions to kill a whole flock.
In some cases it has been found best to move unaffected birds to new
quarters.
Fowl typhoid, or leukemia, is a disease of the blood that may be
mistaken for cholera. The poultryman must treat it in the same way.
CLOACITIS OR VENT-GLEET
_Not a common disease_
_Symptoms._ Frequent small discharges of excrement and unsuccessful
efforts to discharge when the cloaca (Fig. 32) is empty, the mucous
membrane of which becomes hot and inflamed. These symptoms are soon
followed by an offensive discharge.
_Cause._ A specific disease transmitted from hen to hen by the agency
of the cock.
_Treatment._ Immediately isolate affected hens; syringe out cloaca
twice daily with 2% creolin; give mild purgative and put on soft food.
Males likely to be affected should be examined, and diseased birds
killed.
_Caution._ The hands should be carefully cleansed and disinfected, as
a serious inflammation will result if the eyes are rubbed with infected
hands. This is a troublesome and risky disease to treat.
COCCIDIOSIS OF ADULT FOWLS
_The germ of this disease does not usually affect adult fowls
seriously, but causes severe losses among chickens and turkeys_
_Symptoms._ The external symptoms are not very pronounced; there is
loss of weight and in some cases diarrhea. The disease may last for a
long time and birds may even recover. A post-mortem examination shows
the walls of the cæca thickened and filled with a pasty mass, while
characteristic whitish or yellowish spots (see Fig. 24, _d_) are found
in the liver.
_Cause._ This disease is due to the same germ (a coccidium) that causes
blackhead in turkeys. Adult fowls occasionally develop this disease,
but appear to be able, as a rule, to act as a host for the germs
without being themselves affected, although heavy losses occur among
turkeys or chickens that get the germ from them.
_Treatment._ Copperas in the drinking water (three grains to a quart)
has been recommended, together with the occasional use of calomel in
one-grain doses, or one or two teaspoonfuls of castor oil. Thorough
disinfection (see page 10) of houses and runs, etc., where affected
fowls have been, is important. Burn the bodies of birds that die of the
disease.
COLD (SIMPLE CATARRH)
_Dangerous, because it may be confused with the early stages of roup_
_Symptoms._ Discharge from the nostrils and the eyes, with occasional
fits of sneezing; loss of appetite, and moping.
_Cause._ Cold and damp. Colds most frequently occur in wet weather and
among poorly housed and poorly fed stock.
_Treatment._ Warm housing and protection from cold and wet. Give
quinine—one grain to an adult fowl. Many believe in dosing fowls
suffering from colds with red pepper given in the food. When there
are signs of stuffiness, the eyes and the nostrils should be washed
out once or twice daily. Carbolic acid 2%, or boric acid, about 3%,
dissolved in water, is recommended for this purpose. Witch hazel has
been found very effective.
_Caution._ There is a risk of mistaking the early stages of roup for
a simple cold. Further, birds are more likely to contract roup when
suffering from a cold, and should, on this account, be isolated and
regularly examined.
_Influenza._ The term influenza, or grippe, is generally applied to a
severe cold that has no symptoms of roup.
CONSTIPATION
_Not common and seldom serious_
_Symptoms._ The bird suffering is dull and listless. Its efforts to
evacuate are painful and unsuccessful.
_Cause._ Internal blocking of the cloaca or the intestines, or,
occasionally, of the vent by dirt accumulated on the outside. Want of
exercise and lack of green food are held to be contributing causes.
_Treatment._ If constipation is due to dirt on the outside, cleanse
vent by swabbing with warm water. When stoppage is inside and can be
felt through the vent syringe with sweet oil. In other cases, give a
purgative such as castor oil or Epsom salts. If worms are suspected as
the cause, give santonin (see page 9), followed by a teaspoonful of
castor oil.
CRAMP
_Must not be confused with more serious complaints_
_Symptoms._ Difficulty in standing and lameness, due to inflammation of
muscles and joints.
_Cause._ Damp and cold.
_Treatment._ Put legs of bird in warm water; rub joints with
embrocation and put in dry quarters.
NOTE—In cases of rheumatism, tick fever, and tuberculosis, birds may
show the same difficulty in standing that they do in cramp.
CROP-BOUND (IMPACTION OF CROP)
_Not serious, as a rule_
_Symptoms._ The crop is hard and swollen.
_Cause._ The blocking of the passage from the crop to the gizzard by a
bit of stick or a stone, with the result that the food cannot pass out
of the crop.
_Treatment._ Pour sweet oil down fowl’s throat; work the crop with the
fingers, endeavoring to remove the obstructing object. If unsuccessful,
cut open the crop and remove the contents, making sure that the opening
into the gizzard is clear. Sew up the cut made, stitching separately
first the inner skin and then the outer.
DIARRHEA OR ENTERITIS
_May take a serious and epidemic form_
Diarrhea is a common complaint among fowls, and in some cases takes
a severe and epidemic form. The latter form may be due to various
causes, and it will be best, perhaps, to deal with diarrhea under the
following heads:
1. Mild diarrhea.
2. Epidemic and severe diarrhea.
3. Dysentery. (See page 52.)
4. Cholera. (See page 39.)
5. White diarrhea of chickens. (See page 92.)
_Mild Diarrhea_.
_Symptoms._ Looseness of bowels and staining of feathers around the
anus with excreta.
_Cause._ Indigestion caused by food which may be too laxative; e. g.,
excess of bran, or, by food which may be partly decomposed or may
contain an intestinal irritant. Cold may also be a cause.
_Treatment._ Give Epsom salts, or castor oil. (See page 9.) Change diet
if food is suspected. Often no treatment is necessary, but it is not
wise to neglect cases that are apparently mild diarrhea, for fear they
may turn out to be an epidemic and contagious form.
_Diarrhea, Severe and Epidemic_
_Symptoms._ Excessive looseness of bowels, ruffling of feathers,
depression, loss of appetite. A number of birds in the flock are
attacked and death results.
_Cause._ There are a variety of causes. Scientific investigation has
led to the discovery of specific organisms responsible for various
forms of diarrhea. It would be well for poultry rearers to study the
results of such work, but, for the purposes of this book, it will be
sufficient to state that the causal organism may be bacterial, mycotic,
or protozoan. The owner of poultry will not usually be able himself to
determine what type of diarrhea the fowls are suffering from, but as
a rule the treatment will have to be the same. Advice will have to be
sought from an expert when dangerous epidemics are feared.
_Treatment._ The most energetic measures of disinfection must be
undertaken. (See page 10.)
1. Isolate sick fowls.
2. Disinfect soil of run thoroughly.
3. Clean and disinfect coops.
4. In bad cases, remove the rest of the flock from the infested run.
5. Give sick fowls Epsom salts, or castor oil; feed fowls on soft food.
6. If the diarrhea is not checked, give 6 to 12 drops of chlorodyne.
DIPHTHERIA OR DIPHTHERITIC ROUP
_A dangerous disease, and infected birds should be killed at once_
_Symptoms._ A cold, accompanied by whitish and yellowish patches on
the back of the throat and in the mouth. These patches apparently form
a false membrane and cannot be torn off without causing bleeding. The
disease is sometimes known as canker.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.—DIPHTHERITIC ROUP
_b_, lower beak; _t_, tongue; _m_, false membrane.
