| By Author | [ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z | Other Symbols ] |
| By Title | [ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z | Other Symbols ] |
| By Language |
|
Download this book: [ ASCII ] Look for this book on Amazon Tweet |
Title: The passing of the great race,: or, The racial basis of European history
Author: Grant, Madison
Language: English
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.
*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The passing of the great race,: or, The racial basis of European history" ***
This book is indexed by ISYS Web Indexing system to allow the reader find any word or number within the document.
RACE, ***
THE PASSING OF THE GREAT RACE
THE RACIAL BASIS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY
BY
MADISON GRANT
CHAIRMAN, NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY; TRUSTEE, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY; COUNCILOR, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
_FOURTH REVISED EDITION
WITH A DOCUMENTARY SUPPLEMENT_
WITH PREFACES
BY
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN
RESEARCH PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1923
COPYRIGHT, 1916, 1918, 1921, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
Printed in the United States of America
Published October, 1916
Reprinted December, 1916
NEW AND REVISED EDITION
Published March, 1918
Reprinted March, 1919
THIRD EDITION, REVISED
Published May, 1920
FOURTH EDITION, REVISED
Published August, 1921
Reprinted February, July, 1922
February, September, 1923
[Illustration]
To
MY FATHER
PREFACE
European history has been written in terms of nationality and of
language, but never before in terms of race; yet race has played a far
larger part than either language or nationality in moulding the
destinies of men; race implies heredity and heredity implies all the
moral, social and intellectual characteristics and traits which are the
springs of politics and government.
Quite independently and unconsciously the author, never before a
historian, has turned this historical sketch into the current of a great
biological movement, which may be traced back to the teachings of Galton
and Weismann, beginning in the last third of the nineteenth century.
This movement has compelled us to recognize the superior force and
stability of heredity, as being more enduring and potent than
environment. This movement is also a reaction from the teachings of
Hippolyte Taine among historians and of Herbert Spencer among
biologists, because it proves that environment and in the case of man,
education, have an immediate, apparent and temporary influence, while
heredity has a deep, subtle and permanent influence on the actions of
men.
Thus the racial history of Europe, which forms the author’s main outline
and subject and which is wholly original in treatment, might be
paraphrased as the heredity history of Europe. It is history as
influenced by the hereditary impulses, predispositions and tendencies
which, as highly distinctive racial traits, date back many thousands of
years and were originally formed when man was still in the tribal state,
long before the advent of civilization.
In the author’s opening chapters these traits and tendencies are
commented upon as they are observed to-day under the varying influences
of migration and changes of social and physical environment. In the
chapters relating to the racial history of Europe we enter a new and
fascinating field of study, which I trust the author himself may some
day expand into a longer story. There is no gainsaying that this is the
correct scientific method of approaching the problem of the past.
The moral tendency of the heredity interpretation of history is for our
day and generation and is in strong accord with the true spirit of the
modern eugenics movement in relation to patriotism, namely, the
conservation and multiplication for our country of the best spiritual,
moral, intellectual and physical forces of heredity; thus only will the
integrity of our institutions be maintained in the future. These divine
forces are more or less sporadically distributed in all races, some of
them are found in what we call the lowest races, some are scattered
widely throughout humanity, but they are certainly more widely and
uniformly distributed in some races than in others.
Thus conservation of that race which has given us the true spirit of
Americanism is not a matter either of racial pride or of racial
prejudice; it is a matter of love of country, of a true sentiment which
is based upon knowledge and the lessons of history rather than upon the
sentimentalism which is fostered by ignorance. If I were asked: What is
the greatest danger which threatens the American republic to-day? I
would certainly reply: The gradual dying out among our people of those
hereditary traits through which the principles of our religious,
political and social foundations were laid down and their insidious
replacement by traits of less noble character.
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.
July 13, 1916.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
History is repeating itself in America at the present time and
incidentally is giving a convincing demonstration of the central thought
in this volume, namely, that heredity and racial predisposition are
stronger and more stable than environment and education.
Whatever may be its intellectual, its literary, its artistic or its
musical aptitudes, as compared with other races, the Anglo-Saxon branch
of the Nordic race is again showing itself to be that upon which the
nation must chiefly depend for leadership, for courage, for loyalty, for
unity and harmony of action, for self-sacrifice and devotion to an
ideal. Not that members of other races are not doing their part, many of
them are, but in no other human stock which has come to this country is
there displayed the unanimity of heart, mind and action which is now
being displayed by the descendants of the blue eyed, fair-haired peoples
of the north of Europe. In a recent journey in northern California and
Oregon I noted that, in the faces of the regiments which were first to
leave for the city of New York and later that, in the wonderful array of
young men at Plattsburg, the Anglo-Saxon type was clearly dominant over
every other and the purest members of this type largely outnumbered the
others. In northern California I saw a great regiment detrain and with
one or two exceptions they were all native Americans, descendants of the
English, Scotch and north of Ireland men who founded the State of Oregon
in the first half of the nineteenth century. At Plattsburg fair hair and
blue eyes were very noticeable, much more so than in any ordinary crowds
of American collegians as seen assembled in our universities.
It should be remembered also that many of the dark-haired, dark-eyed
youths of Plattsburg and other volunteer training camps are often
three-fourths or seven-eighths Nordic, because it only requires a single
dark-eyed ancestor to lend the dark hair and eye color to an otherwise
pure Nordic strain. There is a clear differentiation between the
original Nordic, the Alpine and the Mediterranean strains; but where
physical characters and characteristics are partly combined in a mosaic,
and to a less degree are blended, it requires long experience to judge
which strain dominates.
With a race having these predispositions, extending back to the very
beginnings of European history, there is no hesitation or even waiting
for conscription and the sad thought was continually in my mind in
California, in Oregon and in Plattsburg that again this race was
passing, that this war will take a very heavy toll of this strain of
Anglo-Saxon life which has played so large a part in American history.
War is in the highest sense dysgenic rather than eugenic. It is
destructive of the best strains, spiritually, morally and physically.
For the world’s future the destruction of wealth is a small matter
compared with the destruction of the best human strains, for wealth can
be renewed while these strains of the real human aristocracy once lost
are lost forever. In the new world that we are working and fighting for,
the world of liberty, of justice and of humanity, we shall save
democracy only when democracy discovers its own aristocracy as in the
days when our Republic was founded.
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.
December, 1917.
CONTENTS
_PART I_
RACE, LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY
PAGE
I. RACE AND DEMOCRACY 3
II. THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF RACE 13
III. RACE AND HABITAT 37
IV. THE COMPETITION OF RACES 46
V. RACE, LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY 56
VI. RACE AND LANGUAGE 69
VII. THE EUROPEAN RACES IN COLONIES 76
_PART II_
EUROPEAN RACES IN HISTORY
I. EOLITHIC MAN 97
II. PALEOLITHIC MAN 104
III. THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGES 119
IV. THE ALPINE RACE 134
V. THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE 148
VI. THE NORDIC RACE 167
VII. TEUTONIC EUROPE 179
VIII. THE EXPANSION OF THE NORDICS 188
IX. THE NORDIC FATHERLAND 213
X. THE NORDIC RACE OUTSIDE OF EUROPE 223
XI. RACIAL APTITUDES 226
XII. ARYA 233
XIII. ORIGIN OF THE ARYAN LANGUAGES 242
XIV. THE ARYAN LANGUAGE IN ASIA 253
APPENDIX WITH COLORED MAPS 265
DOCUMENTARY SUPPLEMENT 275
BIBLIOGRAPHY 415
INDEX 445
CHARTS AND MAPS
CHARTS
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE _Pages_ 132–133
CLASSIFICATION OF THE RACES OF EUROPE _Facing page_ 123
PROVISIONAL OUTLINE OF NORDIC INVASIONS AND METAL
CULTURES _Facing page_ 191
MAPS
MAXIMUM EXPANSION OF ALPINES WITH BRONZE CULTURE,
3000–1800 B. C. _Facing page_ 266
EXPANSION OF THE PRE-TEUTONIC NORDICS, 1800–100 B. C. _Facing page_ 268
EXPANSION OF THE TEUTONIC NORDICS AND SLAVIC ALPINES,
100 B. C.–1100 A. D. _Facing page_ 270
PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN RACES _Facing page_ 272
INTRODUCTION
The following pages are devoted to an attempt to elucidate the meaning
of history in terms of race; that is, by the physical and psychical
characters of the inhabitants of Europe instead of by their political
grouping or by their spoken language. Practically all historians, while
using the word race, have relied on tribal or national names as its sole
definition. The ancients, like the moderns, in determining ethnical
origin did not look beyond a man’s name, language or country and the
actual information furnished by classic literature on the subject of
physical characters is limited to a few scattered and often obscure
remarks.
Modern anthropology has demonstrated that racial lines are not only
absolutely independent of both national and linguistic groupings, but
that in many cases these racial lines cut through them at sharp angles
and correspond closely with the divisions of social cleavage. The great
lesson of the science of race is the immutability of somatological or
bodily characters, with which is closely associated the immutability of
psychical predispositions and impulses. This continuity of inheritance
has a most important bearing on the theory of democracy and still more
upon that of socialism, for it naturally tends to reduce the relative
importance of environment. Those engaged in social uplift and in
revolutionary movements are therefore usually very intolerant of the
limitations imposed by heredity. Discussion of these limitations is also
most offensive to the advocates of the obliteration, under the guise of
internationalism, of all existing distinctions based on nationality,
language, race, religion and class. Those individuals who have neither
country, nor flag, nor language, nor class, nor even surnames of their
own and who can only acquire them by gift or assumption, very naturally
decry and sneer at the value of these attributes of the higher types.
Democratic theories of government in their modern form are based on
dogmas of equality formulated some hundred and fifty years ago and rest
upon the assumption that environment and not heredity is the controlling
factor in human development. Philanthropy and noble purpose dictated the
doctrine expressed in the Declaration of Independence, the document
which to-day constitutes the actual basis of American institutions. The
men who wrote the words, “we hold these truths to be self-evident, that
all men are created equal,” were themselves the owners of slaves and
despised Indians as something less than human. Equality in their minds
meant merely that they were just as good Englishmen as their brothers
across the sea. The words “that all men are created equal” have since
been subtly falsified by adding the word “free,” although no such
expression is found in the original document and the teachings based on
these altered words in the American public schools of to-day would
startle and amaze the men who formulated the Declaration.
It will be necessary for the reader to divest his mind of all
preconceptions as to race, since modern anthropology, when applied to
history, involves an entire change of definition. We must, first of all,
realize that race pure and simple, the physical and psychical structure
of man, is something entirely distinct from either nationality or
language. Furthermore, race lies at the base of all the manifestation of
modern society, just as it has done throughout the unrecorded eons of
the past and the laws of nature operate with the same relentless and
unchanging force in human affairs as in the phenomena of inanimate
nature.
The antiquity of existing European populations, viewed in the light
thrown upon their origins by the discoveries of the last few decades,
enables us to carry back history and prehistory into periods so remote
that the classic world is but of yesterday. The living peoples of Europe
consist of layer upon layer of diverse racial elements in varying
proportions and historians and anthropologists, while studying these
populations, have been concerned chiefly with the recent strata and have
neglected the more ancient and submerged types.
Aboriginal populations from time immemorial have been again and again
swamped under floods of newcomers and have disappeared for a time from
historic view. In the course of centuries, however, these primitive
elements have slowly reasserted their physical type and have gradually
bred out their conquerors, so that the racial history of Europe has been
in the past, and is to-day, a story of the repression and resurgence of
ancient races.
Invasions of new races have ordinarily arrived in successive waves, the
earlier ones being quickly absorbed by the conquered, while the later
arrivals usually maintain longer the purity of their type. Consequently
the more recent elements are found in a less mixed state than the older
and the more primitive strata of the population always contain physical
traits derived from still more ancient predecessors.
Man has inhabited Europe in some form or other for hundreds of thousands
of years and during all this lapse of time the population has been as
dense as the food supply permitted. Tribes in the hunting stage are
necessarily of small size, no matter how abundant the game and in the
Paleolithic period man probably existed only in specially favorable
localities and in relatively small communities.
In the Neolithic and Bronze periods domesticated animals and the
knowledge of agriculture, although of primitive character, afforded an
enlarged food supply and the population in consequence greatly
increased. The lake dwellers of the Neolithic were, for example,
relatively numerous. With the clearing of the forests and the draining
of the swamps during the Middle Ages and, above all, with the industrial
expansion of the last century the population multiplied with great
rapidity. We can, of course, form little or no estimate of the numbers
of the Paleolithic population of Europe and not much more of those of
Neolithic times, but even the latter must have been very small in
comparison with the census of to-day.
Some conception of the growth of population in recent times may be based
on the increase in England. It has been computed that Saxon England at
the time of the Conquest contained about 1,500,000 inhabitants, at the
time of Queen Elizabeth the population was about 4,000,000, while in
1911 the census gave for the same area some 35,000,000.
The immense range of the subject of race in connection with history from
its nebulous dawn and the limitations of space, require that
generalizations must often be stated without mention of exceptions.
These sweeping statements may even appear to be too bold, but they rest,
to the best of the writer’s belief, upon solid foundations of facts or
else are legitimate conclusions from evidence now in hand. In a science
as recent as modern anthropology, new facts are constantly revealed and
require the modification of existing hypotheses. The more the subject is
studied, the more provisional even the best-sustained theory appears,
but modern research opens a vista of vast interest and significance to
man, now that we have discarded the shackles of former false viewpoints
and are able to discern, even though dimly, the solution of many of the
problems of race. In the future new data will inevitably expand and
perhaps change our ideas, but such facts as are now in hand and the
conclusions based thereupon are provisionally set forth in the following
chapters and necessarily often in a dogmatic form.
The statements relating to time have presented the greatest difficulty,
as the authorities differ widely, but the dates have been fixed with
extreme conservatism and the writer believes that whatever changes in
them are hereafter required by further investigation and study, will
result in pushing them back and not forward in prehistory. The dates
given in the chapter on “Paleolithic Man” are frankly taken from the
most recent authority on this subject, “The Men of the Old Stone Age,”
by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn and the writer desires to take this
opportunity to acknowledge his great indebtedness to this source of
information, as well as to Mr. M. Taylor Pyne and to Mr. Charles Stewart
Davison for their assistance and many helpful suggestions.
The author also wishes to acknowledge his obligation to Prof. William Z.
Ripley’s “The Races of Europe,” which contains a large array of
anthropological measurements, maps and type portraits, providing
valuable data for the present distribution of the three primary races of
Europe.
The American Geographical Society and its staff, particularly Mr. Leon
Dominian, have also been of great help in the preparation of the maps
herein contained and this occasion is taken by the writer to express his
appreciation for their assistance.
INTRODUCTION TO THE FOURTH REVISED EDITION
The addition of a Documentary Supplement to the latest revision of this
book has been made in response to a persistent demand for “authorities.”
The author has endeavored to make the references and quotations in this
Supplement very full and, so far as possible, interesting in themselves
as well as entirely distinct from the text, which stands substantially
unchanged, and the authorities quoted are not necessarily the sources of
the views herein expressed but more often are given in support of them.
The contents of the book, since its first appearance, have had the
advantage of the criticism of virtually every anthropologist in America
and in England, France and Italy—many of whom have furnished the author
with valuable corroborative material. Some of this material appears in
the notes, but accessible authorities and the classical writers have
been given the more prominent place. The supplement covered, as first
prepared, substantially every statement in the book, but much was
afterward omitted because it would seem that some things could be taken
without proof.
“The Passing of the Great Race,” in its original form, was designed by
the author to rouse his fellow-Americans to the overwhelming importance
of race and to the folly of the “Melting Pot” theory, even at the
expense of bitter controversy. This purpose has been accomplished
thoroughly, and one of the most far-reaching effects of the doctrines
enunciated in this volume and in the discussions that followed its
publication was the decision of the Congress of the United States to
adopt discriminatory and restrictive measures against the immigration of
undesirable races and peoples.
Another of the results has been the publication in America and Europe of
a series of books and articles more or less anthropological in character
which have sustained or controverted its main theme. The new definition
of race and the controlling rôle played by race in all the
manifestations of what we call civilization are now generally accepted
even by those whose political position depends upon popular favor.
It was to be expected that there would be bitter opposition to those
definitions of race which are based on physical and psychical characters
that are immutable, rather than upon those derived from language or
political allegiance, that are easily altered.
To admit the unchangeable differentiation of race in its modern
scientific meaning is to admit inevitably the existence of superiority
in one race and of inferiority in another. Such an admission we can
hardly expect from those of inferior races. These inferior races and
classes are prompt to recognize in such an admission the very real
danger to themselves of being relegated again to their former obscurity
and subordinate position in society. The favorite defense of these
inferior classes is an unqualified denial of the existence of fixed
inherited qualities, either physical or spiritual, which cannot be
obliterated or greatly modified by a change of environment. Failing in
this, as they must necessarily fail, they point out the presence of
mixed or intermediate types, and claim that in these mixtures, or blends
as they choose to call them, the higher type tends to predominate. In
fact, of course, the exact opposite is the case and it is scarcely
necessary to cite the universal distrust, often contempt, that the
half-breed between two sharply contrasted races inspires the world over.
Belonging physically and spiritually to the lower race, but aspiring to
recognition as one of the higher race, the unfortunate mongrel, in
addition to a disharmonic physique, often inherits from one parent an
unstable brain which is stimulated and at times overexcited by flashes
of brilliancy from the other. The result is a total lack of continuity
of purpose, an intermittent intellect goaded into spasmodic outbursts of
energy. Physical and psychical disharmonies are common among crosses
between Indians, negroes and whites, but where the parents are more
closely related racially we often obtain individuals occupying the
border-land between genius and insanity.
The essential character of all these racial mixtures is a lack of
harmony—both physical and mental—in the first few generations. Then, if
the strain survives, it is by the slow reversion to one of the parent
types—almost inevitably the lower.
The temporary advantage of mere numbers enjoyed by the inferior classes
in modern democracies can only be made permanent by the destruction of
superior types—by massacre, as in Russia, or by taxation, as in England.
In the latter country the financial burdens of the war and the selfish
interests of labor have imposed such a load of taxation upon the upper
and middle classes that marriage and children are becoming increasingly
burdensome.
The best example of complete elimination of a dominant class is in Santo
Domingo. The horrors of the black revolt were followed by the slow death
of the culture of the white man. This history should be studied
carefully because it gives in prophetic form the sequence of events that
we may expect to find in Mexico and in parts of South America where the
replacement of the higher type by the resurgent native is taking place.
In the countries inhabited by a population more or less racially uniform
the phenomenon of the multiplication of the inferior classes fostered
and aided by the noble but fatuous philanthropy of the well-to-do
everywhere appears. Nature’s laws when unchecked maintain a relatively
fixed ratio between the classes, which is greatly impaired in modern
society by humanitarian and charitable activities. The resurgence of
inferior races and classes throughout not merely Europe but the world,
is evident in every despatch from Egypt, Ireland, Poland, Rumania, India
and Mexico. It is called nationalism, patriotism, freedom and other
high-sounding names, but it is everywhere the phenomenon of the
long-suppressed, conquered servile classes rising against the master
race. The late Peloponnesian War in the world at large, like the Civil
War in America, has shattered the prestige of the white race and it will
take several generations and perhaps wars to recover its former control,
if it ever does regain it. The danger is from within and not from
without. Neither the black, nor the brown, nor the yellow, nor the red
will conquer the white in battle. But if the valuable elements in the
Nordic race mix with inferior strains or die out through race suicide,
then the citadel of civilization will fall for mere lack of defenders.
One of the curious effects of democracy is the unquestionable fact that
there is less freedom of the press than under autocratic forms of
government. It is well-nigh impossible to publish in the American
newspapers any reflection upon certain religions or races which are
hysterically sensitive even when mentioned by name. The underlying idea
seems to be that if publication can be suppressed the facts themselves
will ultimately disappear. Abroad, conditions are fully as bad, and we
have the authority of one of the most eminent anthropologists in France
that the collection of anthropological measurements and data among
French recruits at the outbreak of the Great War was prevented by Jewish
influence, which aimed to suppress any suggestion of racial
differentiation in France. In the United States also, during the war, we
were unable to obtain complete measurements and data, in spite of the
self-devotion of certain scientists, like Drs. Davenport, Sullivan and
others. This failure was due to lack of time and equipment and not to
racial influences, but in the near future we may confidently expect in
this country strenuous opposition to any public discussion of race as
such.
The rapidly growing appreciation of the importance of race during the
last few years, the study of the influence of race on nationality as
shown by the after-war disputes over boundaries, the increasing
complexity of our own problems between the whites and blacks, between
the Americans and Japs, and between the native Americans and the
hyphenated aliens in our midst upon whom we have carelessly urged
citizenship, and, above all, the recognition that the leaders of labor
and their more zealous followers are almost all foreigners, have served
to arouse Americans to a realization of the menace of the impending
Migration of Peoples through unrestrained freedom of entry here. The
days of the Civil War and the provincial sentimentalism which governed
or misgoverned our public opinion are past, and this generation must
completely repudiate the proud boast of our fathers that they
acknowledged no distinction in “race, creed, or color,” or else the
native American must turn the page of history and write:
“FINIS AMERICÆ”
THE PASSING OF THE GREAT RACE
_PART I_
RACE, LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY
I
RACE AND DEMOCRACY
Failure to recognize the clear distinction between race and nationality
and the still greater distinction between race and language and the easy
assumption that the one is indicative of the other have been in the past
serious impediments to an understanding of racial values. Historians and
philologists have approached the subject from the viewpoint of
linguistics and as a result we are to-day burdened with a group of
mythical races, such as the Latin, the Aryan, the Indo-Germanic, the
Caucasian and, perhaps, most inconsistent of all, the Celtic race.
Man is an animal differing from his fellow inhabitants of the globe not
in kind but only in degree of development and an intelligent study of
the human species must be preceded by an extended knowledge of other
mammals, especially the primates. Instead of such essential training,
anthropologists often seek to qualify by research in linguistics,
religion or marriage customs or in designs of pottery or blanket
weaving, all of which relate to ethnology alone. As a result the
influence of environment is often overestimated and overstated at the
expense of heredity.
The question of race has been further complicated by the effort of
old-fashioned theologians to cramp all mankind into the scant six
thousand years of Hebrew chronology as expounded by Archbishop Ussher.
Religious teachers have also maintained the proposition not only that
man is something fundamentally distinct from other living creatures, but
that there are no inherited differences in humanity that cannot be
obliterated by education and environment.
It is, therefore, necessary at the outset for the reader to appreciate
thoroughly that race, language and nationality are three separate and
distinct things and that in Europe these three elements are found only
occasionally persisting in combination, as in the Scandinavian nations.
To realize the transitory nature of political boundaries one has but to
consider the changes which have occurred during the past century and as
to language, here in America we hear daily the English language spoken
by many men who possess not one drop of English blood and who, a few
years since, knew not one word of Saxon speech.
As a result of certain religious and social doctrines, now happily
becoming obsolete, race consciousness has been greatly impaired among
civilized nations but in the beginning all differences of class, of
caste and of color marked actual lines of race cleavage.
In many countries the existing classes represent races that were once
distinct. In the city of New York and elsewhere in the United States
there is a native American aristocracy resting upon layer after layer of
immigrants of lower races and these native Americans, while, of course,
disclaiming the distinction of a patrician class and lacking in class
consciousness and class dignity, have, nevertheless, up to this time
supplied the leaders in thought and in the control of capital as well as
of education and of the religious ideals and altruistic bias of the
community.
In the democratic forms of government the operation of universal
suffrage tends toward the selection of the average man for public office
rather than the man qualified by birth, education and integrity. How
this scheme of administration will ultimately work out remains to be
seen but from a racial point of view it will inevitably increase the
preponderance of the lower types and cause a corresponding loss of
efficiency in the community as a whole.
The tendency in a democracy is toward a standardization of type and a
diminution of the influence of genius. A majority must of necessity be
inferior to a picked minority and it always resents specializations in
which it cannot share. In the French Revolution the majority, calling
itself “the people,” deliberately endeavored to destroy the higher type
and something of the same sort was in a measure done after the American
Revolution by the expulsion of the Loyalists and the confiscation of
their lands, with a resultant loss to the growing nation of good race
strains, which were in the next century replaced by immigrants of far
lower type.
In America we have nearly succeeded in destroying the privilege of
birth; that is, the intellectual and moral advantage a man of good stock
brings into the world with him. We are now engaged in destroying the
privilege of wealth; that is, the reward of successful intelligence and
industry and in some quarters there is developing a tendency to attack
the privilege of intellect and to deprive a man of the advantage gained
from an early and thorough classical education. Simplified spelling is a
step in this direction. Ignorance of English grammar or classic learning
must not, forsooth, be held up as a reproach to the political or social
aspirant.
Mankind emerged from savagery and barbarism under the leadership of
selected individuals whose personal prowess, capacity or wisdom gave
them the right to lead and the power to compel obedience. Such leaders
have always been a minute fraction of the whole, but as long as the
tradition of their predominance persisted they were able to use the
brute strength of the unthinking herd as part of their own force and
were able to direct at will the blind dynamic impulse of the slaves,
peasants or lower classes. Such a despot had an enormous power at his
disposal which, if he were benevolent or even intelligent, could be used
and most frequently was used for the general uplift of the race. Even
those rulers who most abused this power put down with merciless rigor
the antisocial elements, such as pirates, brigands or anarchists, which
impair the progress of a community, as disease or wounds cripple an
individual.
True aristocracy or a true republic is government by the wisest and
best, always a small minority in any population. Human society is like a
serpent dragging its long body on the ground, but with the head always
thrust a little in advance and a little elevated above the earth. The
serpent’s tail, in human society represented by the antisocial forces,
was in the past dragged by sheer strength along the path of progress.
Such has been the organization of mankind from the beginning, and such
it still is in older communities than ours. What progress humanity can
make under the control of universal suffrage, or the rule of the
average, may find a further analogy in the habits of certain snakes
which wiggle sideways and disregard the head with its brains and eyes.
Such serpents, however, are not noted for their ability to make rapid
progress.
A true republic, the function of which is administration in the
interests of the whole community—in contrast to a pure democracy, which
in last analysis is the rule of the demos or a majority in its own
interests—should be, and often is, the medium of selection for the
technical task of government of those best qualified by antecedents,
character and education, in short, of experts.
To use another simile, in an aristocratic as distinguished from a
plutocratic or democratic organization the intellectual and talented
classes form the point of the lance while the massive shaft represents
the body of the population and adds by its bulk and weight to the
penetrative impact of the tip. In a democratic system this concentrated
force is dispersed throughout the mass. It supplies, to be sure, a
certain amount of leaven but in the long run the force and genius of the
small minority is dissipated, and its efficiency lost. _Vox populi_, so
far from being _Vox Dei_, thus becomes an unending wail for rights and
never a chant of duty.
Where a conquering race is imposed on another race the institution of
slavery often arises to compel the servient race to work and to
introduce it forcibly to a higher form of civilization. As soon as men
can be induced to labor to supply their own needs slavery becomes
wasteful and tends to vanish. From a material point of view slaves are
often more fortunate than freemen when treated with reasonable humanity
and when their elemental wants of food, clothing and shelter are
supplied.
The Indians around the fur posts in northern Canada were formerly the
virtual bond slaves of the Hudson Bay Company, each Indian and his squaw
and pappoose being adequately supplied with simple food and equipment.
He was protected as well against the white man’s rum as the red man’s
scalping parties and in return gave the Company all his peltries—the
whole product of his year’s work. From an Indian’s point of view this
was nearly an ideal condition but was to all intents serfdom or slavery.
When through the opening up of the country the continuance of such an
archaic system became an impossibility, the Indian sold his furs to the
highest bidder, received a large price in cash and then wasted the
proceeds in trinkets instead of blankets and in rum instead of flour,
with the result that he is now gloriously free but is on the highroad to
becoming a diseased outcast. In this case of the Hudson Bay Indian the
advantages of the upward step from serfdom to freedom are not altogether
clear. A very similar condition of vassalage existed until recently
among the peons of Mexico, but without the compensation of the control
of an intelligent and provident ruling class.
In the same way serfdom in mediæval Europe apparently was a device
through which the landowners repressed the nomadic instinct in their
tenantry which became marked when the fertility of the land declined
after the dissolution of the Roman Empire. Years are required to bring
land to its highest productivity and agriculture cannot be successfully
practised even in well-watered and fertile districts by farmers who
continually drift from one locality to another. The serf or villein was,
therefore, tied by law to the land and could not leave except with his
master’s consent. As soon as the nomadic instinct was eliminated serfdom
vanished. One has but to read the severe laws against vagrancy in
England just before the Reformation to realize how widespread and
serious was this nomadic instinct. Here in America we have not yet
forgotten the wandering instincts of our Western pioneers, which in that
case proved beneficial to every one except the migrants.
While democracy is fatal to progress when two races of unequal value
live side by side, an aristocracy may be equally injurious whenever, in
order to purchase a few generations of ease and luxury, slaves or
immigrants are imported to do the heavy work. It was a form of
aristocracy that brought slaves to the American colonies and the West
Indies and if there had been an aristocratic form of governmental
control in California, Chinese coolies and Japanese laborers would now
form the controlling element, so far as numbers are concerned, on the
Pacific coast.
It was the upper classes who encouraged the introduction of immigrant
labor to work American factories and mines and it is the native American
gentleman who builds a palace on the country side and who introduces as
servants all manner of foreigners into purely American districts. The
farming and artisan classes of America did not take alarm until it was
too late and they are now seriously threatened with extermination in
many parts of the country. In Rome, also, it was the plebeian, who first
went under in the competition with slaves but the patrician followed in
his turn a few generations later.
The West Indian sugar planters flourished in the eighteenth century and
produced some strong men; to-day from the same causes they have vanished
from the scene.
During the last century the New England manufacturer imported the Irish
and French Canadians and the resultant fall in the New England birth
rate at once became ominous. The refusal of the native American to work
with his hands when he can hire or import serfs to do manual labor for
him is the prelude to his extinction and the immigrant laborers are now
breeding out their masters and killing by filth and by crowding as
effectively as by the sword.
Thus the American sold his birthright in a continent to solve a labor
problem. Instead of retaining political control and making citizenship
an honorable and valued privilege, he intrusted the government of his
country and the maintenance of his ideals to races who have never yet
succeeded in governing themselves, much less any one else.
Associated with this advance of democracy and the transfer of power from
the higher to the lower races, from the intellectual to the plebeian
class, we find the spread of socialism and the recrudescence of obsolete
religious forms. Although these phenomena appear to be contradictory,
they are in reality closely related since both represent reactions from
the intense individualism which a century ago was eminently
characteristic of Americans.
II
THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF RACE
In the modern and scientific study of race we have long since discarded
the Adamic theory that man is descended from a single pair, created a
few thousand years ago in a mythical Garden of Eden somewhere in Asia,
to spread later over the earth in successive waves.
It is a fact, however, that Asia was the chief area of evolution and
differentiation of man and that the various groups had their main
development there and not on the peninsula we call Europe.
Many of the races of Europe, both living and extinct, did come from the
East through Asia Minor or by way of the African littoral, but most of
the direct ancestors of existing populations have inhabited Europe for
many thousands of years. During that time numerous races of men have
passed over the scene. Some undoubtedly have utterly vanished and some
have left their blood behind them in the Europeans of to-day.
We now know, since the elaboration of the Mendelian Laws of Inheritance,
that certain bodily characters, such as skull shape, stature, eye color,
hair color and nose form, some of which are so-called unit characters,
are transmitted in accordance with fixed laws, and, further, that
various characters which are normally correlated or linked together in
pure races may, after a prolonged admixture of races, pass down
separately and form what is known as disharmonic combinations. Such
disharmonic combinations are, for example, a tall brunet or a short
blond; blue eyes associated with brunet hair or brown eyes with blond
hair.
The process of intermixture of characters has gone far in existing
populations and through the ease of modern methods of transportation
this process is going much further in Europe and in America. The results
of such mixture are not blends or intermediate types, but rather mosaics
of contrasted characters. Such blends, if any, as ultimately occur are
too remote to concern us here.
The crossing of an individual of pure brunet race with an individual of
pure blond race produces in the first generation offspring which are
distinctly dark. In subsequent generations, brunets and blonds appear in
various proportions but the former tend to be much the more numerous.
The blond is consequently said to be recessive to the brunet because it
recedes from view in the first generation. This or any similar recessive
or suppressed trait is not lost to the germ plasm, but reappears in
later generations of the hybridized stock. A similar rule prevails with
other physical characters.
In defining race in Europe it is necessary not only to consider pure
groups or pure types but also the distribution of characters belonging
to each particular subspecies of man found there. The interbreeding of
these populations has progressed to such an extent that in many cases
such an analysis of physical characters is necessary to reconstruct the
elements which have entered into their ethnic composition. To rely on
averages alone leads to misunderstanding and to disregard of the
relative proportion of pure, as contrasted with mixed types.
Sometimes we find a character appearing here and there as the sole
remnant of a once numerous race, for example, the rare appearance in
European populations of a skull of the Neanderthal type, a race widely
spread over Europe 40,000 years ago, or of the Cro-Magnon type, the
predominant race 16,000 years ago. Before the fossil remains of the
Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon races were studied and understood such
reversional specimens were considered pathological, instead of being
recognized as the reappearance of an ancient and submerged type.
These physical characters are to all intents and purposes immutable and
they do not change during the lifetime of a language or an empire. The
skull shape of the Egyptian fellaheen, in the unchanging environment of
the Nile Valley, is absolutely identical in measurements, proportions
and capacity with skulls found in the pre-dynastic tombs dating back
more than six thousand years.
There exists to-day a widespread and fatuous belief in the power of
environment, as well as of education and opportunity to alter heredity,
which arises from the dogma of the brotherhood of man, derived in its
turn from the loose thinkers of the French Revolution and their American
mimics. Such beliefs have done much damage in the past and if allowed to
go uncontradicted, may do even more serious damage in the future. Thus
the view that the Negro slave was an unfortunate cousin of the white
man, deeply tanned by the tropic sun and denied the blessings of
Christianity and civilization, played no small part with the
sentimentalists of the Civil War period and it has taken us fifty years
to learn that speaking English, wearing good clothes and going to school
and to church do not transform a Negro into a white man. Nor was a
Syrian or Egyptian freedman transformed into a Roman by wearing a toga
and applauding his favorite gladiator in the amphitheatre. Americans
will have a similar experience with the Polish Jew, whose dwarf stature,
peculiar mentality and ruthless concentration on self-interest are being
engrafted upon the stock of the nation.
Recent attempts have been made in the interest of inferior races among
our immigrants to show that the shape of the skull does change, not
merely in a century, but in a single generation. In 1910, the report of
the anthropological expert of the Congressional Immigration Commission
gravely declared that a round skull Jew on his way across the Atlantic
might and did have a round skull child; but a few years later, in
response to the subtle elixir of American institutions as exemplified in
an East Side tenement, might and did have a child whose skull was
appreciably longer; and that a long skull south Italian, breeding
freely, would have precisely the same experience in the reverse
direction. In other words the Melting Pot was acting instantly under the
influence of a changed environment.
What the Melting Pot actually does in practice can be seen in Mexico,
where the absorption of the blood of the original Spanish conquerors by
the native Indian population has produced the racial mixture which we
call Mexican and which is now engaged in demonstrating its incapacity
for self-government. The world has seen many such mixtures and the
character of a mongrel race is only just beginning to be understood at
its true value.
It must be borne in mind that the specializations which characterize the
higher races are of relatively recent development, are highly unstable
and when mixed with generalized or primitive characters tend to
disappear. Whether we like to admit it or not, the result of the mixture
of two races, in the long run, gives us a race reverting to the more
ancient, generalized and lower type. The cross between a white man and
an Indian is an Indian; the cross between a white man and a Negro is a
Negro; the cross between a white man and a Hindu is a Hindu; and the
cross between any of the three European races and a Jew is a Jew.
In the crossing of the blond and brunet elements of a population, the
more deeply rooted and ancient dark traits are prepotent or dominant.
This is matter of everyday observation and the working of this law of
nature is not influenced or affected by democratic institutions or by
religious beliefs. Nature cares not for the individual nor how he may be
modified by environment. She is concerned only with the perpetuation of
the species or type and heredity alone is the medium through which she
acts.
As measured in terms of centuries these characters are fixed and rigid
and the only benefit to be derived from a changed environment and better
food conditions is the opportunity afforded a race which has lived under
adverse conditions to achieve its maximum development but the limits of
that development are fixed for it by heredity and not by environment.
In dealing with European populations the best method of determining race
has been found to lie in a comparison of proportions of the skull, the
so-called cephalic index. This is the ratio of maximum _width_, taken at
the widest part of the skull above the ears, to maximum _length_. Skulls
with an index of 75 or less, that is, those with a width that is
three-fourths of the length or less, are considered dolichocephalic or
long skulls. Skulls of an index of 80 or over are round or
brachycephalic skulls. Intermediate indices, between 75 and 80, are
considered mesaticephalic. These are cranial indices. To allow for the
flesh on living specimens about two per cent is to be added to this
index and the result is the cephalic index. In the following pages only
long and round skulls are considered and the intermediate forms are
assigned to the dolichocephalic group.
This cephalic index, though an extremely important if not the
controlling character, is, nevertheless, but a single character and must
be checked up with other somatological traits. Normally, a long skull is
associated with a long face and a round skull with a round face.
The use of this test, the cephalic index, enables us to divide the great
bulk of the European populations into three distinct subspecies of man,
one northern and one southern, both dolichocephalic or characterized by
a long skull and a central subspecies which is brachycephalic or
characterized by a round skull.
The first is the Nordic or Baltic subspecies. This race is long skulled,
very tall, fair skinned with blond or brown hair and light colored eyes.
The Nordics inhabit the countries around the North and Baltic Seas and
include not only the great Scandinavian and Teutonic groups, but also
other early peoples who first appear in southern Europe and in Asia as
representatives of Aryan language and culture.
The second is the dark Mediterranean or Iberian subspecies, occupying
the shores of the inland sea and extending along the Atlantic coast
until it reaches the Nordic species. It also spreads far east into
southern Asia. It is long skulled like the Nordic race but the absolute
size of the skull is less. The eyes and hair are very dark or black and
the skin more or less swarthy. The stature is distinctly less than that
of the Nordic race and the musculature and bony framework weak.
The third is the Alpine subspecies occupying all central and eastern
Europe and extending through Asia Minor to the Hindu Kush and the
Pamirs. The Armenoids constitute an Alpine subdivision and may possibly
represent the ancestral type of this race which remained in the
mountains and high plateaux of Anatolia and western Asia.
The Alpines are round skulled, of medium height and sturdy build both as
to skeleton and muscles. The coloration of both hair and eyes was
originally very dark and still tends strongly in that direction but many
light colored eyes, especially gray, are now common among the Alpine
populations of western Europe.
While the inhabitants of Europe betray as a whole their mixed origin,
nevertheless, individuals of each of the three main subspecies are found
in large numbers and in great purity, as well as sparse remnants of
still more ancient races represented by small groups or by individuals
and even by single characters.
These three main groups have bodily characters which constitute them
distinct subspecies. Each group is a large one and includes several
well-marked varieties, which differ even more widely in cultural
development than in physical divergence so that when the Mediterranean
of England is compared with the Hindu, or the Alpine Savoyard with the
Rumanian or Turcoman, a wide gulf is found.
In zoology, related species when grouped together constitute subgenera
and genera and the term species implies the existence of a certain
definite amount of divergence from the most closely related type but
race does not require a similar amount of difference. In man, where all
groups are more or less fertile when crossed, so many intermediate or
mixed types occur that the word species has at the present day too
extended a meaning.
For the sake of clearness the word race and not the word species or
subspecies will be used in the following chapters as far as possible.
The old idea that fertility or infertility of races of animals was the
measure of species is now abandoned. One of the greatest difficulties in
classifying man is his perverse predisposition to mismate. This is a
matter of daily observation, especially among the women of the better
classes, probably because of their wider range of choice.
There must have existed many subspecies and species, if not genera, of
men since the Pliocene and new discoveries of their remains may be
expected at any time and in any part of the eastern hemisphere.
The cephalic index is of less value in the classification of Asiatic
populations but the distribution of round and long skulls is similar to
that in Europe. The vast central plateau of that continent is inhabited
by round skulls. In fact, Thibet and the western Himalayas were probably
the centre of radiation of all the round skulls of the world. In India
and Persia south of this central area occurs a long skull race related
to Mediterranean man in Europe.
Both skull types occur much intermixed among the American Indians and
the cephalic index is of little value in classifying the Amerinds. No
satisfactory explanation of the variability of the skull shape in the
western hemisphere has as yet been found, but the total range of
variation of physical characters among them, from northern Canada to
southern Patagonia, is less than the range of such variation from
Normandy to Provence in France.
In Africa the cephalic index is also of small classification value
because all of the populations are characterized by a long skull.
The distinction between a long skull and a round skull in mankind
probably goes back at least to early Paleolithic times, if not to a
period still more remote. It is of such great antiquity that when new
species or races appear in Europe at the close of the Paleolithic,
between 10,000 and 7,000 years B. C., the skull characters among them
are as clearly defined as they are to-day.
The fact that two distinct species of mankind have long skulls, as have
the north European and the African Negro, is no necessary indication of
relationship and in that instance is merely a case of parallel
specialization, but the fact, however, that the Swede has a long skull
and the Savoyard a round skull does prove them to be racially distinct.
The claim that the Nordic race is a mere variation of the Mediterranean
race and that the latter is in turn derived from the Ethiopian Negro
rests upon a mistaken idea that a dolichocephaly in common must mean
identity of origin, as well as upon a failure to take into consideration
many somatological characters of almost equal value with the cephalic
index. Indeed, the cephalic index, being merely a ratio, may be
identical for skulls differing in every other proportion and detail, as
well as in absolute size and capacity.
Eye color is of very great importance in race determination because all
blue, gray or green eyes in the world to-day came originally from the
same source, namely, the Nordic race of northern Europe. This light
colored eye has appeared nowhere else on earth, is a specialization of
this subspecies of man only and consequently is of extreme value in the
classification of European races. Dark colored eyes are all but
universal among wild mammals and entirely so among the primates, man’s
nearest relatives. It may be taken as an absolute certainty that all the
original races of man had dark eyes.
One subspecies of man and one alone specialized in light colored eyes.
This same subspecies also evolved light brown or blond hair, a character
far less deeply rooted than eye color, as blond children tend to grow
darker with advancing years and populations partly of Nordic extraction,
such as those of Lombardy, upon admixture with darker races lose their
blond hair more readily than their light colored eyes. In short, light
colored eyes are far more common than light colored hair. In crosses
between Alpines and Nordics, the Alpine stature and the Nordic eye
appear to prevail. Light color in eyes is largely due to a greater or
less absence of pigment but it is not associated with weak eyesight, as
in the case of Albinos. In fact, among marksmen, it has been noted that
nearly all the great rifle-shots in England or America have had light
colored eyes.
Blond hair also comes everywhere from the Nordic subspecies and from
nowhere else. Whenever we find blondness among the darker races of the
earth we may be sure some Nordic wanderer has passed that way. When
individuals of perfect blond type occur, as sometimes in Greek islands,
we may suspect a recent visit of sailors from a passing ship but when
only single characters remain spread thinly, but widely, over
considerable areas, like the blondness of the Atlas Berbers or of the
Albanian mountaineers, we must search in the dim past for the origin of
these blurred traits of early invaders.