(After Harrison and Streit.)]
_Cause._ This disease is often clearly a later stage of roup. It is
difficult to say where one ends and the other begins. It has been
claimed that the organism is the same as that which causes diphtheria
in human beings, but the weight of evidence is against this conclusion.
_Treatment._ Diphtheria is extremely infectious. It is best to kill
the first cases at once. If the bird is of particular value, it may
be isolated and the patches on the throat swabbed with 50% hydrogen
peroxide or 5% creolin, with a small bit of cotton wool wound around
a stick. If great care is exercised, 20% carbolic acid or 20% creolin
may be painted on the patches, but neither should be allowed to touch
the normal skin. Burn the swabs. Treat accompanying roupy symptoms as
recommended under roup.
The term canker is also applied to certain spots or growths that occur
on the throat. These are not in any way associated with diphtheritic
roup, or any dangerous, contagious disease, and are due to injury or to
an unhealthy condition of the mucous membrane.
DROPSY
_Not a common disease_
_Symptoms._ Distention of abdomen.
_Cause._ Collection of liquid in abdominal cavity.
_Treatment._ Treatment is seldom successful. It is best and most
merciful to kill the afflicted bird. If it is desired to make an effort
to save the bird, carefully puncture the lower portion of the abdomen
with a trocar and squeeze out the liquid. Give invalid diet.
DYSENTERY
_Serious if in epidemic form_
_Symptoms._ Severe diarrhea with blood in the discharges.
_Cause._ Bacterial or other specific infection of the intestines.
Occasionally the eating of some poisonous or irritating substance will
give rise to blood in the excrement.
_Treatment._ Isolate bird, and give six to eight drops of chlorodyne on
a small piece of bread. Thorough disinfection (see page 10) of water,
soil and house is necessary to prevent this disease spreading.
EGG-BOUND
_An uncommon complaint_
_Symptoms._ The hen goes on and off the nest straining to lay.
Generally the egg may be felt through the vent. After straining for
some time, she may succeed in laying the egg, and treatment should not
be undertaken until it is evident that the fowl needs assistance.
_Cause._ Very young hens are more liable to this complaint, which
arises from eggs of an abnormal size, from lack of muscular power, or
from some other disorder of the oviduct.
_Treatment._ It will be most merciful to kill fowls in much distress,
as treatment is tedious and painful to the fowl. It has been
recommended to hold the fowl’s vent over steam from boiling water and
then to pass an oiled finger up the vent. In bad cases, pierce the
egg and withdraw the contents, then break the shell and remove all the
pieces. Great care must be taken to leave no particle of the broken
shell behind.
EGG-EATING
_A bad habit that may be controlled_
_Symptoms._ If remains of eggs are seen in nests or runs, the
poultryman should become suspicious and make observations to prove
whether any of his flock are eating eggs.
_Cause._ Broken eggs or soft-shelled eggs left about the yard may be
the cause of hens acquiring this bad habit.
_Treatment._ All signs of broken eggs should always be immediately
removed. The culprit, when detected, should be removed to a different
pen and nest. Dark nests have been recommended. A trap nest will
prevent a hen from getting at her egg.
EMPHYSEMA (AIR UNDER SKIN)
_Not a common disease of chickens_
_Symptoms._ In this disease of chickens the skin becomes puffed out in
one or more places, generally on the neck. In rare cases the puffing
spreads over nearly the whole of the body.
_Cause._ This disease is evidently caused by some obstruction of the
air passages that forces the air to escape under the skin.
_Treatment._ Let out the air by puncturing the skin. Give soft and
nourishing food. It will probably be wiser not to use birds that
recover from this complaint for breeding stock.
EPILEPSY
_An unusual complaint_
_Symptoms._ The bird staggers about and has a fit. It may recover.
_Cause._ It is difficult to discover a cause; intestinal worms are
suspected in some cases.
_Treatment._ If it is suspected that intestinal worms are responsible,
try the treatment recommended for worms. (See page 95.)
FATTY DEGENERATION
_Not contagious, but pointing to error in diet_
_Symptoms._ More or less sudden deaths of birds in good condition.
Post-mortem examination shows an enlarged liver and masses of fat
attached to the intestines.
_Cause._ Something wrong with the diet; too much heat-giving food and
want of exercise.
_Treatment_. Post-mortem proof of fatty degeneration in the flock
should lead the poultry owner to change the diet, reducing the amount
of heat-giving food, and giving more exercise. Some authors draw
attention to a fatty degeneration in which the liver is shrunken and
shows fat globules under the microscope.
FAVUS (WHITE COMB)
_Disfiguring, but easily controlled if treated early_
_Symptoms._ Whitish scabs or crusts on the comb, the head and down the
neck.
_Cause._ Due to a fungus that spreads, if not treated, and that
probably starts where there is an abrasion of the skin.
_Treatment._ Treat in early stages of the disease by dressing with
sulphur ointment. (See page 9.) Isolate bird. If the case has been
neglected and allowed to develop, the crusts must first be moistened
with oil and the surface scraped off with a blunt instrument. Then
apply tincture of iodine or nitrate of silver.
FEATHER-EATING
_Not a very common habit_
_Symptoms._ The presence of bare patches and injured plumage on birds
should lead the poultryman to watch for feather-eaters.
_Cause._ Irritation from insects, some defect in diet, or natural
cussedness.
_Treatment._ Isolate the offender, and, if persistent and of no special
value, kill, for fear the bad example may be followed by others. If
several fowls develop this vice, try hanging up a bone for them to peck
at and thus distract their attention.
FLEAS
_An occasional parasite of poultry_
_Symptoms._ Fleas are found on the fowls or in the straw of their nests.
_Description._ The flea that attacks fowls is known as the hen flea
(_Pulex gallinæ_). It is dark colored and has sharp mouth parts.
Doubtless it causes the fowl it attacks much irritation in addition to
loss of blood.
_Treatment._ Keep poultry houses in a clean, sanitary condition. Dust
the infested fowls with an insect powder or dip them in creolin, about
1%. Burn infested straw.
FRACTURES
Broken bones of legs or wings can be mended by placing the bones back
in their proper positions and binding with light splints. The splints
may be removed in about four weeks. It will be found that shanks are
easily set, but that broken wings give far more trouble.
If a fowl dislocates its leg or its wing, the joint should be gently
pushed back into place.
FROST BITE
_A strain on the bird’s system_
_Symptoms._ Combs and wattles are most liable to frost bite,
particularly in breeds in which these parts are large.
_Cause._ Exposure to very low temperatures, especially if birds are
suddenly turned out from warm quarters; dipping comb and wattles in
water when the temperature is low.
_Treatment._ Prevent by keeping birds as warm as possible during
winter, and do not allow them to go out early in the mornings in very
cold weather. Drinking water should be provided in a vessel from which
birds can drink without wetting their wattles. In a case of frost bite,
thaw the affected parts by gently rubbing with vaseline and afterwards
treat with a mixture of two grains of salicylic acid to one ounce of
vaseline or lard.