The range of blond hair color in pure Nordic peoples runs from flaxen
and red to shades of chestnut and brown. The darker shades may indicate
crossing in some cases, but absolutely black hair certainly does mean an
ancestral cross with a dark race—in England with the Mediterranean race.
It must be clearly understood that blondness of hair and of eye is not a
final test of Nordic race. The Nordics include all the blonds, and also
those of darker hair or eye when possessed of a preponderance of other
Nordic characters. In this sense the word “blond” means those lighter
shades of hair or eye color in contrast to the very dark or black shades
which are termed brunet. The meaning of “blond” as now used is therefore
not limited to the lighter or flaxen shades as in colloquial speech.
In England among Nordic populations there are large numbers of
individuals with hazel brown eyes joined with the light brown or
chestnut hair which is the typical hair shade of the English and
Americans. This combination is also common in Holland and Westphalia and
is frequently associated with a very fair skin. These men are all of
“blond” aspect and constitution and consequently are to be classed as
members of the Nordic race.
In Nordic populations the women are, in general, lighter haired than the
men, a fact which points to a blond past and a darker future for those
populations. Women in all human races, as the females among all mammals,
tend to exhibit the older, more generalized and primitive traits of the
past of the race. The male in his individual development indicates the
direction in which the race is tending under the influence of variation
and selection.
It is interesting to note in connection with the more primitive physique
of the female, that in the spiritual sphere also women retain the
ancient and intuitive knowledge that the great mass of mankind is not
free and equal but bond and unequal.
The color of the skin is a character of importance but one that is
exceedingly hard to measure as the range of variation in Europe between
skins of extreme fairness and those that are exceedingly swarthy is
almost complete. The Nordic race in its purity has an absolutely fair
skin and is consequently the white man par excellence.
Many members of the Nordic race otherwise apparently pure have skins, as
well as hair, more or less dark, so that the determinative value of this
character is uncertain. There can be no doubt that the quality of the
skin and the extreme range of its variation in color from black, brown,
red, yellow to ivory-white are excellent measures of the specific or
subgeneric distinctions between the larger groups of mankind but in
dealing with European populations it is sometimes difficult to correlate
the shades of fairness with other physical characters.
In general, hair color and skin color are linked together, but it often
happens that an individual with all other Nordic characters in great
purity has a skin of an olive or dark tint. Even more frequently we find
individuals with absolutely pure brunet traits in possession of a skin
of almost ivory whiteness and of great clarity. This last combination is
very frequent among the brunets of the British Isles. That these are, to
some extent, disharmonic combinations we may be certain but beyond that
our knowledge does not lead. Women, however, of fair skin have always
been the objects of keen envy by those of the sex whose skins are black,
yellow or red.
Stature is another character of greater value than skin color and,
perhaps, than hair color and is one of much importance in European
classification for on that continent we have the most extreme variations
of human height.
Exceedingly adverse economic conditions may inhibit a race from
attaining the full measure of its growth and to this extent environment
plays its part in determining stature but fundamentally it is race,
always race, that sets the limit. The tall Scot and the dwarfed
Sardinian owe their respective sizes to race and not to oatmeal or olive
oil. It is probable, however, that the fact that the stature of the
Irish is, on the average, shorter than that of the Scotch is due partly
to economic conditions and partly to the depressive effect of a
considerable population of primitive short stock.
The Mediterranean race is everywhere marked by a relatively short
stature, sometimes greatly depressed, as in south Italy and in Sardinia,
and also by a comparatively light bony framework and feeble muscular
development.
The Alpine race is taller than the Mediterranean, although shorter than
the Nordic, and is characterized by a stocky and sturdy build. The
Alpines rarely, if ever, show the long necks and graceful figures so
often found in the other two races.
The Nordic race is nearly everywhere distinguished by great stature.
Almost the tallest stature in the world is found among the pure Nordic
populations of the Scottish and English borders while the native British
of Pre-Nordic brunet blood are for the most part relatively short. No
one can question the race value of stature who observes on the streets
of London the contrast between the Piccadilly gentleman of Nordic race
and the cockney costermonger of the old Neolithic type.
In some cases where these three European races have become mixed stature
seems to be one of the first Nordic characters to vanish, but wherever
in Europe we find great stature in a population otherwise lacking in
Nordic characters we may suspect a Nordic crossing, as in the case of a
large proportion of the inhabitants of Burgundy, of the Tyrol and of the
Dalmatian Alps south to Albania.
These four characters, skull shape, eye color, hair color and stature,
are sufficient to enable us to differentiate clearly between the three
main subspecies of Europe, but if we wish to discuss the minor
variations in each race and mixtures between them, we must go much
further and take up other proportions of the skull than the cephalic
index, as well as the shape and position of the eyes, the proportions
and shape of the jaws, the chin and other features.
The nose is an exceedingly important character. The original human nose
was, of course, broad and bridgeless. This trait is shown clearly in
new-born infants who recapitulate in their development the various
stages of the evolution of the human genus. A bridgeless nose with wide,
flaring nostrils is a very primitive character and is still retained by
some of the larger divisions of mankind throughout the world. It appears
occasionally in white populations of European origin but is everywhere a
very ancient, generalized and low character.
The high bridge and long, narrow nose, the so-called Roman, Norman or
aquiline nose, is characteristic of the most highly specialized races of
mankind. While an apparently unimportant character, this feature is one
of the very best clews to racial origin and in the details of its form,
and especially in the lateral shape of the nostrils, is a race
determinant of the greatest value.
The lips, whether thin or fleshy or whether clean-cut or everted, are
race characters. Thick, protruding, everted lips are very ancient traits
and are characteristic of many primitive races. A high instep also has
long been esteemed an indication of patrician type while the flat foot
is often the test of lowly origin.
The absence or abundance of hair and beard and the relative absence or
abundance of body hair are characters of no little value in
classification. Abundant body hair is, to a large extent, peculiar to
populations of the very highest as well as the very lowest species,
being characteristic of the north European as well as of the Australian
savages. It merely means the retention in both these groups of a very
early and primitive trait which has been lost by the Negroes, Mongols
and Amerinds.
The Nordic and Alpine races are far better equipped with head and body
hair than the Mediterranean, which is throughout its range a glabrous or
relatively naked race but among the Nordics the extreme blond types are
less equipped with body hair or down than are darker members of the
race. A contrast in color between head hair and beard, the latter always
being lighter than the former, may be one of the results of an ancient
crossing of races.
The so-called red-haired branch of the Nordic race has special
characters in addition to red hair, such as a greenish cast of eye, a
skin of delicate texture tending either to great clarity or to freckles
and certain peculiar temperamental traits. This was probably a variety
closely related to the blonds and it first appears in history in
association with them.
While the three main European races are the subject of this book and
while it is not the intention of the author to deal with the other human
types, it is desirable in connection with the discussion of this
character, hair, to state that the three European subspecies are
subdivisions of one of the primary groups or species of the genus _Homo_
which, taken together, we may call the Caucasian for lack of a better
name.
The existing classification of man must be radically revised, as the
differences between the most divergent human types are far greater than
are usually deemed sufficient to constitute separate species and even
subgenera in the animal kingdom at large. Outside of the three European
subspecies the greater portion of the genus _Homo_ can be roughly
divided into the Negroes and Negroids, and the Mongols and Mongoloids.
The former apparently originated in south Asia and entered Africa by way
of the northeastern corner of that continent. Africa south of the Sahara
is now the chief home of this race, though remnants of Negroid
aborigines are found throughout south Asia from India to the
Philippines, while the very distinct black Melanesians and the
Australoids lie farther to the east and south.
The Mongoloids include the round skulled Mongols and their derivatives,
the Amerinds or American Indians. This group is essentially Asiatic and
occupies the centre and the eastern half of that continent.
A description of these Negroids and Mongoloids and their derivatives, as
well as of certain aberrant species of man, lies outside the scope of
this work.
In the structure of the head hair of all races of mankind we find a
regular progression from extreme kinkiness to lanky straightness and
this straightness or curliness depends on the shape of the cross section
of the hair itself. This cross section has three distinct forms,
corresponding with the most extreme divergences among human species.
The cross section of the hair of the Negroes is a flat ellipse with the
result that they all have kinky hair. This kinkiness of the Negroes’
hair is also due somewhat to the acute angle at which the hair is set
into the skin and the peppercorn form of hair probably represents an
extreme specialization.
The cross section of the hair of the Mongols and their derivatives, the
Amerinds, is a complete circle and their hair is perfectly straight and
lank.
The cross section of the hair of the so-called Caucasians, including the
Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic subspecies, is an oval ellipse and
consequently is intermediate between the cross-sections of the Negroes
and Mongoloids. Hair of this structure is wavy or curly, never either
kinky or absolutely straight and is characteristic of all the European
populations almost without exception.
Of these three hair types the straighter forms most closely represent
the earliest human form of hair.
We have confined the discussion to the most important characters but
there are many other valuable aids to classification to be found in the
proportions of the body and the relative length of the limbs. In this
latter respect, it is a matter of common knowledge that there occur two
distinct types, the one long legged and short bodied, the other long
bodied and short legged.
Without going into further physical details, it is probable that all
relative proportions in the body, the features, the skeleton and the
skull which are fixed and constant and lie outside of the range of
individual variation represent dim inheritances from the past. Every
generation of human beings carries the blood of thousands of ancestors,
stretching back through thousands of years, superimposed upon a prehuman
inheritance of still greater antiquity and the face and body of every
living man offer an intricate mass of hieroglyphs that science will some
day learn to read and interpret.
Only the foregoing main characters will be used as the basis for
determining race and attention will be called later to such
temperamental and spiritual traits as seem to be associated with
distinct physical types.
We shall discuss only European populations and, as said, shall not deal
with exotic and alien races scattered among them nor with those quarters
of the globe where the races of man are such that other physical
characters must be called upon to provide clear definitions.
A fascinating subject would open up if we were to dwell upon the effect
of racial combinations and disharmonies, as, for instance, where the
mixed Nordic and Alpine populations of Lombardy usually retain the skull
shape, hair color and stature of the Alpine race, with the light eye
color of the Nordic race, or where the mountain populations along the
east coast of the Adriatic from the Tyrol to Albania have the stature of
the Nordic race and an Alpine skull and coloration.
III
RACE AND HABITAT
The laws which govern the distribution of the various races of man and
their evolution through selection are substantially the same as those
controlling the evolution and distribution of the larger mammals.
Man, however, with his superior mentality has freed himself from many of
the conditions which impose restraint upon the expansion of animals. In
his case selection through disease and social and economic competition
has largely replaced selection through adjustment to the limitations of
food supply.
Man is the most cosmopolitan of animals and in one form or another
thrives in the tropics and in the arctics, at sea level and on high
plateaux, in the desert and in the reeking forests of the equator.
Nevertheless, the various races of Europe have each a certain natural
habitat in which it achieves its highest development.
THE NORDIC HABITAT
The Nordics appear in their present centre of distribution, the basin of
the Baltic, at the close of the Paleolithic, as soon as the retreating
glaciers left habitable land. This race was probably at that time in
possession of its fundamental characters, and its extension from the
plains of Russia to Scandinavia was not in the nature of a radical
change of environment. The race in consequence is now, always has been
and probably always will be, adjusted to certain environmental
conditions, chief of which is protection from a tropical sun. The
actinic rays of the sun at the same latitude are uniform in strength the
world over and continuous sunlight affects adversely the delicate
nervous organization of the Nordics. The fogs and long winter nights of
the North serve as a protection from too much sun and from its too
direct rays.
Scarcely less important is the presence of a large amount of moisture
but above all a constant variety of temperature is needed. Sharp
contrast between night and day temperature and between summer and winter
are necessary to maintain the vigor of the Nordic race at a high pitch.
Uniform weather, if long continued, lessens its energy. Too great
extremes as in midwinter or midsummer in parts of New England are
injurious. Limited but constant alternations of heat and cold, of
moisture and dryness, of sun and clouds, of calm and cyclonic storms
offer the ideal surroundings.
Where the environment is too soft and luxurious and no strife is
required for survival, not only are weak strains and individuals allowed
to survive and encouraged to breed but the strong types also grow fat
mentally and physically, like overfed Indians on reservations or
wingless birds on oceanic islands, which have lost the power of flight
as a result of prolonged protective conditions.
Men of the Nordic race may not enjoy the fogs and snows of the North,
the endless changes of weather and the violent fluctuations of the
thermometer and they may seek the sunny southern isles, but under the
former conditions they flourish, do their work and raise their families.
In the south they grow listless and cease to breed.
In the lower classes in the Southern States of America the increasing
proportion of “poor whites” and “crackers” are symptoms of lack of
climatic adjustment. The whites in Georgia, in the Bahamas and, above
all, in Barbadoes are excellent examples of the deleterious effects of
residence outside the natural habitat of the Nordic race.
The poor whites of the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky and Tennessee
present a more difficult problem, because here the altitude, even though
moderate, should modify the effects of latitude and the climate of these
mountains cannot be particularly unfavorable to men of Nordic breed.
There are probably other hereditary forces at work there as yet little
understood.
No doubt bad food and economic conditions, prolonged inbreeding and the
loss through emigration of the best elements have played a large part in
the degeneration of these mountaineers. They represent to a large extent
the offspring of indentured servants brought over by the rich planters
in early Colonial times and their names indicate that many of them are
the descendants of the old borderers along the Scotch and English
frontier. The persistence with which family feuds are maintained
certainly points to such an origin. The physical type is typically
Nordic, for the most part pure Saxon or Anglian, and the whole mountain
population show somewhat aberrant but very pronounced physical, moral
and mental characteristics which would repay scientific investigation.
The problem is too complex to be disposed of by reference to the
hookworm, illiteracy or competition with Negroes.
This type played a large part in the settlement of the Middle West, by
way of Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri. Thence they passed both up the
Missouri River and down the Santa Fé trail and contributed rather more
than their share of the train robbers, horse thieves and bad men of the
West.
Scotland and the Bahamas are inhabited by men of precisely the same
race, but the vigor of the English in the Bahamas is gone and the beauty
of their women has faded. The fact that they were not in competition
with an autochthonous race better adjusted to climatic conditions has
enabled them to survive, but the type could not have persisted, even
during the last two hundred years, if they had been compelled to compete
on terms of equality with a native and acclimated population.
Another element entering into racial degeneration on many other islands
and for that matter in many New England villages, is the loss through
emigration of the more vigorous and energetic individuals, leaving
behind the less efficient to continue the race at home.
In subtropical countries where the energy of the Nordics is at a low ebb
it would appear that the racial inheritance of physical strength and
mental vigor was suppressed and recessive rather than destroyed. Many
individuals born in unfavorable climatic surroundings, who move back to
the original habitat of their race in the north, recover their full
quota of energy and vigor. New York and other Northern cities have many
Southerners who are fully as efficient as pure Northerners.
This Nordic race can exist outside of its native environment as land
owning aristocrats who are not required to do manual labor in the fields
under a blazing sun. As such an aristocracy it continues to exist under
Italian skies, but as a field laborer the man of Nordic blood cannot
compete with his Alpine or Mediterranean rival. It is not to be supposed
that the various Nordic tribes and armies, which for a thousand years
after the fall of Rome poured down from the Alps like the glaciers to
melt in the southern sun, were composed solely of knights and gentlemen
who became the landed nobility of Italy. The man in the ranks also took
up his land and work in Italy, but he had to compete directly with the
native under climatic conditions which were unfavorable to his race. In
this competition the blue eyed Nordic giant died and the native
survived. His officer, however, lived in the castle and directed the
labor of his bondsmen without other preoccupation than the chase and war
and he long maintained his vigor.
The same thing happened in our South before the Civil War. There the
white men did not work in the fields or in the factory. The heavy work
under the blazing sun was carried on by Negro slaves and the planter was
spared exposure to an unfavorable environment. Under these conditions he
was able to retain much of his vigor. When slavery was abolished and the
white man had to plough his own fields or work in the factory
deterioration began.
The change in type of the men who are now sent by the Southern States to
represent them in the Federal Government from their predecessors in
ante-bellum times is partly due to these causes, but in greater degree
it is to be attributed to the fact that a large portion of the best
racial strains in the South were killed off during the Civil War. In
addition the war shattered the aristocratic traditions which formerly
secured the selection of the best men as rulers. The new democratic
ideals, with universal suffrage in free operation among the whites,
result in the choice of representatives who lack the distinction and
ability of the leaders of the Old South.
A race may be thoroughly adjusted to a certain country at one stage of
its development and be at a disadvantage when an economic change occurs,
such as was experienced in England a century ago when the nation changed
from an agricultural to a manufacturing community. The type of man that
flourishes in the fields is not the type of man that thrives in the
factory, just as the type of man required for the crew of a sailing ship
is not the type useful as stokers on a modern steamer.
THE HABITAT OF THE ALPINES AND MEDITERRANEANS
The environment of the Alpine race seems to have always been the
mountainous country of central and eastern Europe, as well as western
Asia, but they are now spreading into the plains, notably in Poland and
Russia. This type has never flourished in the deserts of Arabia or the
Sahara, nor has it succeeded well in maintaining its early colonies in
the northwest of Europe within the domain of the Nordic long heads. It
is, however, a sturdy and persistent stock and, while much of it may not
be overrefined or cultured, undoubtedly possesses great potentialities
for future development.
The Alpines in the west of Europe, especially in Switzerland and the
districts immediately surrounding, have been so thoroughly Nordicized
and so saturated with the culture of the adjoining nations that they
stand in sharp contrast to backward Alpines of Slavic speech in the
Balkans and east of Europe.
The Mediterranean race, on the other hand, is clearly a southern type
with eastern affinities. It is a type that did not endure in the north
of Europe under former agricultural conditions nor is it suitable to the
farming districts and frontiers of America and Canada. It is adjusted to
subtropical and tropical countries better than any other European type
and will flourish in our Southern States and around the coasts of the
Spanish Main. In France it is well known that members of the
Mediterranean race are better adapted for colonization in Algeria than
are French Alpines or Nordics. This subspecies of man is notoriously
intolerant of extreme cold, owing to its susceptibility to diseases of
the lungs and it shrinks from the blasts of the northern winter in which
the Nordics revel.
The brunet Mediterranean element in the native American seems to be
increasing at the expense of the blond Nordic element generally
throughout the Southern States and probably also in the large cities.
This type of man, however, is scarce on our frontiers. In the Northwest
and in Alaska in the days of the gold rush it was in the mining camps a
matter of comment if a man turned up with dark eyes, so universal were
blue and gray eyes among the American pioneers.
IV
THE COMPETITION OF RACES
Where two races occupy a country side by side, it is not correct to
speak of one type as changing into the other. Even if present in equal
numbers one of the two contrasted types will have some small advantage
or capacity which the other lacks toward a perfect adjustment to
surroundings. Those possessing these favorable variations will flourish
at the expense of their rivals and their offspring will not only be more
numerous, but will also tend to inherit such variations. In this way one
type gradually breeds the other out. In this sense, and in this sense
only, do races change.
Man continuously undergoes selection through the operation of the forces
of social environment. Among native Americans of the Colonial period a
large family was an asset and social pressure and economic advantage
counselled both early marriage and numerous children. Two hundred years
of continuous political expansion and material prosperity changed these
conditions and children, instead of being an asset to till the fields
and guard the cattle, became an expensive liability. They now require
support, education and endowment from their parents and a large family
is regarded by some as a serious handicap in the social struggle.
These conditions do not obtain at first among immigrants, and large
families among the newly arrived population are still the rule,
precisely as they were in Colonial America and are to-day in French
Canada where backwoods conditions still prevail.
The result is that one class or type in a population expands more
rapidly than another and ultimately replaces it. This process of
replacement of one type by another does not mean that the race changes
or is transformed into another. It is a replacement pure and simple and
not a transformation.
The lowering of the birth rate among the most valuable classes, while
the birth rate of the lower classes remains unaffected, is a frequent
phenomenon of prosperity. Such a change becomes extremely injurious to
the race if unchecked, unless nature is allowed to maintain by her own
cruel devices the relative numbers of the different classes in their due
proportions. To attack race suicide by encouraging indiscriminate
reproduction is not only futile but is dangerous if it leads to an
increase in the undesirable elements. What is needed in the community
most of all is an increase in the desirable classes, which are of
superior type physically, intellectually and morally and not merely an
increase in the absolute numbers of the population.
The value and efficiency of a population are not numbered by what the
newspapers call souls, but by the proportion of men of physical and
intellectual vigor. The small Colonial population of America was, on an
average and man for man, far superior to the present inhabitants,
although the latter are twenty-five times more numerous. The ideal in
eugenics toward which statesmanship should be directed is, of course,
improvement in quality rather than quantity. This, however, is at
present a counsel of perfection and we must face conditions as they are.
The small birth rate in the upper classes is to some extent offset by
the care received by such children as are born and the better chance
they have to become adult and breed in their turn. The large birth rate
of the lower classes is under normal conditions offset by a heavy infant
mortality, which eliminates the weaker children.
Where altruism, philanthropy or sentimentalism intervene with the
noblest purpose and forbid nature to penalize the unfortunate victims of
reckless breeding, the multiplication of inferior types is encouraged
and fostered. Indiscriminate efforts to preserve babies among the lower
classes often result in serious injury to the race. At the existing
stage of civilization, the legalizing of birth control would probably be
of benefit by reducing the number of offspring in the undesirable
classes. Regulation of the number of children is, for good or evil, in
full operation among the better classes and its recognition by the state
would result in no further harm among them.