GAPES
_Serious in badly infested yards_
[Illustration: FIG. 12.—GAPES
On left: Chicken affected with gapes. On right: _a_, male and female
gape worms; _b_, gape worms in windpipe. (From Salmon.)]
_Symptoms._ Frequent gaping and coughing; young chicks attacked, as a
rule. Notice if any worms are coughed up by the chicken; if none can
be found, but the gaping continues, put a stripped feather down the
windpipe, as recommended under treatment, and see if any gape worms can
be pulled up.
_Cause._ Small worms, red in color when engorged, which attach
themselves to the mucous membrane of the windpipe. Affected birds
cough up worms or ova, which infect the yard and sometimes the water
supply. Earthworms taken from infested yards have been found to contain
portions of gape worms, and may be one means of infecting poultry.
_Treatment._ Isolate attacked poultry and disinfect coops and yards.
The worms may be extracted from the windpipe of a gaping chicken with
a feather stripped nearly to the end, and moistened, but not dripping,
with oil of turpentine. Hold the mouth open, push the feather down the
windpipe, and give it a sudden twist, which will dislodge the worms
and allow of their being drawn up. Fumigation by holding the bird’s
head over an irritant vapor, such as that of carbolic acid poured into
boiling water, is risky, but sometimes successful. If not cautiously
done, much suffering may be inflicted on the bird.
_Post-mortem._ Cut open the windpipe and look for the worms, which
may be easily recognized by Fig. 12. Male and female specimens will be
found attached to one another.
GASTRITIS (CATARRH OF THE STOMACH)
_Not a common complaint_
_Symptoms._ This disease cannot be readily diagnosed while the fowl is
living; it is generally associated with catarrh of the crop. (See page
37.) The symptoms are similar. Post-mortem examination will show the
lining of the stomach in an inflamed condition.
_Cause._ The inflammation of the lining of the stomach is generally due
to eating decomposing food or other poisonous matter.
_Treatment._ Empty the crop as recommended under Catarrh of the crop.
Give one or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil and feed on soft and
easily digested food with milk or barley water. Be sure that poultry
are not allowed to run under trees that have been sprayed with
arsenical poisons.
GOUT
_Not a common ailment_
_Symptoms._ The bird sometimes loses weight, and as the disease
develops shows stiffness and an indisposition to stand. In some cases
small nodules containing crystals of urate of soda occur on the
underside of the toes.
_Cause._ Failure of the kidneys to perform their normal functions and
consequent accumulation of urates in the bird’s system in excessive
quantities. Gout may be due to too concentrated feeding.
_Treatment._ Medicines and treatment are of little avail. Endeavor to
prevent by feeding a mixed diet.
_Post-mortem._ In one form of this disease, known as visceral gout, the
liver and other abdominal organs are covered over with a powder-like
deposit of the crystals of urate of soda.
HEART DISEASES
_Not common, and cannot be treated_
The heart is an organ that is subject to several serious diseases,
but these cannot be detected with any certainty while the bird is
living, and treatment cannot be recommended as likely to be successful.
Post-mortem examination may show the following symptoms:
1. The heart sac full of serous liquid, in the case of pericarditis,
or dropsy of the heart sac.
2. A reddening of the membrane lining the heart, in the case of
inflammation (endocarditis).
3. An enlarged heart, in the case of enlargement of the heart.
4. Hemorrhage, in the case of rupture of the heart and of the blood
vessels.
INDIGESTION
_Disorder of the intestinal tract, that is not very serious_
_Symptoms._ The bird mopes and shows signs of a capricious appetite.
Either diarrhea or, less commonly, constipation, may be a symptom.
_Cause._ Disorders of the digestive tract, due to error in dieting—for
example, overfeeding, or too little green food and not enough exercise.
_Treatment._ Alter the feeding, see that the water is clean, and give a
dose of Epsom salts. (See page 9.)
JAUNDICE
_Not a common disease_
_Symptoms._ A yellow comb may indicate jaundice, but there are no
definite external symptoms. Post-mortem examination shows distention of
the gall bladder, due to an excessive secretion of bile.
_Cause._ Said to be due to continued congestion of the liver, arising
possibly from too much heat-giving food.
_Treatment._ If the disease is suspected, give one grain of calomel as
a purgative and feed on more green food.
KIDNEY DISEASES
_With the exception of gout, kidney diseases cannot be detected by
external symptoms_
Gout (see page 63) is the commonest disease of the kidneys. In
addition, there are some disorders of the kidneys (e. g., enlargement)
that may be noticed on post-mortem examination. Little is known about
these diseases; there are no symptoms that can be recognized before
death, and no treatment can be recommended.
LEG WEAKNESS
_Constitutional weakness, to which the heavier breeds are more subject
than are the lighter ones_
_Symptoms._ Fowls walk in an unsteady manner, without showing any
specific cause for lameness. Young birds are more likely to be affected
in this manner, particularly those of the heavier breeds.
_Cause._ Too rapid growth, the bird outgrowing the strength of its legs.
_Treatment._ Reduce the quantity of fat-producing foods. Care in the
selection of breeding stock is important.
LICE
_Invariably present in small numbers, and likely to become a serious
pest, if not persistently controlled_
_Symptoms._ Unthrifty look of fowl and signs of irritation; desertion
of nest by setting hens; and, of course, the detection of lice on the
fowl: this may be done by quickly turning over the feathers on the body
and looking for the lice.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.—LOOKING FOR LICE]
_Cause._ Introduction of an infested fowl; neglect to dust fowls
regularly to keep down lice, and to clean out fowl houses and change
the straw of nest boxes. At the season that lice are likely to be most
prevalent the poultryman should take precautionary measures.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.—THREE LICE THAT COMMONLY AFFECT FOWLS
(From Salmon.)
_a._ Lipeurus variabilis.
_b_, Menopon pallidum.
_c_, Goniodes dissimilis.]
_Description of lice._ Lice are small insects ranging in size from
1∕25 to 1∕8 of an inch. They breed rapidly, laying their eggs on the
feathers. They are not blood-sucking insects, but cause much irritation
to the birds they infest.
Several species are found on fowls. Fig. 14 shows three of the common
species.
_Treatment._ Dust fowls with fresh insect powder (pyrethrum). Smear
sulphur ointment on head and under wings, especially in the case of
chickens. Infested fowls may be dipped in 2% creolin. Dust setting hens
with a lice powder before putting them on their nests. Infested straw
should be burnt, and boxes, nests, fixtures, etc., should be thoroughly
sprayed with 2% creolin.
LIMBER-NECK
_An occasional complaint_
_Symptoms._ The muscles of the fowl’s neck become so relaxed that they
cannot support the head.
_Cause._ Limber-neck, due to partial or entire paralysis of the muscles
of the neck, is believed to be associated with acute indigestion or
worms.
_Treatment._ A strong purgative may be the means of effecting a cure by
cleaning out any intestinal poisons and thus correcting the cause. If
the treatment recommended does not effect a cure in a few days, kill
the bird.
LIVER DISEASES
The liver is affected by several diseases, and the poultryman, who
finds a spotted liver on post-mortem examination, will be much aided
in determining the cause, if he takes into consideration the symptoms
noticed before the fowl died, as well as the changes in the other
internal organs. The importance of the post-mortem examination is in
distinguishing whether the death of the fowl is due to a contagious
disease.
The causes of diseased livers may be conveniently divided into two
classes:
1. Diseased livers due to indigestion, e. g., enlargement.
2. Diseased livers due to a specific disease, e. g., tuberculosis.
_Diseases Due to Indigestion_
In this class may be included degeneration, inflammation, congestion,
enlargement, and atrophy of the liver. There are more or less distinct
differences in these diseases, but the only possible methods of
treatment known at present are very much the same.
_Symptoms._ There are no definite external symptoms. The poultryman’s
suspicions should, however, be aroused if fowls apparently in good
health die suddenly. A post-mortem examination will reveal a liver of
abnormal size, or somewhat shrunken, and of unhealthy texture.
_Cause._ The cause is generally something wrong in the feeding. Fowls
may be eating too large a proportion of heat-producing foods and not
enough green food. If an enlarged liver is associated with an excessive
layer of fat covering the internal organs, it points to too large
quantities of carbohydrates.
_Treatment._ Correct errors in feeding. Give more green food and let
the fowls scratch for some of their grain. If errors in feeding and
general management are not obvious, make experimental changes.
_Diseased Livers Due to Specific Diseases_
Tuberculosis, coccidiosis, gout and other specific diseases are
responsible for spotted or diseased livers. (Fig. 24.) The section on
diagnosis by post-mortem examination gives further information on these
subjects and shows how the principal diseases may be distinguished.
The term cancer is sometimes applied to cases in which there are tumors
on the liver.
MAGGOTS
_Occasionally found in flesh wounds of poultry_
_Symptoms._ A flesh wound that instead of healing develops into a sore
with a slight running. On examination, maggots will be found.
_Cause._ Several species of flies are always ready to lay their eggs
in any available wound or sore; therefore wounds must be watched in
the case of poultry, as with all other animals of the farmyard. The
eggs laid by these flies hatch and develop into small footless grubs
commonly known as maggots.
_Treatment._ Wash the wound with 1 to 2% creolin; remove as many of
the maggots as possible with a pair of tweezers or a feather. If the
maggots are deep-seated, stuff the wound with a cotton wad saturated
with strong creolin or 10% carbolic acid. Examine next day and remove
dead maggots. Treat again in a similar manner if the maggots are not
all killed. Fish oil, or iodoform made into a paste with vaseline, will
prevent the flies depositing their eggs, if smeared on the surface of
the wound.
MITES (AIR-SAC)
_Not a common parasite_
_Symptoms._ There are no definite external symptoms. If the bird is
very badly affected, there may be evidences of suffocation. This may
end fatally. A post-mortem examination will show the mites in the air
passages and bronchi as small yellowish and whitish particles, which on
careful observation may be seen to move.
_Cause._ A small mite (_Sarcoptes lævis_) which infests the air sacs
and bronchi. These mites, when present in large numbers, obstruct
the air passages and cause suffocation. A secretion from the mucous
membrane affected, results from the presence of the mites and increases
the obstruction of the air passages.
[Illustration: FIG. 15 THE AIR SAC MITE
(From Salmon.)]
_Treatment._ The fumigation method tried for gapes has been
recommended, but there is little reason to expect success.
MITES, DEPLUMING (SCABIES)
_Symptoms._ Bare patches on the bird’s body due to the loss of
feathers. The rump and the breast are most frequently attacked.
[Illustration: FIG. 16 THE DEPLUMING MITE
(From Salmon.)]
_Cause._ A small mite (_Sarcoptes lævis_) found on the bird’s body near
the base of the fallen feathers.
_Treatment._ Isolate affected birds; rub bare patches and neighboring
portion of body with sulphur ointment (see page 9) or dip body of fowl
in a solution of about 2% creolin.
MITES (RED MITE)
_A serious pest_
_Symptoms._ Unthriftiness of birds.
_Cause._ A small whitish mite, which appears red when filled with
blood. These mites suck the bird’s blood at night and hide during the
day in the sockets of the perches and in the crevices of the woodwork.
[Illustration: FIG. 17. THE RED MITE]
_Treatment._ Examine the fowl house at night. Dust hens with an insect
powder; thoroughly spray houses and perches with 5% creolin or other
disinfectant, and squirt kerosene oil or turpentine into cracks and
crevices. A specially constructed mite-proof perch, or one that can be
easily removed, should be used.
MOLTING
Molting is not a disease, but may prove trying to poultry not in the
best condition to stand the strain of the process. Hens overtaxed with
forced laying and cocks running with too large a number of hens are
most likely to suffer. Molting occurs in healthy adult birds every
twelve months. The process, which is a natural one, should be allowed
to take its natural course unless the fowls appear weak and depressed
during the period. In such cases specially nourishing and stimulating
food should be given. Anyhow, it would be well to pay particular
attention to the feeding of birds during the molting season.
OVARY DISEASES
Hens suffer from various diseases of the ovary, which may become
shriveled and useless or gangrenous. Tumorous growths, sometimes called
cancers, are also found. As diseased conditions of this organ can be
detected only by post-mortem examination, and as no remedies are known,
the subject need not be dealt with more fully.
OVIDUCT, DISEASES OF
Abnormal eggs must be regarded as due to functional disorders of the
oviduct. One cause of soft eggs is lack of shell-forming material;
therefore a liberal supply of powdered oyster shells, or lime in some
other form, should always be accessible to laying hens. Other abnormal
eggs occur, such as those with double yolks, without any yolk, with
blood clots, etc. No treatment can be suggested beyond feeding a varied
diet and avoiding too stimulating or over-heating foods.
Prolapse of the oviduct may occur. The protruding portion should be
oiled or vaselined and gently pressed back.
PERITONITIS
_Not common and not contagious_
_Symptoms._ Loss of appetite, fever and evidence of discomfort and pain
in the stomach, especially if the abdomen is pressed with the hand.
Post-mortem examination shows inflamed appearance of membrane of the
abdominal cavity.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.—ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF THE HEN
(From Salmon.)
_a._ Undeveloped ovules in ovary.
_b._ Partly developed ovule showing stigma. Here the follicle wall
breaks and allows the ovule yolk to leave the ovary preparatory to
laying.
_c._ An empty follicle in which the stigma and the yolk passed out.
_d._ Opening of oviduct.
_e._ Portion of oviduct distended, allowing yolk to pass down.
_f._ Walls of oviduct which secrete albumen forming the white of the
egg.
_g._ Membranous lining added.
_h._ Portion of oviduct that secretes shell-forming substance.
_i._ Cloaca.]
_Cause._ Serious inflammation of the wall of the abdominal cavity.