Mistaken regard for what are believed to be divine laws and a
sentimental belief in the sanctity of human life tend to prevent both
the elimination of defective infants and the sterilization of such
adults as are themselves of no value to the community. The laws of
nature require the obliteration of the unfit and human life is valuable
only when it is of use to the community or race.
It is highly unjust that a minute minority should be called upon to
supply brains for the unthinking mass of the community, but it is even
worse to burden the responsible and larger but still overworked elements
in the community with an ever increasing number of moral perverts,
mental defectives and hereditary cripples. As the percentage of
incompetents increases, the burden of their support will become ever
more onerous until, at no distant date, society will in self-defense put
a stop to the supply of feebleminded and criminal children of weaklings.
The church assumes a serious responsibility toward the future of the
race whenever it steps in and preserves a defective strain. The marriage
of deaf mutes was hailed a generation ago as a triumph of humanity. Now
it is recognized as an absolute crime against the race. A great injury
is done to the community by the perpetuation of worthless types. These
strains are apt to be meek and lowly and as such make a strong appeal to
the sympathies of the successful. Before eugenics were understood much
could be said from a Christian and humane viewpoint in favor of
indiscriminate charity for the benefit of the individual. The societies
for charity, altruism or extension of rights, should have in these days,
however, in their management some small modicum of brains, otherwise
they may continue to do, as they have sometimes done in the past, more
injury to the race than black death or smallpox.
As long as such charitable organizations confine themselves to the
relief of suffering individuals, no matter how criminal or diseased they
may be, no harm is done except to our own generation and if modern
society recognizes a duty to the humblest malefactors or imbeciles that
duty can be harmlessly performed in full, provided they be deprived of
the capacity to procreate their defective strain.
Those who read these pages will feel that there is little hope for
humanity, but the remedy has been found, and can be quickly and
mercifully applied. A rigid system of selection through the elimination
of those who are weak or unfit—in other words, social failures—would
solve the whole question in a century, as well as enable us to get rid
of the undesirables who crowd our jails, hospitals and insane asylums.
The individual himself can be nourished, educated and protected by the
community during his lifetime, but the state through sterilization must
see to it that his line stops with him or else future generations will
be cursed with an ever increasing load of victims of misguided
sentimentalism. This is a practical, merciful and inevitable solution of
the whole problem and can be applied to an ever widening circle of
social discards, beginning always with the criminal, the diseased and
the insane and extending gradually to types which may be called
weaklings rather than defectives and perhaps ultimately to worthless
race types.
Efforts to increase the birth rate of the genius producing classes of
the community, while most desirable, encounter great difficulties. In
such efforts we encounter social conditions over which we have as yet no
control. It was tried two thousand years ago by Augustus and his efforts
to avert race suicide and the extinction of the old Roman stock were
singularly prophetic of what some far seeing men are attempting in order
to preserve the race of native Americans of Colonial descent.
Man has the choice of two methods of race improvement. He can breed from
the best or he can eliminate the worst by segregation or sterilization.
The first method was adopted by the Spartans, who had for their national
ideals military efficiency and the virtues of self-control, and along
these lines the results were completely successful. Under modern social
conditions it would be extremely difficult in the first instance to
determine which were the most desirable types, except in the most
general way and even if a satisfactory selection were finally made, it
would be in a democracy a virtual impossibility to limit by law the
right to breed to a privileged and chosen few.
Interesting efforts to improve the quality as well as the quantity of
the population, however, will probably be made in more than one country
after the war has ended.
Experiments in limiting reproduction to the undesirable classes were
unconsciously made in mediæval Europe under the guidance of the church.
After the fall of Rome social conditions were such that all those who
loved a studious and quiet life were compelled to seek refuge from the
violence of the times in monastic institutions and upon such the church
imposed the obligation of celibacy and thus deprived the world of
offspring from these desirable classes.
In the Middle Ages, through persecution resulting in actual death, life
imprisonment and banishment, the free thinking, progressive and
intellectual elements were persistently eliminated over large areas,
leaving the perpetuation of the race to be carried on by the brutal, the
servile and the stupid. It is now impossible to say to what extent the
Roman Church by these methods has impaired the brain capacity of Europe,
but in Spain alone, for a period of over three centuries from the years
1471 to 1781, the Inquisition condemned to the stake or imprisonment an
average of 1,000 persons annually. During these three centuries no less
than 32,000 were burned alive and 291,000 were condemned to various
terms of imprisonment and other penalties and 17,000 persons were burned
in effigy, representing men who had died in prison or had fled the
country.
No better method of eliminating the genius producing strains of a nation
could be devised and if such were its purpose the result was eminently
satisfactory, as is demonstrated by the superstitious and unintelligent
Spaniard of to-day. A similar elimination of brains and ability took
place in northern Italy, in France and in the Low Countries, where
hundreds of thousands of Huguenots were murdered or driven into exile.
Under existing conditions the most practical and hopeful method of race
improvement is through the elimination of the least desirable elements
in the nation by depriving them of the power to contribute to future
generations. It is well known to stock breeders that the color of a herd
of cattle can be modified by continuous destruction of worthless shades
and of course this is true of other characters. Black sheep, for
instance, have been practically obliterated by cutting out generation
after generation all animals that show this color phase, until in
carefully maintained flocks a black individual only appears as a rare
sport.
In mankind it would not be a matter of great difficulty to secure a
general consensus of public opinion as to the least desirable, let us
say, ten per cent of the community. When this unemployed and
unemployable human residuum has been eliminated together with the great
mass of crime, poverty, alcoholism and feeblemindedness associated
therewith it would be easy to consider the advisability of further
restricting the perpetuation of the then remaining least valuable types.
By this method mankind might ultimately become sufficiently intelligent
to choose deliberately the most vital and intellectual strains to carry
on the race.
In addition to selection by climatic environment man is now, and has
been for ages, undergoing selection through disease. He has been
decimated throughout the centuries by pestilences such as the black
death and bubonic plague. In our fathers’ days yellow fever and smallpox
cursed humanity. These plagues are now under control, but similar
diseases now regarded as mere nuisances to childhood, such as measles,
mumps and scarlatina, are terrible scourges to native populations
without previous experience with them. Add to these smallpox and other
white men’s diseases and one has the great empire builders of yesterday.
It was not the swords in the hands of Columbus and his followers that
decimated the American Indians, it was the germs that his men and their
successors brought over, implanting the white man’s maladies in the red
man’s world. Long before the arrival of the Puritans in New England,
smallpox had flickered up and down the coast until the natives were but
a broken remnant of their former numbers.
At the present time the Nordic race is undergoing selection through
alcoholism, a peculiarly Nordic vice, and through consumption. Both
these dread scourges unfortunately attack those members of the race that
are otherwise most desirable, differing in this respect from filth
diseases like typhus, typhoid or smallpox. One has only to look among
the more desirable classes for the victims of rum and tubercule to
realize that death or mental and physical impairment through these two
causes have cost the race many of its most brilliant and attractive
members.
V
RACE, LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY
Nationality is an artificial political grouping of population usually
centring around a single language as an expression of traditions and
aspirations. Nationality can, however, exist independently of language
but states thus formed, such as Belgium or Austria, are far less stable
than those where a uniform language is prevalent, as, for example,
France or England.
States without a single national language are constantly exposed to
disintegration, especially where a substantial minority of the
inhabitants speak a tongue which is predominant in an adjoining state
and, as a consequence, tend to gravitate toward such state.
The history of the last century in Europe has been the record of a long
series of struggles to unite in one political unit all those speaking
the same or closely allied dialects. With the exception of internal and
social revolutions, every European war since the Napoleonic period has
been caused by the effort to bring about the unification either of Italy
or of Germany or by the desperate attempts of the Balkan States to
struggle out of Turkish chaos into modern European nations on a basis of
community of language. The unification of both Italy and Germany is as
yet incomplete according to the views held by their more advanced
patriots and the solution of the Balkan question is still in the future.
Men are keenly aware of their nationality and are very sensitive about
their language, but only in a few cases, notably in Sweden and Germany,
does any large section of the population possess anything analogous to
true race consciousness, although the term “race” is everywhere misused
to designate linguistic or political groups.
The unifying power of a common language works subtly and unceasingly. In
the long run it forms a bond which draws peoples together—as the
English-speaking peoples of the British Empire with those of America. In
the same manner this linguistic sympathy will bring the German-speaking
Austrians into a closer political community with the rest of Germany and
will hold together all the German-speaking provinces.
It sometimes happens that a section of the population of a large nation
gathers around language, reinforced by religion, as an expression of
individuality. The struggle between the French-speaking Alpine Walloons
and the Nordic Flemings of Low Dutch tongue in Belgium is an example of
two competing languages in an artificial nation which was formed
originally around religion. On the other hand, the Irish National
movement centres chiefly around religion reinforced by myths of ancient
grandeur. The French Canadians and the Poles use both religion and
language to hold together what they consider a political unit. None of
these so-called nationalities are founded on race.
During the past century side by side with the tendency to form imperial
or large national groups, such as the Pan-Germanic, Pan-Slavic,
Pan-Rumanian or Italia Irredenta movements, there has appeared a counter
movement on the part of small disintegrating “nationalities” to reassert
themselves, such as the Bohemian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Irish, and
Egyptian national revivals. The upheaval is usually caused, as in the
cases of the Irish and the Serbians, by delusions of former greatness
now become national obsessions, but sometimes it means the resistance of
a small group of higher culture to absorption by a lower civilization.
The reassertion of these small nationalities is associated with the
resurgence of the lower races at the expense of the Nordics.
Examples of a high type threatened by a lower culture are afforded by
the Finlanders, who are trying to escape the dire fate of their
neighbors across the Gulf of Finland—the Russification of the Germans
and Swedes of the Baltic Provinces—and by the struggle of the Danes of
Schleswig to escape Germanization. The Armenians, too, have resisted
stoutly the pressure of Islam to force them away from their ancient
Christian faith. This people really represents the last outpost of
Europe toward the Mohammedan East and constitutes the best remaining
medium through which Western ideals and culture can be introduced into
Asia.
In these as in other cases, the process of absorption from the viewpoint
of the world at large is good or evil exactly in proportion to the
relative value of the culture and race of the two groups. The world
would be no richer in civilization with an independent Bohemia or an
enlarged Rumania; but, on the contrary, an independent Hungarian nation
strong enough to stand alone, a Finland self-governing or reunited to
Sweden, or an enlarged Greece would add greatly to the forces that make
for good government and progress. An independent Ireland worked out on a
Tammany model is not a pleasing prospect. A free Poland, apart from its
value as a buffer state, might be actually a step backward. Poland was
once great, but the elements that made it so are scattered and gone and
the Poland of to-day is a geographical expression and nothing more.
The prevailing lack of true race consciousness is probably due to the
fact that every important nation in Europe as at present organized, with
the sole exception of the Iberian and Scandinavian states, possesses in
large proportions representatives of at least two of the fundamental
European subspecies of man and of all manner of crosses between them. In
France to-day, as in Cæsar’s Gaul, the three races divide the nation in
unequal proportions.
In the future, however, with an increased knowledge of the correct
definition of true human races and types and with a recognition of the
immutability of fundamental racial characters and of the results of
mixed breeding, far more value will be attached to racial in contrast to
national or linguistic affinities. In marital relations the
consciousness of race will also play a much larger part than at present,
although in the social sphere we shall have to contend with a certain
strange attraction for contrasted types. When it becomes thoroughly
understood that the children of mixed marriages between contrasted races
belong to the lower type, the importance of transmitting in unimpaired
purity the blood inheritance of ages will be appreciated at its full
value and to bring half-breeds into the world will be regarded as a
social and racial crime of the first magnitude. The laws against
miscegenation must be greatly extended if the higher races are to be
maintained.
The language that a man speaks may be nothing more than evidence that at
some time in the past his race has been in contact, either as conqueror
or as conquered, with its original possessors. Postulating the Nordic
origin and dissemination of the Proto-Aryan language, then in Asia and
elsewhere existing Aryan speech on the lips of populations showing no
sign of Nordic characters is to be considered evidence of a former
dominance of Nordics now long vanished.
One has only to consider the spread of the language of Rome over the
vast extent of her Empire to realize how few of those who speak to-day
Romance tongues derive any portion of their blood from the pure Latin
stock and the error of talking about a “Latin race” becomes evident.
There is, however, such a thing as a large group of nations which have a
mutual understanding and sympathy based on the possession of a common or
closely related group of languages and on the culture of which it is the
medium. This assemblage maybe called the “Latin nations,” but never the
“Latin race.”
“Latin America” is a still greater misnomer as the great mass of the
populations of South and Central America is not even European and still
less “Latin,” being overwhelmingly of Amerindian blood.
In the Teutonic group a large majority of those who speak Teutonic
languages, as the English, Flemings, Dutch, North Germans and
Scandinavians, are descendants of the Nordic race while the dominant
class in Europe is everywhere of that blood.
As to the so-called “Celtic race,” the fantastic inapplicability of the
term is at once apparent when we consider that those populations on the
borders of the Atlantic Ocean, who to-day speak Celtic dialects, are
divided into three groups, each one showing in great purity the
characters of one of the three entirely distinct human subspecies found
in Europe. To class together the Breton peasant with his round Alpine
skull; the little, long skulled, brunet Welshman of Mediterranean race,
and the tall, blond, light-eyed Scottish Highlander of pure Nordic
blood, in a single group labelled Celtic is obviously impossible. These
peoples have neither physical, mental nor cultural characteristics in
common. If one be of “Celtic” blood then the other two are clearly of
different origin.
There was once a people who used the original Celtic language and they
formed the western vanguard of the Nordic race. This people was spread
all over central and western Europe prior to the irruption of the
Teutonic tribes and were, no doubt, much mixed with Alpines among the
lower classes. The descendants of these Celts must be sought to-day
among those having the characters of the Nordic race and not elsewhere.
In England the short, dark Mediterranean Welshman talks about being
“Celtic,” quite unconscious that he is the residuum of Pre-Nordic races
of immense antiquity. If the Celts are Mediterranean in race then they
are absent from central Europe and we must regard as Celts all the
Berbers and Egyptians, as well as many Persians and Hindus.
In France many anthropologists regard the Breton of Alpine blood in the
same light and ignore his remote Asiatic origin. If these Alpine Bretons
are Celts then there is no substantial trace of their blood, in the
British Isles, as round skulls are practically absent there and all the
blond elements in England, Scotland and Ireland must be attributed to
the historic Teutonic invasions. Furthermore, we must call all the
continental Alpines “Celts,” and must also include all Slavs, Armenians
and other brachycephs of western Asia within that designation, which
would be obviously grotesque. The fact that the original Celts left
their speech on the tongues of Mediterraneans in Wales and of Alpines in
Brittany must not mislead us, as it indicates nothing more than that
Celtic speech antedates the Anglo-Saxons in England and the Romans in
France. We must once and for all time discard the name “Celt” for any
existing race whatever and speak only of “Celtic” language and culture.
In Ireland the big, blond Nordic Danes claim the honor of the name of
“Celt,” if honor it be, but they are fully as Nordic as the English and
the great mass of the Irish are of Danish, Norse and Anglo-Norman blood
in addition to earlier and Pre-Nordic elements. We are all familiar with
the blond and the brunet type of Irishman. These represent precisely the
same racial elements as those which enter into the composition of the
English, namely, the tall Nordic blond and the little Mediterranean
brunet pure or combined with Paleolithic remnants. The Irish are
consequently not entitled to independent national existence on the
ground of race, but if there be any ground for political separation from
England it must rest like that of Belgium on religion, a basis for
political combinations now happily obsolete in communities well advanced
in culture.
In the case of the so-called “Slavic race,” there is much more unity
between racial type and language. It is true that in most
Slavic-speaking countries the predominant race is clearly Alpine, except
perhaps in Russia where there is a very large substratum of Nordic
type—which may be considered as Proto-Nordic. The objection which is
made to the identification of the Slavic race with the Alpine type rests
chiefly on the fact that a very large portion of the Alpine race is
German-speaking in Germany, Italian-speaking in Italy and
French-speaking in central France. Moreover, large portions of Rumania
are of exactly the same racial complexion.
Many of the modern Greeks are also Alpines; in fact, are little more
than Byzantinized Slavs. It was through the Byzantine Empire that the
Slavs first came in contact with the Mediterranean world and through
this Greek medium the Russians, the Serbians, the Rumanians and the
Bulgarians received their Christianity.
Situated on the eastern marches of Europe, the Slavs were submerged
during long periods in the Middle Ages by Mongolian hordes and were
checked in development and warped in culture. Definite traces remain of
the blood of the Mongols both in isolated and compact groups in south
Russia and also scattered throughout the whole country as far west as
the German boundary. The high tide of the Mongol invasion was during the
thirteenth century. Three hundred years later the great Muscovite
expansion began, first over the steppes to the Urals and then across
Siberian tundras and forests to the waters of the Pacific, taking up in
its course much Mongolian blood, especially during the early stages of
its advance.
The term “Caucasian race” has ceased to have any meaning except where it
is used, in the United States, to contrast white populations with
Negroes or Indians or in the Old World with Mongols. It is, however, a
convenient term to include the three European subspecies when considered
as divisions of one of the primary branches or species of mankind but it
is, at best, a cumbersome and archaic designation. The name “Caucasian”
arose a century ago from a false assumption that the cradle of the blond
Europeans was in the Caucasus where no traces are now found of any such
race, except a small and decreasing minority of blond traits among the
Ossetes, a tribe whose Aryan speech is related to that of the Armenians,
and who while mainly brachycephalic still retain some blond and
dolichocephalic elements which apparently are fading fast. The Ossetes
now have about thirty per cent fair eyes and ten per cent fair hair.
They are supposed to be to some extent a remnant of the Alans, the
easternmost Teutonic tribe and closely related to the Goths. Both Alans
and Goths very early in the Christian era occupied southern Russia, and
were the latest known Nordics in the vicinity of the Caucasus Mountains.
If these Ossetes are not partly of Alan origin they may possibly
represent the last lingering trace of ancient Scythian dolichocephalic
blondness.
The phrase “Indo-European or Indo-Germanic race” is also of little use.
If it has any meaning at all it must include all the three European
races as well as members of the Mediterranean race in Persia and India.
The use of this name also involves a false assumption of blood
relationship between the north European populations and the Hindus,
because of their possession in common of Aryan speech.
The name “Aryan race” must also be frankly discarded as a term of racial
significance. It is to-day purely linguistic, although there was at one
time, of course, an identity between the original Proto-Aryan mother
tongue and the race that first spoke and developed it. In short, there
is not nor has there ever been either a Caucasian or an Indo-European
race, but there was once, thousands of years ago, an original Aryan race
long since vanished into dim memories of the past. If used in a racial
sense other than as above, it should be limited to the Nordic invaders
of Hindustan now long extinct. The great lapse of time since the
disappearance of the ancient Aryan race as such is measured by the
extreme disintegration of the various groups of Aryan languages. These
linguistic divergences are chiefly due to the imposition by conquest of
Aryan speech upon several distinct subspecies of man throughout western
Asia and Europe.
It may be pertinent before leaving this subject to point out that, as a
whole, “Germans,” “French,” and “English,” as certain populations are
now called, are but little more entitled to be considered the direct
descendants, or even the exclusive modern representatives, of the
ancient Germans, Franks or Anglo-Saxons, than are the living Italians or
Greeks to be regarded as the offspring of the Romans of the days of the
Republic or the Hellenes of the classic period. There are, of course,
many individuals and groups, perhaps even classes, in each of these
nations, who do accurately represent the race from which the national
name was derived. The Scandinavians, on the other hand, are racially
what they were two thousand years ago, though diminished somewhat in
race vigor by the loss through the emigration of some of their more
enterprising members. Meanwhile, at the other end of Europe, the modern
Spaniard probably more closely represents the Iberians before the
arrival of the Gauls than did the Spaniard of five hundred years ago.
VI
RACE AND LANGUAGE
When a country is invaded and conquered by a race speaking a foreign
language, one of several things may happen: replacement of both
population and language, as in the case of eastern England when
conquered by the Saxons or adoption of the language of the victors by
the natives, as happened in Roman Gaul, where the invaders imposed their
Latin tongue throughout the land without substantially altering the
race.
The Romans probably modified the race in Gaul by killing a much larger
proportion of the Nordic fighting classes than of the more submissive
Alpines and Mediterraneans. This is confirmed by the fact that when the
prolonged and brilliant resistance to Cæsar’s legions was finally
broken, no serious attempt was ever again made to throw off the Roman
yoke and a few centuries later the Teutonic invaders encountered no
determined opposition from the inhabitants when they entered and
occupied the land.
In England and Scotland later conquerors, Norsemen, Danes and Normans,
failed to change radically the Saxon speech of the country and in Gaul
the Teutonic tongues of the Franks, Burgundians and Northmen could not
displace the language of Rome.
Autochthonous inhabitants frequently impose upon their invaders their
own language and customs. In Normandy the conquering Norse pirates
accepted the language, religion and customs of the natives and in a
century they vanish from history as Scandinavian heathen and appear as
the foremost representatives of the speech and religion of Rome.
In Hindustan the blond Nordic invaders forced their Aryan language on
the aborigines, but their blood was quickly and utterly absorbed in the
darker strains of the original owners of the land. A record of the
desperate efforts of the conqueror classes in India to preserve the
purity of their blood persists until this very day in their carefully
regulated system of castes. In our Southern States Jim Crow cars and
social discriminations have exactly the same purpose and justification.
The Hindu to-day speaks a very ancient form of Aryan language, but there
remains not one recognizable trace of the blood of the white conquerors
who poured in through the passes of the Northwest. The boast of the
modern Indian that he is of the same race as his English ruler is
entirely without basis in fact and the little swarthy native lives amid
the monuments of a departed grandeur, professing the religion and
speaking the tongue of his long-forgotten Nordic conquerors, without the
slightest claim to blood kinship. The dim and uncertain traces of Nordic
blood in northern India only serve to emphasize the utter swamping of
the white man in the burning South.