_Treatment._ Put the bird in a quiet place. Aconite (see page 9), to
reduce the temperature, and opium, or one drop of laudanum, to relieve
pain, have been recommended, but as a rule it is best to kill the bird.
PIP
_Generally the effect of some other disorder_
_Symptoms._ A hardened scale formed at tip of tongue.
_Cause._ Generally due to cold or other disorder affecting the
breathing of the bird.
_Treatment._ Do not try to tear off the growth on the tongue by force,
but moisten with vaseline or glycerin until it becomes loose. Give soft
food.
PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION OF LUNGS
_Generally fatal_
_Symptoms._ Extreme depression and great difficulty in breathing.
Difficult to distinguish in the living bird from a very bad cold.
Post-mortem examination shows the affected lung filled with an exudate.
The lung sinks if put in water.
_Cause._ Following on a cold, the lung becomes congested with blood
and a dark, viscous matter. Pneumonia may be considered a further, and
generally final, stage of congestion.
_Treatment._ A cure is seldom effected, but in the case of a valuable
bird the following treatment may be tried Keep the bird in a dry, warm
place; paint the skin above the lungs with tincture of iodine; give
aconite. Feed on soft food and give a stimulant.
POISONING
_Symptoms._ As a rule the poisons that fowls eat are mineral. The most
pronounced symptom is evidence of pain. In cases of arsenical poison
there is diarrhea. A poison containing a copper compound acts partly
as an emetic, causing the fowl to make an effort to vomit. In cases
of mineral poisons, post-mortem examinations show inflammation of the
stomach and the digestive tract.
_Sources of poison._ Poultry are likely to get poisoned from the
following sources:
_Fertilizers_ (e. g., nitrate of soda) used on fields in which fowls
scratch for food. Such cases are rare.
_Insecticides and fungicides_ (e. g., Paris green [arsenic], lead
arsenate, Bordeaux mixture) applied to plants under which fowls run. If
sprays are mixed in correct proportions and used in normal quantities,
there is little danger to poultry feeding on the grass below sprayed
trees. Great care should, however, be taken in disposing of the
sediment and the residue after spraying operations are completed.
_Rat poisons_ (e. g., phosphorus, strychnine, baryta). These poisons
are particularly dangerous when mixed with cornmeal or other bait
attractive to fowls. The best way to set rat poison is to put it in a
piece of piping of such a diameter and length that fowls cannot reach
it.
_Salt._ Food mixed with salt for other domestic animals may be
accidentally given to fowls. Chickens are the most likely to be
poisoned by excess of salt.
_Treatment._ If fowls have eaten poisonous substances, the fact is
not usually discovered until after death or until it is too late to
administer an antidote. Most of the poisons fowls are likely to eat act
as irritants of the digestive tract. Milk and white of egg should be
given. It is advisable to give a stimulant, such as half a teaspoonful
of brandy.
PYÆMIA
_Not contagious, and not common_
_Symptoms._ This disease cannot be diagnosed except by post-mortem
examination and microscopic identification of pus-forming organisms in
the infected areas (whitish spots) of liver, spleen, etc.
_Cause._ Pus-forming organisms believed to enter the blood through a
wound in the skin.
_Treatment._ As there are no external symptoms, treatment is not
possible.
RHEUMATISM
_Not a common trouble_
_Symptoms._ Lameness and stiffness of joints.
_Cause._ May be due in some cases to too stimulating food and to
dampness.
_Treatment._ Put affected bird in dry quarters and vary food, adding
more greens. Rub joints with embrocation, or turpentine and oil.
ROUP (CONTAGIOUS CATARRH)
_One of the most serious contagious diseases_
_Symptoms._ The bird first has symptoms of an ordinary cold, such as
running at the nostrils and sneezing. Definite evidence of roup is the
_offensive odor_ detected on opening the bird’s mouth. The exudate is
also offensive. The disease may attack the eyes, which then become
inflamed and swollen; a tumor, containing offensive, yellowish, cheesy
matter, sometimes develops. The course of the disease may extend over
several weeks or months and there may be cases of chronic roup. Some
cases end fatally in a comparatively short time. The form of the
disease, in which yellowish patches develop on the throat, is dealt
with under diphtheria or diphtheritic roup.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.—EXAMINING A FOWL WITH A SUSPICIOUS COLD]
_Cause._ Cases of roup occur when birds are subjected to draft and
damp, but the cause must be infection with disease germs. It is
believed that the almost constant presence of the germs is due to lack
of regular disinfection and to birds in the flock believed to have
recovered from a previous attack of the disease, but that, in reality,
are suffering from chronic roup, and are able, whenever suitable
conditions arise for an outbreak of this disease, to infect the rest of
the flock through the drinking water and the soil.
_Treatment._ The seriousness of this disease makes it imperative
for the poultry rearer to isolate immediately any birds showing any
suspicious symptoms. If treatment of the infected bird is taken in
hand early, and carried out faithfully, a cure can be effected, but it
is often wiser to kill and burn infected stock. In treating birds,
the mouth and nostrils should be washed out with 5% carbolic acid, or
with 50% hydrogen peroxide, or with 2% permanganate of potash. It is
important to clean out the passage of the nostrils, and this may be
done by:
1. Pressing against the roof of the bird’s mouth from inside and
squeezing the nostrils from above downwards.
2. Syringing out the nostrils.
3. Dipping the fowl’s head for a few seconds in a solution of the
disinfectant. Great care should be exercised in this method of
treatment, which is only recommended when permanganate of potash is
used.
It is well to keep birds isolated for some time after apparent
recovery. When the eye is affected (see Fig. 20), the tumor should be
carefully lanced and the cheesy matter removed, after which the cavity
should be rinsed out with one of the disinfectants recommended above;
such treatment may have to be repeated time after time.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.—A ROUPY EYE]
As an after effect of a cold or of roup, conjunctivitis or sore eyes
may develop. A discharge comes from the eyes and the eyelids become
stuck together. Bathe the eyes with hydrogen peroxide mixed with an
equal quantity of water.
If this condition follows an attack of roup, there is danger that the
fowl has not entirely recovered, and may be a source of infection to
the rest of the flock.
SCALY LEG
_An unsightly affection that, although contagious, does not spread
rapidly_
_Symptoms._ A rough and scaly growth on the legs of the bird.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.—SCALY LEG
A. Showing early stages of attack.]
_Cause._ A small mite (Fig. 22), known as _Sarcoptes mutans_, burrows
in the skin and gives rise to the unsightly growth (Fig. 21) that gives
this disease its name.
_Treatment._ Soften the scaly growth by washing and soaking the legs
with warm water and soap. Scrub the affected portion of the legs
with a brush and then treat as follows: Dip the legs in kerosene oil,
holding them there for not longer than a few seconds. If the kerosene
oil is mixed with sweet oil, or if the legs are wet first with water,
there will be no risk of the kerosene proving harsh, as sometimes
happens. Sulphur ointment (see page 9) may be used instead of the
kerosene oil treatment.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.-THE MITE THAT CAUSES SCALY LEG]
SOFT CROP
_Not a serious complaint_
_Symptoms._ Distended crop, soft to the feel.