The power of racial resistance of a dense and thoroughly acclimated
population to an incoming army is very great. No ethnic conquest can be
complete unless the natives are exterminated and the invaders bring
their own women with them. If the conquerors are obliged to depend upon
the women of the vanquished to carry on the race, the intrusive blood
strain of the invaders in a short time becomes diluted beyond
recognition.
It sometimes happens that an infiltration of population takes place
either in the guise of unwilling slaves or of willing immigrants, who
fill up waste places and take to the lowly tasks which the lords of the
land despise, thus gradually occupying the country and literally
breeding out their masters.
The former catastrophe happened in the declining days of the Roman
Republic and the south Italians of to-day are very largely descendants
of the nondescript slaves of all races, chiefly from the southern and
eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, who were imported by the Romans
under the Empire to work their vast estates. The latter is occurring
to-day in many parts of America, especially in New England.
The eastern half of Germany has a Slavic Alpine substratum which
represents the descendants of the Wends, who first appear about the
commencement of the Christian era and who by the sixth century had
penetrated as far west as the Elbe, occupying the lands left vacant by
the Teutonic tribes which had migrated southward. These Wends in turn
were Teutonized by a return wave of military conquest from the tenth
century onward, and to-day their descendants are considered Germans in
good standing. Having adopted the German as their sole tongue they are
now in religious, political and cultural sympathy with the pure Teutons;
in fact, they are quite unconscious of any racial distinction.
This historic fact underlies the ferocious controversy which has been
raised over the ethnic origin of the Prussians, the issue being whether
the populations in Brandenburg, Silesia, Posen, West Prussia, and other
districts in eastern Germany, are Alpine Wends or true Nordics. The
truth is that the dominant half of the population is purely Teutonic and
the remainder of the population are merely Teutonized Wends and Poles of
Alpine affinities. Of course, these territories must also retain some of
their early Teutonic population and the blood of the Goth, Burgund,
Vandal and Lombard, who at the commencement of the Christian era were
located there, as well as of the later Saxon element, must enter largely
into the composition of the Prussian of to-day.
Some anthropologists regard the Teutonized round heads of south Germany
as a distinct subdivision of the Alpines because of the large percentage
of blond hair and still larger percentage of light colored eyes.
The most important communities in continental Europe of pure German type
are to be found in old Saxony, the country around Hanover, and this
element prevails generally in the northwestern part of the German Empire
among the Low German-speaking population, while the High German-speaking
population is largely composed of Teutonized Alpines.
The coasts of the North Sea extending from Schleswig and Holstein into
Holland are inhabited by a very pure Nordic type known as the Frisians.
They are the handsomest and in many respects the finest of the
continental Nordics and are closely related to the English, as many of
the Post-Roman invaders of England either came from Frisia or from
adjoining districts.
All the states involved in the present world war have sent to the front
their fighting Nordic element and the loss of life now going on in
Europe will fall much more heavily on the blond giant than on the little
brunet.
As in all wars since Roman times from a breeding point of view the
little dark man is the final winner. No one who saw one of our regiments
march on its way to the Spanish War could fail to be impressed with the
size and blondness of the men in the ranks as contrasted with the
complacent citizen, who from his safe stand on the gutter curb gave his
applause to the fighting man and then stayed behind to perpetuate his
own brunet type. In the present war one has merely to study the type of
officer and of the man in the ranks to realize that, in spite of the
draft net, the Nordic race is contributing an enormous majority of the
fighting men, out of all proportion to their relative numbers in the
nation at large.
This same Nordic element, everywhere the type of the sailor, the
soldier, the adventurer and the pioneer, was ever the type to migrate to
new countries, until the ease of transportation and the desire to escape
military service in the last forty years reversed the immigrant tide. In
consequence of this change our immigrants now largely represent lowly
refugees from “persecution,” and other social discards.
In most cases the blood of pioneers has been lost to their race. They
did not take their women with them. They either died childless or left
half-breeds behind them. The virile blood of the Spanish conquistadores,
who are now little more than a memory in Central and South America, died
out from these causes.
This was also true in the early days of our Western frontiersmen, who
individually were a far finer type than the settlers who followed them.
In fact, it is said that practically every one of the Forty-Niners in
California was of Nordic type.
VII
THE EUROPEAN RACES IN COLONIES
For reasons already set forth there are few communities outside of
Europe of pure European blood. The racial destiny of Mexico and of the
islands and coasts of the Spanish Main is clear. The white man is being
rapidly bred out by Negroes on the islands and by Indians on the
mainland. It is quite evident that the West Indies, the coast region of
our Gulf States, perhaps, also the black belt of the lower Mississippi
Valley must be abandoned to Negroes. This transformation is already
complete in Haiti and is going rapidly forward in Cuba and Jamaica.
Mexico and the northern part of South America must also be given over to
native Indians with an ever thinning veneer of white culture of the
“Latin” type.
In Venezuela the pure whites number about one per cent of the whole
population, the balance being Indians and various crosses between
Indians, Negroes and whites. In Jamaica the whites number not more than
two per cent, while the remainder are Negroes or mulattoes. In Mexico
the proportion is larger, but the unmixed whites number less than twenty
per cent of the whole, the others being Indians pure or mixed. These
latter are the “greasers” of the American frontiersman.
Whenever the incentive to imitate the dominant race is removed the Negro
or, for that matter, the Indian, reverts shortly to his ancestral grade
of culture. In other words, it is the individual and not the race that
is affected by religion, education and example. Negroes have
demonstrated throughout recorded time that they are a stationary species
and that they do not possess the potentiality of progress or initiative
from within. Progress from self-impulse must not be confounded with
mimicry or with progress imposed from without by social pressure or by
the slaver’s lash.
When the impulse of an inferior race to imitate or mimic the dress,
manners or morals of the dominant race is destroyed by the acquisition
of political or social independence, the servient race tends to revert
to its original status as in Haiti.
Where two distinct species are located side by side history and biology
teach that but one of two things can happen; either one race drives the
other out, as the Americans exterminated the Indians and as the Negroes
are now replacing the whites in various parts of the South; or else they
amalgamate and form a population of race bastards in which the lower
type ultimately preponderates. This is a disagreeable alternative with
which to confront sentimentalists but nature is only concerned with
results and neither makes nor takes excuses. The chief failing of the
day with some of our well meaning philanthropists is their absolute
refusal to face inevitable facts, if such facts appear cruel.
In the Argentine white blood of the various European races is pouring in
so rapidly that a community preponderantly white, but of the
Mediterranean race, may develop, but the type is suspiciously swarthy.
In Brazil, Negro blood together with that of the native inhabitants is
rapidly overwhelming the white Europeans, although in the southern
provinces German immigration has played an important rôle and the influx
of Italians has also been considerable.
In Asia, with the sole exception of the Russian settlements in Siberia,
there can be and will be no ethnic conquest and all the white men in
India, the East Indies, the Philippines and China will leave not the
slightest trace behind them in the blood of the native population. After
several centuries of contact and settlement the pure Spanish in the
Philippines are about half of one per cent. The Dutch in their East
Indian islands are even less, while the resident whites in Hindustan
amount to about one-tenth of one per cent. Such numbers are
infinitesimal and of no force in a democracy, but in a monarchy, if kept
free from contamination, they suffice for a ruling caste or a military
aristocracy. Throughout history it is only the race of the leaders that
has counted and the most vigorous have been in control and will remain
in mastery in one form or another until such time as democracy and its
illegitimate offspring, socialism, definitely establish cacocracy and
the rule of the worst and put an end to progress. The salvation of
humanity will then lie in the chance survival of some sane barbarians
who may retain the basic truth that inequality and not equality is the
law of nature.
Australia and New Zealand, where the natives have been virtually
exterminated by the whites, are developing into communities of pure
Nordic blood and will for that reason play a large part in the future
history of the Pacific. The bitter opposition of the Australians and
Californians to the admission of Chinese coolies and Japanese farmers is
due primarily to a blind but absolutely justified determination to keep
those lands as white man’s countries.
In Africa, south of the Sahara, the density of the native population
will prevent the establishment of any purely white communities, except
at the southern extremity of the continent and possibly on portions of
the plateaux of eastern Africa. The stoppage of famines and wars and the
abolition of the slave trade, while dictated by the noblest impulses of
humanity, are suicidal to the white man. Upon the removal of these
natural checks Negroes multiply so rapidly that there will not be
standing room on the continent for white men, unless, perchance, the
lethal sleeping sickness, which attacks the natives far more frequently
than the whites, should run its course unchecked.
In South Africa a community of mixed Dutch and English extraction is
developing. Here the only difference is one of language. English, being
a world tongue, will inevitably prevail over the Dutch patois called
“Taal.” This Frisian dialect, as a matter of fact, is closer to old
Saxon or rather Kentish than any living continental tongue and the blood
of the North Hollander is extremely close to that of the Anglo-Saxon of
England. The English and the Dutch will merge in a common type just as
they have in the past two hundred years in the Colony and State of New
York. They must stand together if they are to maintain any part of
Africa as a white man’s country, because they are confronted with the
menace of an enormous black Bantu population which will drive out the
whites unless the problem is bravely faced.
The only possible solution is to establish large colonies for the
Negroes and to allow them outside of them only as laborers and not as
settlers. There must be ultimately a black South Africa and a white
South Africa side by side or else a pure black Africa from the Cape to
the cataracts of the Nile.
In upper Canada, as in the United States up to the time of our Civil
War, the white population was purely Nordic. The Dominion is, as a
whole, handicapped by the presence of an indigestible mass of French
Canadians, largely from Brittany and of Alpine origin, although the
habitant patois is an archaic Norman of the time of Louis XIV. These
Frenchmen were granted freedom of language and religion by their
conquerors and are now using those privileges to form separatist groups
in antagonism to the English population. The Quebec Frenchmen will
succeed in seriously impeding the progress of Canada and will succeed
even better in keeping themselves a poor and ignorant community of
little more importance to the world at large than are the Negroes in the
South. The selfishness of the Quebec Frenchmen is measured by the fact
that in the present war they will not fight for the British Empire or
for France or even for clerical Belgium and they are now endeavoring to
make use of the military crisis to secure a further extension of their
“nationalistic ideals.”
Personally the writer believes that the finest and purest type of a
Nordic community outside of Europe will develop in northwest Canada and
on the Pacific coast of the United States. Most of the other countries
in which the Nordic race is now settling lie outside the special
environment in which alone it can flourish.
The Negroes of the United States while stationary, were not a serious
drag on civilization until in the last century they were given the
rights of citizenship and were incorporated in the body politic. These
Negroes brought with them no language or religion or customs of their
own which persisted but adopted all these elements of environment from
the dominant race, taking the names of their masters just as to-day the
German and Polish Jews are assuming American names. They came for the
most part from the coasts of the Bight of Benin, but some of the later
ones came from the southeast coast of Africa by way of Zanzibar. They
were of various black tribes but have been from the beginning saturated
with white blood.
Looking at any group of Negroes in America, especially in the North, it
is easy to see that while they are all essentially Negroes, whether
coal-black, brown or yellow, a great many of them have varying amounts
of Nordic blood in them, which has in some respects modified their
physical structure without transforming them in any way into white men.
This miscegenation was, of course, a frightful disgrace to the dominant
race but its effect on the Nordics has been negligible, for the simple
reason that it was confined to white men crossing with Negro women and
did not involve the reverse process, which would, of course, have
resulted in the infusion of Negro blood into the American stock.
The United States of America must be regarded racially as a European
colony and owing to current ignorance of the physical bases of race, one
often hears the statement made that native Americans of Colonial
ancestry are of mixed ethnic origin.
This is not true.
At the time of the Revolutionary War the settlers in the thirteen
Colonies were overwhelmingly Nordic, a very large majority being
Anglo-Saxon in the most limited meaning of that term. The New England
settlers in particular came from those counties of England where the
blood was almost purely Saxon, Anglian, Norse and Dane. The date of
their migration was earlier than the resurgence of the Mediterranean
type that has so greatly expanded in England during the last century
with the growth of manufacturing towns.
New England during Colonial times and long afterward was far more Nordic
than old England; that is, it contained a smaller percentage of small,
Pre-Nordic brunets. Any one familiar with the native New Englander knows
the clean cut face, the high stature and the prevalence of gray and blue
eyes and light brown hair and recognizes that the brunet element is less
noticeable there than in the South.
The Southern States were populated also by Englishmen of the purest
Nordic type but there is to-day, except among the mountains, an
appreciably larger amount of brunet types than in the North. Virginia is
in the same latitude as North Africa and south of this line no blonds
have ever been able to survive in full vigor, chiefly because the
actinic rays of the sun are the same regardless of other climatic
conditions. These rays beat heavily on the Nordic race and disturb their
nervous system, wherever the white man ventures too far from the cold
and foggy North.
The remaining Colonial elements, the Holland Dutch and the Palatine
Germans, who came over in small numbers to New York and Pennsylvania,
were also largely Nordic, while many of the French Huguenots who escaped
to America were drawn from the same racial element in France. The
Scotch-Irish, who were numerous on the frontier of the middle Colonies
were, of course, of pure Scotch and English blood, although they had
resided in Ireland for two or three generations. They were quite free
from admixture with the earlier Irish, from whom they were cut off
socially by bitter religious antagonism and they are not to be
considered as “Irish” in any sense.
There was no important immigration of other elements until the middle of
the nineteenth century when Irish Catholic and German immigrants appear
for the first time upon the scene.
The Nordic blood was kept pure in the Colonies because at that time
among Protestant peoples there was a strong race feeling, as a result of
which half-breeds between the white man and any native type were
regarded as natives and not as white men.
There was plenty of mixture with the Negroes as the light color of many
Negroes abundantly testifies, but these mulattoes, quadroons or
octoroons were then and are now universally regarded as Negroes.
There was also abundant cross breeding along the frontiers between the
white frontiersman and the Indian squaw but the half-breed was
everywhere regarded as a member of the inferior race.
In the Catholic colonies, however, of New France and New Spain, if the
half-breed were a good Catholic he was regarded as a Frenchman or a
Spaniard, as the case might be. This fact alone gives the clew to many
of our Colonial wars where the Indians, other than the Iroquois, were
persuaded to join the French against the Americans by half-breeds who
considered themselves Frenchmen. The Church of Rome has everywhere used
its influence to break down racial distinctions. It disregards origins
and only requires obedience to the mandates of the universal church. In
that lies the secret of the opposition of Rome to all national
movements. It maintains the imperial as contrasted with the
nationalistic ideal and in that respect its inheritance is direct from
the Empire.
Race consciousness in the Colonies and in the United States, down to and
including the Mexican War, seems to have been very strongly developed
among native Americans and it still remains in full vigor to-day in the
South, where the presence of a large Negro population forces this
question upon the daily attention of the whites.
In New England, however, whether through the decline of Calvinism or the
growth of altruism, there appeared early in the last century a wave of
sentimentalism, which at that time took up the cause of the Negro and in
so doing apparently destroyed, to a large extent, pride and
consciousness of race in the North. The agitation over slavery was
inimical to the Nordic race, because it thrust aside all national
opposition to the intrusion of hordes of immigrants of inferior racial
value and prevented the fixing of a definite American type.
The Civil War was fought almost entirely by unalloyed native Americans.
The Irish immigrants were, at the middle of the last century, confined
to a few States and, being chiefly domestic servants or day laborers,
were of no social importance. They gathered in the large cities and by
voting as a solid block for their own collective benefit quickly
demoralized the governments of the municipalities in which they secured
ascendancy. The German immigrants who came to America about the same
time were chiefly enthusiasts who had taken part in the German
Revolution of ’48. In spite of the handicap of a strange language they
formed a more docile and educated element than the Irish and were more
prone to scatter into the rural districts. Neither the Irish nor the
Germans played an important part in the development or policies of the
nation as a whole, although in the Civil War they each contributed a
relatively large number of soldiers to the Northern army. These Irish
and German elements were for the most part of the Nordic race and while
they did not in the least strengthen the nation either morally or
intellectually they did not impair its physique.
There has been little or no Indian blood taken into the veins of the
native American, except in States like Oklahoma and in some isolated
families scattered here and there in the Northwest. This particular
mixture will play no very important role in future combinations of race
on this continent, except in the north of Canada.
The native American has always found and finds now in the black men
willing followers who ask only to obey and to further the ideals and
wishes of the master race, without trying to inject into the body
politic their own views, whether racial, religious or social. Negroes
are never socialists or labor unionists and as long as the dominant
imposes its will on the servient race and as long as they remain in the
same relation to the whites as in the past, the Negroes will be a
valuable element in the community but once raised to social equality
their influence will be destructive to themselves and to the whites. If
the purity of the two races is to be maintained they cannot continue to
live side by side and this is a problem from which there can be no
escape.
The native American by the middle of the nineteenth century was rapidly
acquiring distinct characteristics. Derived from the Saxon and Danish
parts of the British Isles and being almost purely Nordic he was by
reason of a differential selection due to a new environment beginning to
show physical peculiarities of his own slightly variant from those of
his English forefathers and corresponding rather with the idealistic
Elizabethan than with the materialistic Hanoverian Englishman. The Civil
War, however, put a severe, perhaps fatal, check to the development and
expansion of this splendid type by destroying great numbers of the best
breeding stock on both sides and by breaking up the home ties of many
more. If the war had not occurred these same men with their descendants
would have populated the Western States instead of the racial
nondescripts who are now flocking there.
There is every reason to believe that the native stock would have
continued to maintain a high rate of increase if there had been no
immigration of foreign laborers in the middle of the nineteenth century
and that the actual population of the United States would be fully as
large as it is now but would have been almost exclusively native
American and Nordic.
The prosperity that followed the war attracted hordes of newcomers who
were welcomed by the native Americans to operate factories, build
railroads and fill up the waste spaces—“developing the country” it was
called.
These new immigrants were no longer exclusively members of the Nordic
race as were the earlier ones who came of their own impulse to improve
their social conditions. The transportation lines advertised America as
a land flowing with milk and honey and the European governments took the
opportunity to unload upon careless, wealthy and hospitable America the
sweepings of their jails and asylums. The result was that the new
immigration, while it still included many strong elements from the north
of Europe, contained a large and increasing number of the weak, the
broken and the mentally crippled of all races drawn from the lowest
stratum of the Mediterranean basin and the Balkans, together with hordes
of the wretched, submerged populations of the Polish Ghettos. Our jails,
insane asylums and almshouses are filled with this human flotsam and the
whole tone of American life, social, moral and political has been
lowered and vulgarized by them.
With a pathetic and fatuous belief in the efficacy of American
institutions and environment to reverse or obliterate immemorial
hereditary tendencies, these newcomers were welcomed and given a share
in our land and prosperity. The American taxed himself to sanitate and
educate these poor helots and as soon as they could speak English,
encouraged them to enter into the political life, first of
municipalities and then of the nation.
The native Americans are splendid raw material, but have as yet only an
imperfectly developed national consciousness. They lack the instinct of
self-preservation in a racial sense. Unless such an instinct develops
their race will perish, as do all organisms which disregard this primary
law of nature. Nature had granted to the Americans of a century ago the
greatest opportunity in recorded history to produce in the isolation of
a continent a powerful and racially homogeneous people and had provided
for the experiment a pure race of one of the most gifted and vigorous
stocks on earth, a stock free from the diseases, physical and moral,
which have again and again sapped the vigor of the older lands. Our
grandfathers threw away this opportunity in the blissful ignorance of
national childhood and inexperience.
The result of unlimited immigration is showing plainly in the rapid
decline in the birth rate of native Americans because the poorer classes
of Colonial stock, where they still exist, will not bring children into
the world to compete in the labor market with the Slovak, the Italian,
the Syrian and the Jew. The native American is too proud to mix socially
with them and is gradually withdrawing from the scene, abandoning to
these aliens the land which he conquered and developed. The man of the
old stock is being crowded out of many country districts by these
foreigners just as he is to-day being literally driven off the streets
of New York City by the swarms of Polish Jews. These immigrants adopt
the language of the native American, they wear his clothes, they steal
his name and they are beginning to take his women, but they seldom adopt
his religion or understand his ideals and while he is being elbowed out
of his own home the American looks calmly abroad and urges on others the
suicidal ethics which are exterminating his own race.
When the test of actual battle comes, it will, of course, be the native
American who will do the fighting and suffer the losses. With him will
stand the immigrants of Nordic blood, but there will be numbers of these
foreigners in the large cities who will prove to be physically unfit for
military duty.
As to what the future mixture will be it is evident that in large
sections of the country the native American will entirely disappear. He
will not intermarry with inferior races and he cannot compete in the
sweat shop and in the street trench with the newcomers. Large cities
from the days of Rome, Alexandria, and Byzantium have always been
gathering points of diverse races, but New York is becoming a _cloaca
gentium_ which will produce many amazing racial hybrids and some ethnic
horrors that will be beyond the powers of future anthropologists to
unravel.
One thing is certain: in any such mixture, the surviving traits will be
determined by competition between the lowest and most primitive elements
and the specialized traits of Nordic man; his stature, his light colored
eyes, his fair skin and light colored hair, his straight nose and his
splendid fighting and moral qualities, will have little part in the
resultant mixture.
The “survival of the fittest” means the survival of the type best
adapted to existing conditions of environment, which to-day are the
tenement and factory, as in Colonial times they were the clearing of
forests, fighting Indians, farming the fields and sailing the Seven
Seas. From the point of view of race it were better described as the
“survival of the unfit.”
This review of the colonies of Europe would be discouraging were it not
for the fact that thus far little attention has been paid to the
suitability of a new country for the particular colonists who migrate
there. The process of sending out colonists is as old as mankind itself
and probably in the last analysis most of the chief races of the world,
certainly most of the inhabitants of Europe, represent the descendants
of successful colonists.