_Cause._ Over-eating; or food turning sour in the crop.
_Treatment._ Hold bird downwards and squeeze contents of crop through
mouth, taking care not to suffocate the patient. Repeat treatment if
necessary. Put on low diet for some time, feeding slowly and sparingly.
TICKS
_A pest found in the Southern States and tropical countries_
_Symptoms._ The fowl has fever, appears depressed, and stands in a
cramped position.
[Illustration: FIG. 23. THE FOWL TICK
_a._ Adult.
_b._ Larva.]
_Cause._ The fowl tick (_Argas minatus_), which hides during the day in
cracks and crevices, sucks the fowl’s blood at night and introduces a
fever-producing parasite.
_Remedies._ Examine sick birds during the day, and visit the roosts
at night, for proof of the presence of ticks; carefully search under
perches, in nests, and in corners of woodwork, etc. Spray woodwork
with 5% creolin; squirt kerosene oil, or turpentine, into cracks and
crevices.
TUBERCULOSIS
_A very serious poultry disease_
_Symptoms._ This disease may be present in a poultry yard for some time
without being detected. Suspicion should be aroused if birds gradually
lose weight and die. If a bird that has gradually been getting thinner,
goes lame, or loses the use of a wing, without apparent injury, the
evidence that tuberculosis is present is strong, but positive proof
of its presence can be obtained only by post-mortem and microscopic
examination. This disease generally attacks adult birds.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.—ORGANS AFFECTED BY TUBERCULOSIS AND BLACKHEAD
_a._ Normal spleen.
_b._ Tubercular spleen.
_c._ Portion of tubercular liver.
_d._ Blackhead liver of turkey for comparison with _c_.
_a_ and _b_ after Edwards.]
_Cause._ The specific organism causing this disease, known as the
_Bacillus tuberculosis_ (Fig. 5), infects the liver (Fig. 24), the
spleen (Fig. 24), and other organs, least frequently the lungs. The
disease may be introduced into a flock by the purchase of an infected
bird, and may be spread by uninfected birds picking up the excrement of
diseased birds with their food.
_Treatment._ There is no known cure. The insidious manner in which
this disease advances through a poultry yard makes it a very serious
malady. Birds suffering from it should be killed and burnt. Thorough
disinfection of coops, etc., should be made. Strict attention to
sanitation will help in preventing and controlling this disease. If
many birds in a flock are believed to have tuberculosis, it would be
well to destroy the whole flock and start again, preferably on fresh
ground.
WHITE DIARRHEA OF CHICKENS
_A very serious disease, causing the death of large numbers_
_Symptoms._ Chickens are generally attacked when 10 to 15 days old.
They appear listless, their feathers become rough, and they stand about
with drooping wings. A white diarrhea is soon noticed. Chicken after
chicken shows similar symptoms and dies, resulting in much loss and
discouragement to the poultry rearer.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.—CHICKENS AFFECTED WITH WHITE DIARRHEA
Ten-day White Leghorn chickens showing symptoms of bacillary white
diarrhea. (After Rettger & Stoneburn.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 26.—HEALTHY CHICKENS
Normal ten-day White Leghorn chickens. (After Rettger & Stoneburn.)]
_Cause._ Various causes, such as improper or stale food, may upset the
chicken’s digestive organs and give rise to a whitish diarrhea, but
the term “white diarrhea” is best restricted to a contagious form of
diarrhea due to minute parasites in the intestinal tracts of chickens.
A coccidium and a bacillus have been proved by different investigators
to cause very similar forms of white diarrhea. A distinct form of white
diarrhea, known as brooder pneumonia, is described on page 35.
_Treatment._ This disease is a very difficult one to control.
Incubators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected. Special care
should be taken in the feeding during the first few weeks. Chickens
should not be overfed. The feeding of dry bran is recommended, as it
tends to keep the bowels in a healthy, active condition. In the form
of white diarrhea due to a bacillus, suspicion rests on the hen and
the egg as sources of infection. When the disease becomes serious, and
general sanitation and proper care of chickens do not control it, the
advisability of obtaining the eggs for hatching from a poultry farm
free of white diarrhea should be considered.
WORMS
_Intestinal parasites that occasionally become serious_
_Symptoms._ General debility; worms or segments of worms; seen in
the droppings. If there is doubt as to whether a flock is suffering
from worms, give a suspected bird a strong purgative and keep it up so
that the feces may be examined for worms. If doubt still exists, the
suspected bird should be killed and a post-mortem examination made.
Cut the intestines open lengthways (see Fig. 34) with a small pair
of scissors and wash them out with water so as to detect the smaller
worms, and the tapeworms attached to the lining of the intestines.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.—WORMS IN INTESTINAL TRACT OF FOWL
(After Bradshaw. From Pearl, Surface & Curtis.)]
_Cause._ Two classes of worms are commonly parasitic on fowls—round
worms (see Fig. 27) and tapeworms. There are generally a few specimens
of worms in the intestines of fowls; but only when the numbers are
large do worms affect the health of the fowl.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.—THE PARTS OF A FOWL]
[Illustration: FIG. 29.—SKELETON OF A FOWL]
_Treatment._ Every bird suspected of having worms may be tested with
a purgative as suggested above. Or, if it is established that several
birds in a flock are suffering from worms, all in poor condition,
without any cause being apparent, should be dosed with santonin—three
to five grains in the morning before any food has been picked up. After
about two hours give a purgative of two teaspoonfuls of castor oil and
soon after let the fowl have its morning food. As important as dosing
the fowls, is disinfecting the feed troughs, the water vessels, and the
soil of the runs in order to prevent re-infection.
_Nodular tæniasis._ Small nodules on the intestines, resembling the
nodules in tuberculosis, are sometimes caused by tapeworms. The name
“nodular tæniasis” has been given to this disease.
CHAPTER V
POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS
_1. Making the Examination_
A post-mortem examination should always be undertaken if there is any
doubt as to the cause of death. Poultry rearers who are not already
familiar with the normal appearance of the internal organs of a fowl
should take the first opportunity of studying them.
Post-mortem examinations should be done in a systematic manner; but, if
desired, a very speedy examination may be made by rapidly removing, or
bending back, the breast bone of the unplucked bird.
It will be more generally satisfactory, however, to devote time to the
operation, and it is suggested that the work be carried out on the
following lines:
1. Nail the body of the dead fowl on a board in the position shown
in Fig. 30, having first partly or wholly plucked the bird.
[Illustration: FIG. 30.—POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION NO. 1
Fowl nailed on board; lines A B, A C and B D show where to cut.]
2. With a sharp knife cut along lines AC, BD (Fig. 30), and bend the
breast bone backwards, exposing the internal organs. (Fig. 31.) As
the breast bone is raised it will be necessary to cut through the
mesentery and other connecting tissues. Break it back at D, cutting
through the flesh and the muscle with sharp scissors.
3. Remove heart, liver, gall-bladder and spleen, making neat
severances and without injury to any of the other organs. If the heart
or large blood vessels be injured in the operation, blood will flow
out and interfere with the work.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.—POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION NO. 2
Breast bone removed; internal organs in situ.]
4. Cut through the œsophagus, below or above the crop, as most
convenient, and also cut through the large intestine near the
cloaca. Without disconnecting the parts, lift out the gizzard,
intestines, and other portions of the alimentary canal, carefully
tearing away the membranous tissues of the mesentery.
5. Spread the organs out and examine each one carefully and
critically, making sections if necessary. (Fig. 32.)
6. Cut open gullet, crop, stomach, gizzard, intestines, and cæca and
examine the contents.
7. Examine the lungs, cutting off a portion and throwing it into
water, when it will float if healthy, but sink if congested.
8. Cut through the skin of the neck. Sever the windpipe near the head,
and also where the bronchi enter the lungs. With scissors cut it open,
and examine for molds or gapes or for exudates indicative of various
forms of cold or lung congestion.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.—POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION NO. 3
Internal organs removed for examination.]
9. Examine the brain (Fig. 34) for blood clots. Some care will be
necessary in cutting through the skull so as not to injure the brain
tissue, which should be a milky white. A sharp and strong pair of
scissors or a small, fine saw (e. g., tenon saw) will be useful for
older birds. Remove the skin and cut from behind, raising the bones
and exposing the brain.
_2. The Normal Condition of the Internal Organs_
(See Fig. 32.)
The _œsophagus_ carries the food from the mouth and passing down the
neck beside the windpipe opens into—
The _crop_, where the food is macerated. Thence it gradually passes
into—
The _true stomach_ (or proventriculus), which is lined with small
gastric-secreting glands that may be seen with the naked eye. This
organ is hidden by the liver, and opens directly into—
[Illustration: FIG. 33.—POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION NO. 4
Lungs, kidneys, etc., in situ.]
The _gizzard_, situated on the left side of the abdomen. It rests on
the coiled-up mass of intestines. It is dark red and is partly hidden
by the left lobe of the liver. The walls are strong and muscular. Here
the food is ground against small bits of stone, etc. The partially
digested food passes out through an aperture near the entrance of the
true stomach into—
The _duodenum_ or upper portion of the small intestine. It forms a loop
that incloses—
The _pancreas_, a compact, flattened organ, pinkish in color, that
discharges its secretion by three ducts into the intestines.
The _small intestine_, after forming the loop (duodenum), continues its
course. It first passes toward the left and is disposed in many folds
connected by the mesentery; toward the end it passes up behind the true
stomach. Connected to the intestines are the blind bodies known as—
The _cæca_, connected to the small intestines for several inches and
which, after becoming considerably smaller in diameter, enter the
alimentary tract where—
The _large intestine_ (rectum) starts. This portion of the intestines
is short and enters—
The _cloaca_, into which the urinary and reproductive ducts discharge.
The external opening is known as the _vent_ or _anus_.
The _brain_, situated in the back of the head, is protected by the
cranial bones. It is milky white except where the blood vessels may be
seen.
The _windpipe_ connects the larynx at the throat with the lungs
branching into the two _bronchi_.
The _lungs_, situated in the upper portion of the thoracic abdominal
cavity, are firmly attached to the ribs, in the interspaces between
which they fit. They are flattened and oval in shape, bright red in
color, and loose and spongy in texture.
The _heart_ is cone-shaped. The lower portion rests between the
lobes of the liver. The heart is red and is inclosed in a sac (the
pericardium) that is easily removed.
The _liver_, situated a little lower down than the heart, consists
of two lobes. The right lobe is often larger than the left which may
be cleft at the lower end. The left lobe covers the true stomach and
part of the gizzard. If there is some delay in holding a post-mortem
examination the edges of the lobes of the liver become discolored.
Normally the color is a purplish red.
The _gall bladder_ fits into a shallow depression on the underside of
the right lobe of the liver and appears green in color. A duct conveys
the bile from the liver into the gall bladder, whence it passes by
another duct into the intestine.
The _spleen_, a nearly round, reddish body, with a purplish tinge, is
attached by a ligament to the right side of the true stomach and is
hidden by the liver.
The _kidneys_ extend along the sides of the spine from immediately
below the lungs to near the termination of the abdominal cavity. The
general color is a chocolate red, but a small portion at the upper end
(known as the adrenal), is yellow. There is no urinary bladder. The
urates are carried direct through the _ureters_ to the cloaca.
The _testes_ (of the male bird) are attached to the upper portion
of the kidneys. They are white or very light-colored, and may be of
different sizes.
The _ovary_ (of the female bird), situated on the left side, covers the
kidney on that side. It consists of numerous ova of various sizes
each of which may develop into an egg. As an ovum passes through the
oviduct it is first coated with an albuminous covering (the white of
egg); lower down it is coated with a calcareous deposit that forms the
shell of the egg. (Fig. 18.)
[Illustration: FIG. 34.—POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION NO. 5
Examination of brain and of portions of intestines and windpipe.]
_3. Diagnosis of Disease by Post-Mortem Symptoms_
For purposes of diagnosis each organ must be examined. Note in each
case if it is enlarged, spotted, ruptured, inflamed or engorged with
blood. Observe if it is an unusual color or if it possesses any other
symptom of an abnormal character.
A single symptom in a single organ, unless very pronounced and
characteristic, will not be sufficient evidence for forming an accurate
opinion as to the cause of death. But if the condition of the other
organs and the symptoms before and attending death are taken into
consideration, there will seldom be any difficulty, from a practical
standpoint, in deciding upon the nature of the disease. Many points
can be decided only by a pathologist with the aid of a microscope,
such, for example, as the difference between coccidial and bacterial
diarrhea, but it is quite enough for the poultryman to realize that one
of his fowls has died of an attack of an acute form of diarrhea and
that the rest of his birds may become infected.
The following notes draw attention to the main diagnostic symptoms
observable on post-mortem examination, arranged under the heading of
the organs affected. Other symptoms are put in parentheses.
POST-MORTEM SYMPTOMS
BRAIN
_Apoplexy._—Shown by congestion of blood vessels of brain. (Staggering
gait and sudden death.)
HEART
_Cholera._—Punctiform hemorrhages are generally found in the heart in
cases of cholera. (Yellow feces; diarrhea; sudden death of several or
many fowls; inflammation of upper portion of intestines.)
LIVER
_Tuberculosis._—Yellowish-white spots on liver varying in size,
somewhat _raised_ and convex; the spots or nodules may be readily
separated from the rest of the liver. The liver itself is often very
much enlarged. (Fowl gradually loses weight and may go lame; mesentery
and spleen affected with nodules.)
_Cholera._—Liver enlarged, dark green and softened, sometimes showing
whitish spots.
_Coccidial diarrhea._—More or less circular patches, depressed in the
centre, associated with plugged cæca, the linings of which have sores.
_Congested liver._—Much enlarged and engorged with blood, may be
readily torn.
_Fatty degeneration or fatty liver._—In the first case the liver is
rather shrunken and hardened, and in the latter excessive deposits of
fat may be noticed.