Success in colonization depends on the selection of new lands and
climatic conditions in harmony with the immemorial requirements of the
incoming race. The adjustment of each race to its own peculiar habitat
is based on thousands of years of rigid selection which cannot be safely
ignored. A certain isolation and freedom from competition with other
races, for some centuries at least, is also important, so that the
colonists may become habituated to their new surroundings.
The Americans have not been on the continent long enough to acquire this
adjustment and consequently do not present as effective a resistance to
competition with immigrants as did, let us say, the Italians when
overrun by northern barbarians. As soon as a group of men migrate to new
surroundings, climatic, social or industrial, a new form of selection
arises and those not fitted to the new conditions die off at a greater
rate than in their original home. This form of differential selection
plays a large part in modern industrial centres and in large cities,
where unsanitary conditions bear more heavily on the children of Nordics
than on those of Alpines or Mediterraneans.
_PART II_
EUROPEAN RACES IN HISTORY
I
EOLITHIC MAN
Before considering the living populations of Europe we must give
consideration to the extinct peoples that preceded them.
The science of anthropology is very recent—in its present form less than
fifty years old—but it has already revolutionized our knowledge of the
past and extended prehistory so that it is now measured not by thousands
but by tens of thousands of years.
The history of man prior to the period of metals has been divided into
ten or more subdivisions, many of them longer than the time covered by
written records. Man has struggled up through the ages, to revert again
and again into savagery and barbarism but apparently retaining each time
something gained by the travail of his ancestors.
So long as there is in the world a freely breeding stock or race that
has in it an inherent capacity for development and growth, mankind will
continue to ascend until, possibly through the selection and regulation
of breeding as intelligently applied as in the case of domestic animals,
it will control its own destiny and attain moral heights as yet
unimagined.
The impulse upward, however, is supplied by a very small number of
nations and by a very small proportion of the population in such
nations. The section of any community that produces leaders or genius of
any sort is only a minute percentage. To utilize and adapt to human
needs the forces and the raw materials of nature, to invent new
processes, to establish new principles, and to elucidate and unravel the
laws that control the universe call for genius. To imitate or to adopt
what others have invented is not genius but mimicry.
This something which we call “genius” is not a matter of family, but of
stock or strain, and is inherited in precisely the same manner as are
the purely physical characters. It may be latent through several
generations of obscurity and then flare up when the opportunity comes.
Of this we have many examples in America. This is what education or
opportunity does for a community; it permits in these rare cases fair
play for development, but it is race, always race, that produces genius.
An individual of inferior type or race may profit greatly by good
environment. On the other hand, a member of a superior race in bad
surroundings may, and very often does, sink to an extremely low level.
While emphasizing the importance of race, it must not be forgotten that
environment, while it does not alter the potential capacity of the
stock, can perform miracles in the development of the individual.
This genius producing type is slow breeding and there is real danger of
its loss to mankind. Some idea of the value of these small strains can
be gained from the recent statistics which demonstrate that
Massachusetts produces more than fifty times as much genius per hundred
thousand whites as does Georgia, Alabama or Mississippi, although
apparently the race, religion and environment, other than climatic
conditions, are much the same, except for the numbing presence in the
South of a large stationary Negro population.
The more thorough the study of European prehistory becomes, the more we
realize how many advances of culture have been made and then lost. Our
parents were accustomed to regard the overthrow of ancient civilization
in the Dark Ages as the greatest catastrophe of mankind, but we now know
that the classic period of Greece was preceded by similar dark ages
caused by the Dorian invasions, that had overthrown the Homeric-Mycenæan
culture, which in its turn had flourished after the destruction of its
parent, the brilliant Minoan culture of Crete. Still earlier, some
twelve thousand years ago, the Azilian Period of poverty and
retrogression succeeded the wonderful achievements of the hunter-artists
of the Upper Paleolithic.
The progress of civilization becomes evident only when immense periods
are studied and compared, but the lesson is always the same, namely,
that race is everything. Without race there can be nothing except the
slave wearing his master’s clothes, stealing his master’s proud name,
adopting his master’s tongue and living in the crumbling ruins of his
master’s palace. Everywhere on the sites of ancient civilizations the
Turk, the Kurd and the Bedouin camp; and Americans may well pause and
consider the fate of this country which they, and they alone, founded
and nourished with their blood. The immigrant ditch diggers and the
railroad navvies were to our fathers what their slaves were to the
Romans and the same transfer of political power from master to servant
is taking place to-day.
Man’s place of origin was undoubtedly Asia. Europe is only a peninsula
of the Eurasiatic continent and although the extent of its land area
during the Pleistocene was much greater than at present, it is certain
from the distribution of the various species of man, that the main races
evolved in Asia, probably north of the great Himalayan range long before
the centre of that continent was reduced to a series of deserts by
progressive desiccation.
The evidence based on man’s relatively large bulk, on the lack of the
development of his fore limbs and particularly on his highly specialized
foot structure all indicate that he has not been arboreal for a vast
period of time, probably not since the end of the Miocene. The change of
habitat from the trees to the ground may have been caused by a profound
modification of climate, from moist to dry or from warm to cold, which
in turn may have affected the food supply and compelled a more
carnivorous diet.
Evidence of the location of the early evolution of man in Asia and in
the geologically recent submerged area toward the southeast is afforded
by the fossil deposits in the Siwalik hills of northern India; where the
remains of primates have been found which were either ancestral or
closely related to the four genera of living anthropoids and where we
may confidently look for remains of the earliest human forms; and by the
discovery in Java, which in Pliocene times was connected with the
mainland over what is now the South China Sea, of the earliest known
form of erect primate, the _Pithecanthropus_. This ape-like man is
practically the “missing link,” being intermediate between man and the
anthropoids and is generally believed to have been contemporary with the
Günz glaciation of some 500,000 years ago, the first of the four great
glacial advances in Europe.
One or two species of anthropoid apes have been discovered in the
Miocene of Europe which may possibly have been remotely related to the
ancestors of man but when the archæological exploration of Asia shall be
as complete and intensive as that of Europe it is probable that more
forms of fossil anthropoids and new species of man will be found there.
Man existed in Europe during the second and third interglacial periods,
if not earlier. We have his artifacts in the form of eoliths, at least
as early as the second interglacial stage, the Mindel-Riss, of some
300,000 years ago. A single jaw found near Heidelberg is referred to
this period and is the earliest skeletal evidence of man in Europe. From
certain remarkable characters in this jaw, it has been assigned to a new
species, _Homo heidelbergensis_.
Then follows a long period showing only scanty industrial relics and no
known skeletal remains. Man was slowly and painfully struggling up from
a culture phase where chance flints served his temporary purpose. This
period, known as the Eolithic, was succeeded by a stage of human
development where slight chipping and retouching of flints for his
increasing needs led, after vast intervals of time, to the deliberate
manufacture of tools. This Eolithic Period is necessarily extremely hazy
and uncertain. Whether or not certain chipped or broken flints, called
eoliths or dawn stones, were actually human artifacts or were the
products of natural forces is, however, immaterial for man must have
passed through such an eolithic stage.
The further back we go toward the commencement of this Eolithic culture,
the more unrecognizable the flints necessarily become until they finally
cannot be distinguished from natural stone fragments. At the beginning,
the earliest man merely picked up a convenient stone, used it once and
flung it away, precisely as an anthropoid ape would act to-day if he
wanted to break the shell of a tortoise or crack an ostrich egg.
Man must have experienced the following phases of development in the
transition from the prehuman to the human stage: first, the utilization
of chance stones and sticks; second, the casual adaptation of flints by
a minimum amount of chipping; third, the deliberate manufacture of the
simplest implements from flint nodules; and fourth, the invention of new
forms of weapons and tools in ever increasing variety.
Of the last two stages we have an extensive and clear record. Of the
second stage we have in the eoliths intermediate forms ranging from
flints that are evidently results of natural causes to flints that are
clearly artifacts. The first and earliest stage, of course, could leave
behind it no definite record and must in the present state of our
knowledge rest on hypothesis.
II
PALEOLITHIC MAN
With the deliberate manufacture of implements from flint nodules, we
enter the beginning of Paleolithic time and from here on our way is
relatively clear. The successive stages of the Paleolithic were of great
length but are each characterized by some improvement in the manufacture
of tools. During long ages man was merely a tool making and tool using
animal and, after all is said, that is about as good a definition as we
can find to-day for the primate we call human.
The Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age lasted from the somewhat
indefinite termination of the Eolithic, some 150,000 years ago, to the
Neolithic or New Stone Age, which began about 7000 B. C.
The Paleolithic falls naturally into three great subdivisions. The Lower
Paleolithic includes the whole of the last interglacial stage with the
subdivisions of the Pre-Chellean, Chellean and Acheulean; the Middle
Paleolithic covers the whole of the last glaciation and is co-extensive
with the Mousterian Period and the dominance of the Neanderthal species
of man.[1] The Upper Paleolithic embraces all the postglacial stages
down to the Neolithic and includes the subdivisions of the Aurignacian,
Solutrean, Magdalenian and Azilian. During the entire Upper Paleolithic,
except the short closing phase, the Cro-Magnon race flourished.
Footnote 1:
The Middle Paleolithic Period is suggested here for the first
time.—EDITOR’S NOTE.
It is not until after the third severe period of great cold, known as
the Riss glaciation, nor until we enter, some 150,000 years ago, the
third and last interglacial stage of temperate climate, known as the
Riss-Würm, that we find a definite and ascending series of culture. The
Pre-Chellean, Chellean and Acheulean divisions of the Lower Paleolithic
occupied the whole of this warm or rather temperate interglacial phase,
which lasted nearly 100,000 years.
A shattered skull, a jaw and some teeth have been discovered recently in
Sussex, England. These remains were attributed to the same individual,
who was named the Piltdown Man. Owing to the extraordinary thickness of
the skull and the simian character of the jaw, a new genus,
_Eoanthropus_, the “dawn man,” was created and assigned to Pre-Chellean
times. Some of the tentative restorations of the fragmentary bones make
this skull altogether too modern and too capacious for a Pre-Chellean or
even a Chellean.
Further study and comparison with the jaws of other primates also
indicate that the jaw belonged to a chimpanzee so that the genus
_Eoanthropus_ must now be abandoned and the Piltdown Man must be
included in the genus _Homo_ as at present constituted.
In any event the Piltdown Man is highly aberrant and, so far as our
present knowledge goes, does not appear to be related to any other
species of man found during the Lower Paleolithic. Future discoveries of
the Piltdown type and for that matter of Heidelberg Man may, however,
raise either or both of them to generic rank.
In later Acheulean times a new human species, very likely descended from
the early Heidelberg Man of Eolithic times, appears on the scene and is
known as the Neanderthal race. Many fossil remains of this type have
been found.
The Neanderthaloids occupied the European stage exclusively, with the
possible exception of the Piltdown Man, from the first appearance of man
in Europe to the end of the Middle Paleolithic. The Neanderthals
flourished throughout the entire duration of the last glacial advance
known as the Würm glaciation. This period, known as the Mousterian,
began about 50,000 years ago and lasted some 25,000 years.
The Neanderthal species disappears suddenly and completely with the
advent of postglacial times, when, about 25,000 years ago, it was
apparently supplanted or exterminated by a new and far higher race, the
famous Cro-Magnons.
There may well have been during Mousterian times races of man in Europe
other than the Neanderthaloids, but of them we have no record. Among the
numerous remains of Neanderthals, however, we do find traces of distinct
types showing that this race in Europe was undergoing evolution and was
developing marked variations in characters.
Neanderthal Man was an almost purely meat eating hunter, living in caves
or rather in their entrances. He was dolichocephalic and not unlike
existing Australoids, although not necessarily of black skin and was, of
course, in no sense a Negro.
The skull was characterized by heavy superorbital ridges, a low and
receding forehead, protruding and chinless under jaw and the posture was
imperfectly erect. This race was widely spread and rather numerous. Some
of its blood may have trickled down to the present time and occasionally
one sees a skull apparently of the Neanderthal type. The best skull of
this type ever seen by the writer belonged to a very intellectual
professor in London, who was quite unconscious of his value as a museum
specimen. In the old black breed of Scotland the overhanging brows and
deep-set eyes are suggestive of this race.
Along with other ancient and primitive racial remnants, ferocious
gorilla-like living specimens of Paleolithic man are found not
infrequently on the west coast of Ireland and are easily recognized by
the great upper lip, bridgeless nose, beetling brow with low growing
hair and wild and savage aspect. The proportions of the skull which give
rise to this large upper lip, the low forehead and the superorbital
ridges are certainly Neanderthal characters. The other traits of this
Irish type are common to many primitive races. This is the Irishman of
caricature and the type was very frequent in America when the first
Irish immigrants came in 1846 and the following years. It seems,
however, to have almost disappeared in this country. If, as it is
claimed, the Neanderthals have left no trace of their blood in living
populations, these Firbolgs are derived from some very ancient and
primitive race as yet undescribed.
In the Upper Paleolithic, which began after the close of the fourth and
last glaciation, about 25,000 years ago, the Neanderthal race was
succeeded by men of very modern aspect, known as Cro-Magnons. The date
of the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic is the first we can fix with
accuracy and its correctness can be relied on within narrow limits. The
Cro-Magnon race first appears in the Aurignacian subdivision of the
Upper Paleolithic. Like the Neanderthals, they were dolichocephalic but
with a cranial capacity superior to the average in existing European
populations and a stature of very remarkable size.
It is quite astonishing to find that the predominant race in Europe
25,000 years ago, or more, was not only much taller, but had an absolute
cranial capacity in excess of the average of the present population. The
low cranial average of existing populations in Europe can be best
explained by the presence of large numbers of individuals of inferior
mentality. These defectives have been carefully preserved by modern
charity, whereas in the savage state of society the backward members
were allowed to perish and the race was carried on by the vigorous and
not by the weaklings.
The high brain capacity of the Cro-Magnons is paralleled by that of the
ancient Greeks, who in a single century gave to the world out of their
small population much more genius than all the other races of mankind
have since succeeded in producing in a similar length of time. Attica
between 530 and 430 B. C. had an average population of about 90,000
freemen, and yet from this number were born no less than fourteen
geniuses of the very highest rank. This would indicate a general
intellectual status as much above that of the Anglo-Saxons as the latter
are above the Negroes. The existence at these early dates of a very high
cranial capacity and its later decline shows that there is no upward
tendency inherent in mankind of sufficient strength to overcome
obstacles placed in its way by stupid social customs.
All historians are familiar with the phenomenon of a rise and decline in
civilization such as has occurred time and again in the history of the
world but we have here in the disappearance of the Cro-Magnon race the
earliest example of the replacement of a very superior race by an
inferior one. There is great danger of a similar replacement of a higher
by a lower type here in America unless the native American uses his
superior intelligence to protect himself and his children from
competition with intrusive peoples drained from the lowest races of
eastern Europe and western Asia.
While the skull of the Cro-Magnon was long, the cheek bones were very
broad and this combination of broad face with long skull constitutes a
peculiar disharmonic type which occurs to-day only among the very highly
specialized Esquimaux and one or two other unimportant groups.
Skulls of this particular type, however, are found in small numbers
among existing populations in central France, precisely in the district
where the fossil remains of this race were first discovered. These
isolated Frenchmen probably represent the last lingering remnant of this
splendid race of hunting savages.
The Cro-Magnon culture is found around the basin of the Mediterranean,
and this fact, together with the conspicuous absence in eastern Europe
of its earliest phases, the lower Aurignacian, indicates that it entered
Europe by way of north Africa, as its successors, the Mediterranean
race, probably did in Neolithic times. There is little doubt that the
Cro-Magnons originally developed in Asia and were in their highest stage
of physical development at the time of their first appearance in Europe.
Whatever change took place in their stature during their residence there
seems to have been in the nature of a decline rather than of a further
development.
There is nothing whatever of the Negroid in the Cro-Magnons and they are
not in any way related to the Neanderthals, who represent a distinct
and, save for the suggestions made above, an extinct species of man.
The Cro-Magnon race persisted through the entire Upper Paleolithic,
during the periods known as the Aurignacian, Solutrean and Magdalenian,
from 25,000 to 10,000 B. C. While it is possible that the blood of this
race enters somewhat into the composition of the peoples of western
Europe, its influence cannot be great and the Cro-Magnons—the Nordics of
their day—disappear from view with the advent of the warmer climate of
recent times.
It has been suggested that, following the fading ice edge north and
eastward through Asia into North America, they became the ancestors of
the Esquimaux but certain anatomical objections are fatal to this
interesting theory. No one, however, who is familiar with the culture of
the Esquimaux and especially with their wonderful skill in bone and
ivory carving, can fail to be struck with the similarity of their
technique to that of the Cro-Magnons.
To the Cro-Magnon race the world owes the birth of art. Caverns and
shelters are constantly unearthed in France and Spain, where the walls
and ceilings are covered with polychrome paintings or with incised
bas-reliefs of animals of the chase. A few clay models, sometimes of the
human form, are also found, together with abundant remains of their
chipped but unpolished stone weapons and tools. Certain facts stand out
clearly, namely, that they were purely hunters and clothed themselves in
furs and skins. They knew nothing of agriculture or of domestic animals,
even the dog being probably as yet untamed and the horse regarded merely
as an object of chase.
The question of their knowledge of the principle of the bow and arrow
during the Aurignacian and Solutrean is an open one but there are
definite indications of the use of the arrow, or at least the barbed
dart, in early Magdalenian times and this weapon was well known in the
succeeding Azilian Period.
The presence toward the end of this last period of quantities of very
small flints called microliths has given rise to much controversy. It is
possible that some of these microliths represent the tips of small
poisoned arrows such as are now in very general use among primitive
hunting tribes the world over. Certain grooves in some of the flint
weapons of the Upper Paleolithic may also have been used for the
reception of poison. It is highly probable that the immediate
predecessors of the Azilians, the Cro-Magnons, perhaps the greatest
hunters that ever lived, not only used poisoned darts but were adepts in
trapping game by means of pitfalls and snares, precisely as do some of
the hunting tribes of Africa to-day. Barbed arrowheads of flint or bone,
such as were commonly used by the North American Indians, have not been
found in Paleolithic deposits.
In the Solutrean Period the Cro-Magnons shared Europe with a new race
known as the Brünn-Předmost, found in central Europe. This race is
characterized by a long face as well as a long skull, and was,
therefore, harmonic. This Brünn-Předmost race appears to have been well
settled in the Danubian and Hungarian plains and this location indicates
an eastern rather than a southern origin.
Good anatomists have seen in this race the last lingering traces of the
Neanderthaloids but it is more probable that we have here the first
advance wave of the primitive forerunners of one of the modern European
dolichocephalic races.
This new race was not artistic, but had great skill in fashioning
weapons and possibly is associated with the peculiarities of Solutrean
culture and the decline of art which characterizes that period. The
artistic impulse of the Cro-Magnons which flourished so vigorously
during the Aurignacian seems to be quite suspended during this Solutrean
Period, but reappears in the succeeding Magdalenian times. This
Magdalenian art is clearly the direct descendant of Aurignacian models
and in this closing age of the Cro-Magnons all forms of Paleolithic art,
carving, engraving, painting and the manufacture of weapons, reach their
highest and final culmination.
Nine or ten thousand years may be assigned to the Aurignacian and
Solutrean Periods and we may with considerable certainty give the
minimum date of 16,000 B. C. as the beginning of Magdalenian time. Its
entire duration can be safely set down at 6,000 years, thus bringing the
final termination of the Magdalenian to 10,000 B. C. All these dates are
extremely conservative and the error, if any, is in assigning too late
and not too early a period to the end of Magdalenian times.
At the close of the Magdalenian we enter upon the last period of
Paleolithic times, the Azilian, which lasted from about 10,000 to 7,000
B. C., when the Upper Paleolithic, the age of chipped flints, definitely
and finally ends in Europe. This period takes its name from the Mas
d’Azil, or “House of Refuge,” a huge cavern in the eastern Pyrenees
where the local Protestants took shelter during the persecutions. The
extensive deposits in this cave are typical of the Azilian epoch and
here certain marked pebbles may be the earliest known traces of symbolic
writing, but true writing was probably not developed until the late
Neolithic.
With the advent of this Azilian Period art entirely disappears and the
splendid physical type of the Cro-Magnons is succeeded by what appear to
have been degraded savages, who had lost the force and vigor necessary
for the strenuous chase of large game and had turned to the easier life
of fishermen.
In the Azilian the bow and arrow are in common use in Spain and it is
well within the possibilities that the introduction and development of
this new weapon from the South may have played its part in the
destruction of the Cro-Magnons; otherwise it is hard to account for the
disappearance of this race of large stature and great brain power.
The Azilian, also called the Tardenoisian in the north of France, was
evidently a period of racial disturbance and at its close the beginnings
of the existing races are found.
From the first appearance of man in Europe and for many tens of
thousands of years down to some ten or twelve thousand years ago all
known human remains are of dolichocephalic type.
In the Azilian Period appears the first round skull race. It comes
clearly from the East. Later we shall find that this invasion of the
forerunners of the existing Alpine race came from southwestern Asia by
way of the Iranian plateau, Asia Minor, the Balkans and the valley of
the Danube, and spread over nearly all of Europe. The earlier round
skull invasions may as well have been infiltrations as armed conquests
since apparently from that day to this the round skulls have occupied
the poorer mountain districts and have seldom ventured down to the rich
and fertile plains.
This new brachycephalic race is known as the Furfooz or Grenelle race,
so called from the localities in Belgium and France where it was first
discovered. Members of this round skull race have also been found at
Ofnet in Bavaria where they occur in association with a dolichocephalic
race, our first historic evidence of the mixture of contrasted races.