_Liver trouble._—(Indigestion.) An enlarged liver without any of the
special symptoms noted among the other diseases of the liver.
_Gout._—Needle-like crystals (urate of soda) give the liver the
appearance of having been covered with chalk. (Other organs in
abdominal cavity covered with same powder-like crystals.)
_Aspergillosis._—Necrotic areas with mold. (Fowls go light and move
about in a depressed manner, resting on their breast bones.)
STOMACH
_Gastritis._—The mucous membrane lining of the stomach is reddened and
inflamed.
INTESTINES
_Diarrhea._—Acute forms of intestinal troubles give rise to
inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the walls of the intestines.
_Cholera._—The upper portion of the intestines may be reddened and the
contents show streaks or clots of blood.
_Worms._—Round or tape worms present in intestines.
CÆCA
These blind ducts are of importance in showing the presence of
coccidiosis in fowls or blackhead in turkeys.
_Coccidial diarrhea._—The cæca are enlarged and show ulcers developing
from the inside.
WINDPIPE
The linings of this organ should be clean and free of obstruction or
mucous exudations.
_Gapes._—Small worms about three-quarters of an inch long are found
attached to the trachea.
_Aspergillosis._—A whitish mold will be seen along the inside of the
windpipe.
_Pneumonia._—The bronchial tubes contain a thick mucous exudate.
_Congestion of lungs._—Blood escaped from congested lungs is found in
the bronchi.
LUNGS
These should be a bright red and spongy in texture.
_Congestion._—One or both lungs are distended with blood and dark in
color.
_Pneumonia._—A condition that follows on congestion, the whole lung
affected losing its spongy texture, the air spaces being filled with a
semi-solid substance.
_Brooder pneumonia._—Spots due to an Aspergillus fungus on lungs.
(Chickens attacked.)
MESENTERY
_Cholera._—Congestion of blood vessels of mesentery often seen.
_Tuberculosis._—The mesentery may be studded with nodules.
SPLEEN
_Tuberculosis._—A greatly enlarged spleen.
_Enteritis._—(Bacterial.) Spleen enlarged but paler in color.
URETERS
_Cholera._—Ureters distended with yellow urates.
INDEX
PAGE
Abscesses 26
Abnormal eggs (see Oviduct diseases) 77
Aconite 9
Air under skin (see Emphysema) 54
Air sac mite (see Mites, air sac) 73
Anæmia 27
Apoplexy 28
Aspergillosis 29
Atrophy of liver (see Liver diseases) 70
Bacterial enteritis (see Diarrhea) 48
Baldness (see Favus) 56
Biliary repletion (see Jaundice) 65
Blackhead of turkeys 30
Brandy 9
Breakdown 33
Broken limbs (see Fractures) 58
Bronchitis 34
Brooder pneumonia 35
Bumblefoot 36
Calomel 9
Cancer (see Liver diseases and Ovary diseases) 72, 76
Canker (see Diphtheria) 49
Carbolic acid 9
Castor oil 9
Catarrh (see Cold) 43
Catarrh, contagious (see Roup) 83
Catarrh of crop 37
Catarrh of stomach (see Gastritis) 62
Chicken pox 38
Chlorodyne 9
Cholera 39
Cloacitis 41
Coccidiosis of adult fowls 42
Coccidiosis of chickens (see Brooder pneumonia) 35
Coccidiosis of turkeys (see Blackhead) 30
Cold 43
Congestion of the liver (see Liver diseases) 70
Congestion of the Lungs (see Pneumonia) 79
Conjunctivitis (see Roup) 83
Constipation 44
Cramp 45
Creolin 9
Crop-bound 46
Crop, soft 89
Crop, catarrh of 37
Depluming mite 74
Diarrhea, bacterial 48
Diarrhea, mycotic 48
Diarrhea, protozoan 48
Diarrhea, mild 47
Diarrhea, severe 48
Diarrhea, white 47
Diphtheria 49
Diphtheritic roup 49
Disinfection 10
Dislocations (see Fractures) 58
Doses 9
Dropsy 52
Drugs 9
Ducks 20
Dysentery 52
Egg-bound 53
Egg-eating 54
Emphysema 54
Enlargement of heart (see Heart, diseases of) 64
Enlargement of liver (see Liver diseases) 70
Enlargement of kidneys (see Kidney diseases) 66
Enteritis (see Diarrhea) 46
Entero-hepatitis (see Blackhead) 30
Epilepsy 55
Epsom salts 9
Fatty degeneration 56
Favus 56
Feather-eating 57
Fits (see Epilepsy) 55
Fleas 58
Fowl typhoid 41
Fractures 58
Frost bite 59
Gangrenous ovary (see Ovary diseases) 76
Gapes 60
Gastritis 62
Geese 21
Going light (see Anæmia) 27
Gout 63
Grippe (see Cold) 43
Guinea fowls 21
Heart, diseases of 63
Heart, dropsy of 64
Heart, enlargement of 64
Heart, rupture 64
Hydrogen peroxide 9
Hypertrophy of the liver (see Liver diseases) 70
Impaction of crop (see Crop-bound) 46
Indigestion 64
Influenza (see Cold) 43
Iodine 9
Jaundice 65
Kidney diseases 65
Leg weakness 66
Leukemia (see Cholera) 39
Lice 66
Limber-neck 69
Liver diseases 70
Lungs, congestion of (see Pneumonia) 79
Maggots 72
Medicines 9
Mites, air sac 73
Mites, depluming 74
Mites, red 75
Mites, scaly leg (see Scaly leg) 88
Molting 75
Nodular tæniasis (see Worms) 97
Nursing fowls 5
Ointment 9
Ovary diseases 76
Oviduct diseases 77
Peritonitis 77
Permanganate of potash 9
Pigeons 21
Pip 79
Pneumonia 79
Poisoning 80
Post-mortem examination 99
Prolapse of oviduct (see Oviduct diseases) 77
Puffed skin (see Emphysema) 54
Pyæmia 82
Quinine 9
Rheumatism 83
Roup 83
Scabies (see Mites, depluming) 74
Scaly leg 88
Soft crop 89
Sore head (see Chicken pox) 38
Sulphur ointment 9
Ticks 90
Tuberculosis 90
Turkeys 20
Turpentine 9
Vertigo (see Apoplexy) 28
Water 11
White comb (see Favus) 56
White diarrhea of chickens 92
Worms 94
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discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seeds or roots,
soil, climate and location, preparation, planting and maintenance of
the beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for
market and for improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that
may be expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely
illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow
this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable
industry to their farms and gardens, without interfering with the
regular work. New edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 5 × 7
inches. Cloth. $0.50
Landscape Gardening
By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture, university of Vermont.
A treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with
sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of
gardening. Every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving
perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the
natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter
is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated.
152 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth $0.50
Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences
By E. P. POWELL. A treatise on the planting, growth and management
of hedge plants for country and suburban homes. It gives accurate
directions concerning hedges; how to plant and how to treat them; and
especially concerning windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole
art of making a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and
balconies, for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140
pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50
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