The descendants of this Furfooz-Grenelle race and of the succeeding
waves of invaders of the same brachycephalic type now occupy central
Europe as Alpines and form the predominant peasant type in central and
eastern Europe.
In this same Azilian Period there appear, coming this time from the
South, the first forerunners of the Mediterranean race. The descendants
of this earliest wave of Mediterraneans and their later reinforcements
occupy all the coast and islands of the Mediterranean and are spread
widely over western Europe. They can everywhere be identified by their
short stature, slight build, long skull and brunet hair and eyes.
While during this Azilian-Tardenoisian Period these ancestors of two of
the existing European races are appearing in central and southern
Europe, a new culture phase, also distinctly Pre-Neolithic, was
developing along the shores of the Baltic. It is known as Maglemose from
its type locality in Denmark. It is believed to be the work of the first
wave of the Nordic race which had followed the retreating glaciers
northward over the old land connections between Denmark and Sweden to
occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula. In the remains of this culture we
find definite evidence of the domesticated dog.
With the appearance of the Mediterranean race the Azilian-Tardenoisian
draws to its close and with it the entire Paleolithic Period. It is safe
to assign for the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of the
Neolithic or Polished Stone Age, the date of 7,000 or 8,000 B. C.
The races of the Paleolithic Period, so far as we can judge from their
remains, appear successively on the scene with all their characters
fully developed. The evolution of all these subspecies and races took
place somewhere in Asia or eastern Europe. None of these races appear to
be ancestral one to another, although the scanty remains of the
Heidelberg Man would indicate that he may have given rise to the later
Neanderthals. Other than this possible affinity, the various races of
Paleolithic times are not related one to another.
III
THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGES
About 7,000 B.C. we enter an entirely new period in the history of man,
the Neolithic or New Stone Age, when the flint implements were polished
and not merely chipped. Early as is this date in European culture, we
are not far from the beginnings of an elaborate civilization in parts of
Asia and Egypt. The earliest organized governments, so far as our
present knowledge goes, were Egypt and Sumer. Chinese civilization at
the other end of Asia is later, but mystery still shrouds its origin and
its connection, if any, with the Mesopotamian city-states. The solution
probably lies in the central region of the Syr Darya and future
excavations in those regions may uncover very early cultures. Balkh, the
ancient Bactra, the mother of cities, is located where the trade routes
between China, India and Mesopotamia converged and it is in this
neighborhood that careful and thorough excavations will probably find
their greatest reward.
However, we are not dealing with Asia but with Europe only and our
knowledge is confined to the fact that the various cultural advances at
the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of the Neolithic correspond
with the arrival of new races.
The transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic was formerly
considered as revolutionary, an abrupt change of both race and culture,
but a period more or less transitory, known as the Campignian, now
appears to bridge over this gap. This is only what should be expected,
since in human archæology as in geology the more detailed our knowledge
becomes the more gradually we find one period or horizon merges into its
successor.
For a long time after the opening of the Neolithic the old-fashioned
chipped weapons and implements remain the predominant type and the
polished flints so characteristic of the Neolithic appear at first only
sporadically, then increase in number until finally they entirely
replace the rougher designs of the preceding Old Stone Age.
So in their turn these Neolithic polished stone implements, which
ultimately became both varied and effective as weapons and tools,
continued in use long after metallurgy developed. In the Bronze Period
metal armor and weapons were for ages of the greatest value. So they
were necessarily in the possession of the military and ruling classes
only, while the unfortunate serf or common soldier who followed his
master to war did the best he could with leather shield and stone
weapons. In the ring that clustered around Harold for the last stand on
Senlac Hill many of the English thanes died with their Saxon king, armed
solely with the stone battle-axes of their ancestors.
In Italy also there was a long period known to the Italian archæologists
as the Eneolithic Period when good flint tools existed side by side with
very poor copper and bronze implements; so that, while the Neolithic
lasted in western Europe four or five thousand years, it is, at its
commencement, without clear definition from the preceding Paleolithic
and at its end it merges gradually into the succeeding ages of metals.
After the opening Campignian phase there followed a long period typical
of the Neolithic, known as the Robenhausian or Age of the Swiss Lake
Dwellers, which reached its height after 5000 B. C. The lake dwellings
seem to have been the work chiefly of the round skull Alpine races and
are found in numbers throughout the region of the Alps and their
foothills and along the valley of the Danube.
These Robenhausian pile built villages were the earliest known form of
fixed habitation in Europe and the culture found in association with
them was a great advance over that of the preceding Paleolithic. This
type of permanent habitation flourished through the entire Upper
Neolithic and the succeeding Bronze Age. Pile villages end in
Switzerland with the first appearance of iron but elsewhere, as on the
upper Danube, they still existed in the days of Herodotus.
Pottery is found together with domesticated animals and agriculture,
which appear during the Robenhausian for the first time. The chase,
supplemented by trapping and fishing, was still common but it probably
was more for clothing than for food. A permanent site is not alone the
basis of an agricultural community, but it also involves at least a
partial abandonment of the chase, because only nomads can follow the
game in its seasonal migrations and hunted animals soon leave the
neighborhood of settlements.
The Terramara Period of northern Italy was a later phase of culture
contemporaneous with the Upper Robenhausian and was typical of the
Bronze Age. During the Terramara Period fortified and moated stations in
swamps or close to the banks of rivers became the favorite resorts
instead of pile villages built in lakes. The first traces of copper are
found during this period. The earliest human remains in the Terramara
deposits are long skulled, but round skulls soon appear in association
with bronze implements. This indicates an original population of
Mediterranean affinities overwhelmed later by Alpines.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE RACES OF EUROPE
THEIR CHARACTERS AND DISTRIBUTION
┌────────────────────────┬───────────────────┬──────────────────┐
│ EUROPEAN RACES │ MODERN PEOPLES │ ANCIENT PEOPLES │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
├────────────────────────┼───────────────────┼──────────────────┤
│_Nordic._ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens nordicus, │All Norse, Swedes, │Sacæ, Massagetæ, │
│ Homo sapiens europeus,│ Danes, Letts, │ Scythians, │
│ Baltic, Indo-Germanic,│ many Finlanders, │ Cimmerians, │
│ Indo-European, │ many Russians and│ Persians, │
│ Scandinavian, │ Poles, North │ Phrygians, │
│ Teutonic, Germanic, │ Germans, many │ Achæans, │
│ Dolicho-lepto, │ French, Dutch, │ Dorians, │
│ Reihengraber, Finnic. │ Flemings, │ Thracians, │
│ │ English, Scotch, │ Umbrians, │
│ │ most Irish, │ Oscans, Gauls, │
│ │ Native Americans,│ Galatians, │
│ │ Canadians, │ Cymry, Belgæ, │
│ │ Australians, │ many Romans, │
│ │ Africanders. │ Goths, Lombards,│
│ │ │ Vandals, │
│ │ │ Burgunds, │
│ │ │ Franks, Danes, │
│ │ │ Saxons, Angles, │
│ │ │ Norse, Normans, │
│ │ │ Varangians. │
│ │ │ Reihengräber. │
│ │ │ Kurgans. │
│ │ │ Maglemose │
│ │ │ culture. │
│ │ │ │
│_Alpine._ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens alpinus │Bretons, Walloons, │Sumerians, │
│ (Eurasiatic), │ Central French, │ Hittites, Medes,│
│ Celto-Slav or Kelts of│ some Basques, │ Khosars, │
│ the French, Sarmatian,│ Savoyards, Swiss,│ Sarmatians, │
│ Arvernian, Auvergnat, │ Tyrolese, most │ Wends, Sorbs. │
│ Slavic, Savoyard, │ South Germans, │ Furfooz-Grenelle│
│ Lappanoid, Armenoid. │ North Italians, │ race, Swiss Lake│
│ │ German-Austrians,│ Dwellers, Gizeh │
│ │ Bohemians, │ skulls. │
│ │ Slovaks, Magyars,│ Robenhausen. │
│ │ many Poles, most │ Round Barrows. │
│ │ Russians, Serbs, │ Bronze culture. │
│ │ Bulgars, most │ │
│ │ Rumanians, most │ │
│ │ Greeks, Turks, │ │
│ │ Armenians, most │ │
│ │ Persians and │ │
│ │ Afghans. │ │
│ │ │ │
│_Mediterranean._ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens │Many English, │Egyptians, many │
│ mediterraneus │ Portuguese, │ Babylonians, │
│ (Eurafrican), Iberian,│ Spaniards, some │ Pelasgians, │
│ Ligurian, │ Basques, │ Etruscans, │
│ Atlanto-Mediterranean.│ Provençals, South│ Ligurians, │
│ │ Italians, │ Phœnicians, most│
│ │ Sicilians, many │ Greeks, many │
│ │ Greeks and │ Romans, Cretans,│
│ │ Rumanians, Moors,│ Iberians. Long │
│ │ Berbers, │ Barrows. │
│ │ Egyptians, many │ Neolithic │
│ │ Persians and │ culture. │
│ │ Afghans, Hindus. │ Megalithic │
│ │ │ monuments. │
│ │ │ │
│_Upper Paleolithic._ │ │ │
│_Extinct races._ │ │ │
│Furfooz-Grenelle. │ │Proto-Alpines. │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│Brünn Předmost. │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens │A few Dordognois. │Cro-Magnons. │
│ cromagnonensis. │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│_Middle Paleolithic._ │ │ │
│Homo neanderthalensis, │Doubtful traces │Neanderthals. │
│ Homo primigenius. │ among west Irish │ Neanderthaloids.│
│ │ and among the old│ │
│ │ black breed of │ │
│ │ Scotland and │ │
│ │ Wales. │ │
└────────────────────────┴───────────────────┴──────────────────┘
┌────────────────────────┬─────────────┬─────────┬───────────┐
│ EUROPEAN RACES │ SKULL │ FACE │ NOSE │
│ │ CEPHALIC │ │ │
│ │ INDEX │ │ │
├────────────────────────┼─────────────┼─────────┼───────────┤
│_Nordic._ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens nordicus, │Long. 79 and │High. │Narrow. │
│ Homo sapiens europeus,│ less. │ Narrow.│ Straight.│
│ Baltic, Indo-Germanic,│ │ Long. │ Aquiline.│
│ Indo-European, │ │ │ │
│ Scandinavian, │ │ │ │
│ Teutonic, Germanic, │ │ │ │
│ Dolicho-lepto, │ │ │ │
│ Reihengraber, Finnic. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│_Alpine._ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens alpinus │Round. │Broad. │Variable. │
│ (Eurasiatic), │ 80 and │ │ Rather │
│ Celto-Slav or Kelts of│ over. │ │ broad. │
│ the French, Sarmatian,│ │ │ Coarse. │
│ Arvernian, Auvergnat, │ │ │ │
│ Slavic, Savoyard, │ │ │ │
│ Lappanoid, Armenoid. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│_Mediterranean._ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens │Long. 79 and │High. │Rather │
│ mediterraneus │ less. │ Narrow.│ broad. │
│ (Eurafrican), Iberian,│ │ Long. │ │
│ Ligurian, │ │ │ │
│ Atlanto-Mediterranean.│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│_Upper Paleolithic._ │ │ │ │
│_Extinct races._ │ │ │ │
│Furfooz-Grenelle. │Round, 79–85.│Medium. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│Brünn Předmost. │Long, 66–68. │Low and │ │
│ │ │ medium.│ │
│Homo sapiens │Long, with │Low and │Narrow and │
│ cromagnonensis. │ disharmonic│ broad. │ aquiline.│
│ │ broad face,│ │ │
│ │ 63–76. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│_Middle Paleolithic._ │ │ │ │
│Homo neanderthalensis, │Long. │Long. │Broad. │
│ Homo primigenius. │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
└────────────────────────┴─────────────┴─────────┴───────────┘
┌────────────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬─────────┬─────────────┐
│ EUROPEAN RACES │ STATURE │HAIR COLOR │EYE COLOR│ LANGUAGE │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├────────────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────┼─────────────┤
│_Nordic._ │ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens nordicus, │Tall. │Flaxen. │Blue. │All Aryan │
│ Homo sapiens europeus,│ │ Fair. │ Gray. │ except │
│ Baltic, Indo-Germanic,│ │ Red. │ Green. │ Tchouds, │
│ Indo-European, │ │ Light │ Light │ Esths, many│
│ Scandinavian, │ │ brown to │ brown │ Finlanders,│
│ Teutonic, Germanic, │ │ chestnut.│ or │ and a few │
│ Dolicho-lepto, │ │ Never │ hazel. │ tribes in │
│ Reihengraber, Finnic. │ │ black. │ │ Siberia. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│_Alpine._ │ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens alpinus │Medium. │Dark brown.│Black or │In Europe all│
│ (Eurasiatic), │ Stocky. │ Black. │ dark │ Aryan │
│ Celto-Slav or Kelts of│ Heavy. │ │ brown. │ except │
│ the French, Sarmatian,│ │ │ Often │ Magyars, │
│ Arvernian, Auvergnat, │ │ │ hazel │ some │
│ Slavic, Savoyard, │ │ │ or │ Basques, │
│ Lappanoid, Armenoid. │ │ │ gray, │ and some │
│ │ │ │ in │ Finlanders.│
│ │ │ │ western│ In Asia │
│ │ │ │ Europe.│ mostly │
│ │ │ │ │ Aryan, │
│ │ │ │ │ except │
│ │ │ │ │ Turcomans, │
│ │ │ │ │ Kirghizes, │
│ │ │ │ │ and other │
│ │ │ │ │ nomad │
│ │ │ │ │ tribes. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│_Mediterranean._ │ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens │Short. │Dark brown.│Black. │In Europe all│
│ mediterraneus │ Slender. │ Black. │ Dark │ Aryan, │
│ (Eurafrican), Iberian,│ │ │ brown. │ except some│
│ Ligurian, │ │ │ │ Basques. In│
│ Atlanto-Mediterranean.│ │ │ │ Africa all │
│ │ │ │ │ Non-Aryan. │
│ │ │ │ │ In Asia │
│ │ │ │ │ nearly all │
│ │ │ │ │ Aryan. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│_Upper Paleolithic._ │ │ │ │ │
│_Extinct races._ │ │ │ │ │
│Furfooz-Grenelle. │ │Probably │Probably │Probably │
│ │ │ very │ very │ non-Aryan. │
│ │ │ dark. │ dark. │ │
│Brünn Předmost. │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│Homo sapiens │Very tall │Probably │Probably │Probably │
│ cromagnonensis. │ and │ very │ very │ non-Aryan. │
│ │ medium. │ dark. │ dark. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│_Middle Paleolithic._ │ │ │ │ │
│Homo neanderthalensis, │Short and │Probably │Probably │Probably │
│ Homo primigenius. │ powerful.│ very │ very │ non-Aryan. │
│ │ │ dark. │ dark. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
└────────────────────────┴───────────┴───────────┴─────────┴─────────────┘
Neolithic culture also flourished in the north of Europe and
particularly in Scandinavia now free from ice. The coasts of the Baltic
were apparently occupied for the first time at the very beginning of
this period, as no trace of Paleolithic industry has been found there,
other than the Maglemose, which represents only the very latest phase of
the Old Stone Age. The kitchen middens, or refuse heaps, of Sweden and
more particularly of Denmark date from the early Neolithic and thus are
somewhat earlier than the lake dwellers. Rough pottery occurs in them
for the first time, but no traces of agriculture have been found and, as
said, the dog seems to have been the only domesticated animal.
From these two centres, the Alps and the North, an elaborate and
variegated Neolithic culture spread through western Europe and an
autochthonous development took place, comparatively little influenced by
trade intercourse with Asia after the first immigrations of the new
races.
We may assume that the distribution of races in Europe during the
Neolithic was roughly as follows.
The Mediterranean basin and western Europe, including Spain, Italy,
Gaul, Britain and parts of western Germany, were populated by
Mediterranean long heads. In Britain the Paleolithic population must
have been very small and the Neolithic Mediterraneans were the first
effectively to open up the country. Even they kept to the open moorlands
and avoided the heavily wooded and swampy valleys which to-day are the
main centres of population. Before metal and especially iron tools were
in use forests were an almost complete barrier to the expansion of an
agricultural population.
The Alps and the territories immediately adjacent, with Central Gaul and
much of the Balkans, were inhabited by Alpine types. These Alpines
extended northward until they came in touch in eastern Germany and
Poland with the southernmost Nordics, but as the Carpathians at a much
later date, namely, from the fourth to the eighth century A. D., were
the centre of radiation of the Alpine Slavs, it is very possible that
during the Neolithic the early Nordics lay farther north and east.
North of the Alpines and occupying the shores of the Baltic and
Scandinavia, together with eastern Germany, Poland and Russia, were
located the Nordics. At the very base of the Neolithic and perhaps still
earlier, this race occupied Scandinavia, and Sweden became the nursery
of what has been generally called the Teutonic subdivision of the Nordic
race. It was in that country that the peculiar characters of stature and
blondness became most accentuated and it is there that we find them
to-day in their greatest purity.
During the Neolithic the remnants of early Paleolithic man must have
been numerous, but later they were either exterminated or absorbed by
the existing European races.
During all this Neolithic Period Mesopotamia and Egypt were thousands of
years in advance of Europe, but only a small amount of culture from
these sources seems to have trickled westward up the valley of the
Danube, then and long afterward the main route of intercourse between
western Asia and the heart of Europe. Some trade also passed from the
Black Sea up the Russian rivers to the Baltic coasts. Along these latter
routes there came from the north to the Mediterranean world the amber of
the Baltic, a fossil resin greatly prized by early man for its magic
electrical qualities.
Gold was probably the first metal to attract the attention of primitive
man, but could only be used for purposes of ornamentation. Copper, which
is often found in a pure state, was also one of the earliest metals
known and probably came first either from the mines of Cyprus or of the
Sinai Peninsula. These latter mines are known to have been worked before
3400 B. C. by systematic mining operations and much earlier “the metal
must have been obtained by primitive methods from surface ore.” It is,
therefore, probable that copper was known and used, at first for
ornament and later for implements, in Egypt before 4000 B. C. and
possibly even earlier in the Mesopotamian regions.
We now reach the confines of recorded history and the first absolutely
fixed date, 4241 B. C., is established for lower Egypt by the oldest
known calendar. The earliest date as yet for Mesopotamia is somewhat
later, but these two countries supply the basis of the chronology of the
ancient world until a few centuries before Christ.
With the use of copper the Neolithic fades to its end and the Bronze Age
commences soon thereafter. This next step in advance was made apparently
before 3000 B. C. when some unknown genius discovered that an amalgam of
nine parts of copper to one part of tin would produce the metal we now
call bronze, which has a texture and hardness suitable for weapons and
tools. The discovery revolutionized the world. The new knowledge was a
long time spreading and weapons of this material were of fabulous value,
especially in countries where there were no native mines and where
spears and swords could only be obtained through trade or conquest. The
esteem in which these bronze weapons, and still more the later weapons
of iron, were held, is indicated by the innumerable legends and myths
concerning magic swords and armor, the possession of which made the
owner well-nigh invulnerable and invincible.
The necessity of obtaining tin for this amalgam led to the early voyages
of the Phœnicians, who from the cities of Tyre and Sidon and their
daughter Carthage traversed the entire length of the Mediterranean,
founded colonies in Spain to work the Spanish tin mines, passed the
Pillars of Hercules and finally voyaged through the stormy Atlantic to
the Cassiterides, the Tin Isles of Ultima Thule. There, on the coasts of
Cornwall, they traded with the native British of kindred Mediterranean
race for the precious tin. These dangerous and costly voyages become
explicable only if the value of this metal for the composition of bronze
be taken into consideration.
After these bronze weapons were elaborated in Egypt the knowledge of
their manufacture and use was extended through conquest into Palestine,
and northward into Asia Minor.
The effect of the possession of these new weapons on the Alpine
populations of western Asia was magical and resulted in an intensive and
final expansion of round skulls into Europe. This invasion came through
Asia Minor, the Balkans and the valley of the Danube, poured into Italy
from the north, introduced bronze among the earlier Alpine lake dwellers
of Switzerland and among the Mediterraneans of the Terramara stations of
the valley of the Po and at a later date reached as far west as Britain
and as far north as Holland and Norway, where its traces are still to be
found among the living population.
The simultaneous appearance of bronze about 3000 or 2800 B. C. in the
south as well as in the north of Italy may possibly be attributed to a
lateral wave of this same invasion which, passing through Egypt, where
it left behind the so-called Gizeh round skulls, reached Tunis and
Sicily. In southern Italy bronze may have been introduced from Crete.
With the first knowledge of metals begins the Eneolithic Period of the
Italians.
The close resemblance in design and technique among the implements of
the Bronze Age in widely separated localities is so great that we can
infer a relatively simultaneous introduction.
With the introduction of bronze the custom of incineration of the dead
also appears and replaces the typical Neolithic custom of inhumation.
The introduction of bronze into England and into Scandinavia may be
safely dated about one thousand years later, after 1800 B. C. The fact
that the Alpines only barely reached Ireland indicates that at this time
that island was severed from England and that the land connection
between England and France had been broken. The computation of the
foregoing dates, of course, is somewhat hypothetical, but the fixed fact
remains that this last expansion of the Alpines brought the knowledge of
bronze to western and northern Europe and to the Mediterranean and
Nordic peoples living there.
The effect of the introduction of bronze in the areas occupied chiefly
by the Mediterranean race along the Atlantic coast and in Britain, as
well as in north Africa from Tunis to Morocco, is seen in the
construction and in the wide distribution of the megalithic funeral
monuments, which appear to have been erected, not by Alpines but by the
dolichocephs. The occurrence of bronze tools and weapons in the
interments shows clearly that the megaliths of the south of France date
from the beginning of the Bronze Age. The absence of bronze from the
dolmens of Brittany may indicate an earlier age. It is, however, more
likely that the opening Bronze Age in the South was contemporary with
the late Neolithic in the North. The construction and use of these
monuments continued at least until the very earliest trace of iron
appears and in fact mound burials among the Vikings were common until
the introduction of Christianity.
Although there is evidence of very early use of iron in Egypt the
knowledge of this metal as well as of bronze in Europe centres around
the area occupied by the Alpines in the eastern Alps and its earliest
phase is known as the Hallstatt culture, from a little town in the Tyrol
where it was first discovered. This Hallstatt iron culture appeared
about 1500 B. C. The Alpine Hittites in northeast Asia Minor were
probably the first to mine and smelt iron and they introduced it to the
Alpines of eastern Europe, but it was the Nordics who benefited by its
use. Bronze weapons and the later iron ones proved in the hands of these
Northern barbarians to be of terrible effectiveness. With these metal
swords in their grasp, the Nordics conquered the Alpines of central
Europe and then suddenly entered the ancient world as raiders and
destroyers of cities. The classic civilizations of the northern coasts
of the Mediterranean Sea fell, one after another, before the “Furor
Normanorum,” just as two thousand years later the provinces of Rome were
devastated by the last great flood of the Nordics from beyond the Alps.
The first Nordics to appear in European history are tribes speaking
Aryan tongues in the form of the various Celtic and related dialects in
the West, of Umbrian in Italy and of Thracian in the Balkans. These
barbarians, pouring down from the North, swept with them large numbers
of Alpines whom they had already thoroughly Nordicized. The process of
conquering and assimilating the Alpines must have gone on for long
centuries before our first historic records and the work was so
thoroughly done that the very existence of this Alpine race as a
separate subspecies of man was actually forgotten for many centuries by
themselves and by the world at large until it was revealed in our own
day by the science of skull measurements.
The Hallstatt iron culture did not extend into western Europe and the
smelting and extensive use of this metal in southern Britain and
northwestern Europe are of much later date and occur in what is called
the La Tène Period, usually assigned to the fifth and fourth century B.
C.
Iron weapons were, however, known sporadically in England much earlier,
perhaps as far back as 800 B. C., but were very rare and were probably
importations from the Continent.
“Hallstatt relics have only been found in the northeast or centre of
France and it appears that the Bronze Age continued in the remainder of
that country until about 700 B. C.”
The spread of this La Tène culture is associated with the Nordic Cymry,
who constituted the last wave of Celtic-speaking invaders into western
Europe, while the earlier Nordic Gauls and Goidels had arrived in Gaul
and Britain equipped with bronze only.
In Roman times, following the La Tène Period, the main races of Europe
occupied the relative positions which they had held during the whole
Neolithic Period and which they hold to-day, with the exception that the
Nordic subspecies was less extensively represented in western Europe
than when, a few hundred years later, the so-called Teutonic tribes
overran these countries; but on the other hand, the Nordics occupied
large areas in eastern Germany, Hungary, Poland and Russia now mainly
occupied by the Slavs of Alpine race.
Many countries in central Europe were in Roman times inhabited by
fair-haired, blue eyed barbarians, where now the population is
preponderantly brunet and becoming yearly more so.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE[2]
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ METALS │
│LATER IRON │
│ La Tène Culture Europe 500 B. C.—Roman times│
│ │
│EARLY IRON │
│ Hallstatt Culture Europe 1500–500 B. C. │
│ Orient 1800–1000 B. C. │
│ │
│BRONZE Western and northern Europe 1800–500 B. C. │
│ Orient 3000–2000 B. C. │
│ │
│ │
│ NEOLITHIC │
│LATE NEOLITHIC │
│ COPPER, 3000–2000 B. C. │
│ ENEOLITHIC │
│ │
│TYPICAL NEOLITHIC Swiss lake dwellings, 5000 B. C. │
│ Robenhausian culture │
│ │
│EARLY NEOLITHIC Campignian culture 7000 B. C. │
│ │
│ │
│ UPPER PALEOLITHIC │
│POSTGLACIAL Caves and shelters: │
│ Azilian-Tardenoisian │
│ Nordic-Maglemose 10,000–7000 B. C. │
│ Furfooz-Grenelle race │
│ Proto-Mediterranean race │
│ Magdalenian Cro-Magnon race 16,000–10,000 B. C. │
│ Solutrean Brünn-Předmost 25,000–16,000 B. C. │
│ race Cro-Magnon race │
│ Aurignacian Cro-Magnon race │
│ │
│ │
│ MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC │
│IV. GLACIATION │
│ Würm Mousterian Neanderthal race 50,000–25,000 B. C. │
│ Caves and shelters │
│ │
│ │
│ LOWER PALEOLITHIC │
│III. INTERGLACIAL │
│ Riss-Würm Acheulean, river terraces 75,000 B. C. │
│ Chellean, river terraces 100,000 B. C. │
│ Pre-Chellean and Mesvinian, 125,000 B. C. │
│ river terraces 150,000 B. C. │
│ │
│ │
│ EOLITHIC │
│III. GLACIATION │
│ Riss 200,000–150,000 B. C.│
│ │
│II. INTERGLACIAL │
│ Mindel-Riss Heidelberg Man 350,000–200,000 B. C.│
│ │
│II. GLACIATION │
│ Mindel 400,000–350,000 B. C.│
│ │
│I. INTERGLACIAL │
│ Günz-Mindel 475,000–400,000 B. C.│
│ │
│GLACIATION │
│ Günz _Pithecanthropus_ 500,000–475,000 B. C.│
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
Footnote 2:
After Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1915.
IV
THE ALPINE RACE
The Alpine race is clearly of Eastern and Asiatic origin. It forms the
westernmost extension of a widespread subspecies which, outside of
Europe, occupies Asia Minor, Iran, the Pamirs and the Hindu Kush. In
fact the western Himalayas were probably its original centre of
evolution and radiation and among its Asiatic members is a distinct
subdivision, the Armenoids.
The Alpine race is distinguished by a round face and correspondingly
round skull which in the true Armenians has a peculiar sugarloaf shape,
a character which can be easily recognized. The Alpines must not be
confounded with the slit-eyed Mongols who centre around Thibet and the
steppes of north Asia. The fact that both these races are round skulled
does not involve identity of origin any more than the long skulls of the
Nordics and of the Mediterraneans require that they be both considered
of the same subspecies, although good anthropologists have been misled
by this parallelism. The Alpines are of stocky build and moderately
short stature, except sometimes where they have been crossed with Nordic
elements. This race is also characterized by dark hair, except where
there has been a strong Nordic admixture as in south Germany and
Switzerland. In Europe at the present time the eye, also, is usually
dark but sometimes grayish. The ancestral Proto-Alpines from the
highlands of western Asia must, of course, have had brunet eyes and very
dark, probably black, hair. Whether we are justified in considering gray
eyes as peculiar to populations of mixed Alpine and Nordic blood is
difficult to determine, but one thing is certain, the combination of
blue eyes and flaxen hair is never Alpine.
The European Alpines retain very little evidence of their Asiatic origin
except the skull shape and have been in contact with the Nordic race so
long that in central and western Europe they are everywhere saturated
with the blood of that race. Many populations now considered good
Germans, such as the majority of the Würtembergers, Bavarians,
Austrians, Swiss and Tyrolese are merely Nordicized Alpines.
While the Swiss are to-day neither tall nor long-headed, their country
was thoroughly conquered early in the Christian era by the Nordic
Alemanni who entered from the Rhine Valley. The exodus of soldiers from
the forest cantons throughout the Middle Ages to fight as mercenaries in
France and Italy gradually drained off this Nordic element until the
chief evidence of its former existence lies to-day in the large amount
of blondness among the Swiss. With the loss of this type the nation has
ceased to be a military community.
The first appearance in Europe of the Alpines dates from the Azilian
Period when it is represented by the Furfooz-Grenelle race. There were
later several invasions of this race which entered Europe from the Asia
Minor plateaux, by way of the Balkans and the valley of the Danube,
during Neolithic times and, also, at the beginning of the Bronze Age. It
appears also to have passed north of the Black Sea, as some slight
traces have been discovered there of round skulls which long antedate
the existing population but the Russian brachycephaly of to-day is of
much later origin and is due mainly to the eastward spread of Alpines
from the regions of the Carpathians since the first centuries of our
era.
This race in its final expansion far to the northwest ultimately reached
Norway, Denmark and Holland and planted among the dolichocephalic
natives small colonies of round skulls, which still exist. These
colonies are found along the coast and while of small extent are clearly
marked. On the southwestern seaboard of Norway these round heads are
dark and relatively short.
When this invasion reached the extreme northwest of Europe its energy
was spent and the invaders were soon forced back into central Europe by
the Nordics. The Alpines at this time of maximum extension about 1800 B.
C. crossed into Britain and a few reached Ireland and introduced bronze
into both these islands. As the metal appears about the same time in
Sweden it is safe to assume that it was introduced by this invasion.
The men of the Round Barrows in England were Alpines, but their numbers
were so scanty that they have left behind them in the skulls of the
living population but little demonstrable evidence of their former
presence. If we are ever able accurately to analyze the various strains
that enter in more or less minute quantities into the blood of the
British nation, we shall find many traces of these Round Barrow men as
well as other interesting and ancient remnants especially in the western
isles and peninsulas.
In the study of European populations the great and fundamental fact
about the British Isles is the almost total absence there to-day of true
Alpine round skulls. It is the only important state in Europe in which
the round skulls play no part and the only nation of any rank composed
solely of Nordic and Mediterranean races in approximately equal numbers.
To this fact are undoubtedly due many of the individualities and much of
the greatness of the English people.
The cephalic index in England is rather low, about 78, but there is a
type of tall men, with a tendency to roundheadedness allied to a very
marked intellectual capacity, known as the “Beaker Maker” type. They are
probably descended from the men of the Round Barrows, who while
brachycephalic were tall and presumably dark and entered England on the
east and northeast. The Beaker Makers appear at the very end of the
Neolithic and, at least in the case of the last of them to arrive, are
identified with the Bronze Age.
Before this tall, round-headed type reached Britain, they had absorbed
many Nordic elements and they have nothing except the skull shape in
common with the Alpines living closest, those of Belgium and France.
However, they do suggest strongly the Dinaric race of the Tyrol and
Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic. In addition to the Beaker Makers
remains of short, thick-set brachycephs have also been found in small
numbers. These last appear to have been true Alpines.
The invasion of central Europe by Alpines, which occurred in the
Neolithic, following in the wake of the Azilian forerunners of the same
type—the Furfooz-Grenelle race—represented a very great advance in
culture. They brought with them from Asia the art of domesticating
animals and the first knowledge of the cereals and of pottery and were
an agricultural race in sharp contrast to the flesh eating hunters who
preceded them.
The Neolithic populations of the lake dwellings in Switzerland and the
extreme north of Italy, which flourished about 5000 B. C., all belonged
to this Alpine race. A comparison of the scanty physical remains of
these lake dwellers with the inhabitants of the existing villages on the
lake shores demonstrates that the skull shape has changed little or not
at all during the last seven thousand years and affords us another proof
of the persistency of physical characters.
This Alpine race in Europe is now so thoroughly acclimated that it is no
longer Asiatic in any respect and has nothing in common with the Mongols
except its round skulls. Such Mongolian elements as exist to-day in
scattered groups throughout eastern Europe are remnants of the later
invasions of Tatar hordes which, beginning with Attila in the fifth
century, ravaged eastern Europe for hundreds of years.
In western and central Europe the present distribution of the Alpine
race is a substantial recession from its earlier extent and it has been
everywhere conquered and subordinated by Celtic- and Teutonic-speaking
Nordics. Beginning with the first appearance of the Celtic-speaking
Nordics in western Europe, the Alpine race has been obliged to give
ground but has mingled its blood everywhere with the conquerors and now
after centuries of obscurity it appears to be increasing again at the
expense of the master race.
The Alpines reached Spain, as they reached Britain, in small numbers and
with spent force but they still persist along the Cantabrian Alps as
well as among the French Basques on the northern side of the Pyrenees.
The Anaryan Basque or Euskarian language may be a derivative of the
original speech of these Alpines, as its affinities point eastward and
toward Asia rather than southward and toward the littoral of Africa and
the Hamitic speech of the Mediterranean Berbers. Basque was probably
related to the extinct Aquitanian. The Ligurian language, also seemingly
Anaryan, if ever closely deciphered may throw some light on the subject.
There are dim traces all along the north African coast of a round skull
invasion about 3000 B. C. through Syria, Egypt, Tripoli and Tunis and
from there through Sicily to southern Italy.
The Alpine race forms to-day, as in Cæsar’s time, the great bulk of the
population of central France with a Nordic aristocracy resting upon it.
They occupy as the lower classes the uplands of Belgium, where, known as
Walloons, they speak an archaic French dialect closely related to the
ancient _langue d’oïl_. They form a majority of the upland population of
Alsace, Lorraine, Baden, Würtemberg, Bavaria, Tyrol, Switzerland and
northern Italy; in short, of the entire central _massif_ of Europe. In
Bavaria and the Tyrol the Alpines are so thoroughly Nordicized that
their true racial affinities are betrayed by their round skulls alone.
When we reach Austria we come in contact with the Slavic-speaking
nations which form a subdivision of the Alpine race appearing relatively
late in history and radiating from the Carpathian Mountains. In western
and central Europe in relation to the Nordic race the Alpine is
everywhere the ancient, underlying and submerged type. The fertile
lands, river valleys and cities are here in the hands of the Nordics but
in eastern Germany and Poland we find conditions reversed. That is an
old Nordic broodland with a Nordic substratum underlying the bulk of the
peasantry, which now consists of round skulled Alpine Slavs. On top of
these again we have an aristocratic upper class of comparatively recent
introduction and of Saxon origin in eastern Germany. In Austria this
upper class is Swabian and Bavarian.
The introduction of Slavs into eastern Germany is believed to have been
by infiltration and not by conquest. In the fourth century these Wends
were called Venethi, Antes and Sclaveni, and were described as strong in
numbers but despised in war. Through the neglect of the Teutons they had
been allowed to range far and wide from their homes near the
northeastern Carpathians and to occupy the lands formerly belonging to
the Nordic nations, who had abandoned their country and flocked into the
Roman Empire. Goth, Burgund, Lombard and Vandal were replaced by the
lowly Wend and Sorb, whose descendants to-day form the privates in the
east German regiments, while the officers are everywhere recruited from
the Nordic upper class. The mediæval relation of these Slavic tribes to
the dominant Teuton is well expressed in the meaning—slave—which has
been attached to their name in western languages.
The occupation of eastern Germany and Poland by the Slavs probably
occurred from 400 A. D. to 700 A. D. but these Alpine elements were
reinforced from the east and south from time to time during the
succeeding centuries. Beginning early in the tenth century, the Saxons
under their Emperors, especially Henry the Fowler, turned their
attention eastward and during the next two centuries they reconquered
and thoroughly Germanized all this section of Europe.
A similar series of changes in racial predominance took place in Russia
where in addition to a nobility largely Nordic a section of the
population is of ancient Nordic type, although the bulk of the peasantry
consists of Alpine Slavs.
The Alpines in eastern Europe are represented by various branches of the
“Slavic” nations. Their area of distribution was split into two sections
by the occupation of the great Dacian plain first by the Avars about 600
A. D. and later by the Hungarians about 900 A. D. These Avars and
Magyars came from somewhere in eastern Russia beyond the sphere of Aryan
speech and their invasions separated the northern Slavs, known as Wends,
Czechs, Slovaks, and Poles, from the southern Slavs, known as Serbs and
Croats. These southern Slavs entered the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth
century from the northeast and to-day form the great mass of the
population there.
The centre of radiation of all these Slavic-speaking Alpines was located
in the Carpathians, especially the Ruthenian districts of Galicia and
eastward to the neighborhood of the Pripet swamps and the head-waters of
the Dnieper in Polesia, where the Slavic dialects are believed to have
developed and whence they spread throughout Russia about the eighth
century. These early Slavs were probably the Sarmatians of the Greek and
Roman writers. Their name “Venethi” seems to have been a later
designation. The original Proto-Slavic language being Aryan must have
been at some distant date imposed by Nordics upon the Alpines, but its
development into the present Slavic tongues was chiefly the work of
Alpines.
In other words, the expansion of the Alpines of the Slavic-speaking
group seems to have occurred after the Fourth Century and they have
spread in the East over areas which were originally Nordic, very much as
the Teutons had previously overrun and submerged the earlier Alpines in
the West. The Mongol, Tatar and Turk who invaded Europe much later
reinforced the brachycephalic element in these countries. To some extent
the round skulled Alpines in Russia have been reinforced by way of the
Caucasus and the route north of the Black Sea by their kindred in
western Asia. The greater part of the purely Asiatic types has been
thoroughly absorbed and Europeanized except in certain localities in
Russia more especially in the east and south, where Mongoloid tribes
such as the Mordvins, Bashkirs and Kalmucks have maintained their type
either in isolated and relatively large groups or side by side with
their Slavic neighbors. In both cases the isolation is maintained
through religious and social differences.
The Avars preceded the Magyars in Hungary, but they have merged with the
latter without leaving traces that can be identified. Certain Mongoloid
characters found in Bulgaria are believed, however, to be of Avar
origin.
The original physical type of the Magyars and the European Turks has now
practically vanished as a result of prolonged intermarriage with the
original inhabitants of Hungary and the Balkans. These tribes have left
little behind but their language and, in the case of the Turks, their
religion. The brachycephalic Hungarians to-day resemble the Austrian
Germans much more than they do the Slavic-speaking populations adjoining
them on the north and south or the Rumanians on the east.
Driven onward by the Avars, the Bulgars appeared south of the Danube
about the end of the seventh century, coming originally from eastern
Russia where the remnants of their kindred still persist along the
Volga. To-day they conform physically in the western half of the country
to the Alpine Serbs and in the eastern half to the Mediterranean race,
as do also the Rumanians of the Black Sea coast.
Little or nothing remains of the ancestral Bulgars except their name.
Language, religion and nearly, but not quite all, of the physical type
have disappeared.
The early members of the Nordic race in order to reach the Mediterranean
world had to pass through the Alpine populations and must have absorbed
a certain amount of Alpine blood. Therefore the Umbrians in Italy and
the Gauls of western Europe, while predominantly Nordic, were more mixed
especially in the lower classes with Alpine blood than were the Belgæ or
Cymry or their successors, the Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Alemanni,
Saxons, Franks, Lombards, Danes and Northmen, all of whom appear in
history as Nordics of the so-called Teutonic group.
In some portions of their range notably Savoy and central France the
Alpine race is much less affected by Nordic influence than elsewhere but
on the contrary it shows signs of a very ancient admixture with
Mediterranean and even earlier elements. Brachycephalic Alpine
populations in comparative purity still exist in the interior of
Brittany as in Auvergne, although nearly surrounded by Nordic
populations.
While the Alpines were everywhere overwhelmed and driven to the
fastnesses of the mountains, the warlike and restless nature of the
Nordics has enabled the more stable Alpine population to reassert itself
slowly, and Europe is probably much less Nordic to-day than it was
fifteen hundred years ago.
The early Alpines made very large contributions to the civilization of
the world and were the medium through which many advances in culture
were introduced from Asia into Europe. This race at the time of its
first appearance in the west brought to the nomad hunters a knowledge of
agriculture and of primitive pottery and of domestication of animals and
thus made possible a great increase in population and the establishment
of permanent settlements. Still later its final expansion was the means
through which the knowledge of metals reached the Mediterranean and
Nordic populations of the west and north. Upon the appearance on the
scene of the Nordics the Alpine race temporarily lost its identity and
sank to the subordinate and obscure position which it still largely
occupies.
In western Asia members of this race seemingly are entitled to the honor
of the earliest Mesopotamian civilization of which we have knowledge,
namely, that of Sumer and its northerly neighbor Accad in Mesopotamia.
It is also the race of early Elam and Media. In fact, the basis of
Mesopotamian civilization belongs to this race. Later Babylonia and
Assyria were Arabic and Semitic while Persia was Nordic and Aryan.
In classic, mediæval and modern times the Alpines have played an
unimportant part in European culture and in western Europe they have
been so thoroughly Nordicized that they exist rather as an element in
Nordic race development than as an independent type. There are, however,
many indications in current history which point to an impending
development of civilization in the Slavic branches of this race and the
world must be prepared to face changes in the Russias which will, for
good or for evil, bring them more closely into touch with western
Europe.
V
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
The Mediterranean subspecies formerly called the Iberian is a relatively
small, light boned, long skulled race, of brunet coloring, becoming even
swarthy in certain portions of its range. Throughout Neolithic times and
possibly still earlier it seems to have occupied, as it does to-day, all
the shores of the Mediterranean including the coast of Africa from
Morocco on the west to Egypt on the east. The Mediterraneans are the
western members of a subspecies of man which forms a substantial part of
the population of Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Hindustan with
perhaps a southward extension into Ceylon.
The Aryanized Afghan and Hindu of northern India speak languages derived
from Old Sanskrit and are distantly related to the Mediterranean race.
Aside from a common dolichocephaly these peoples are entirely distinct
from the Dravidians of south India whose speech is agglutinative and who
show strong evidence of profound mixture with the ancient Negrito
substratum of southern Asia.
Everywhere throughout the Asiatic portion of its range the Mediterranean
race overlies an even more ancient Negroid race. These Negroids still
have representatives among the Pre-Dravidians of India, the Veddahs of
Ceylon, the Sakai of the Malay Peninsula and the natives of the Andaman
Islands.
This Mediterranean subspecies at the close of the Paleolithic spread
from the basin of the Inland Sea northward by way of Spain throughout
westernmost Europe including the British Isles and, before the final
expansion of the Alpines, was widely distributed up to and, possibly,
touching the domain of the Nordic dolichocephs. The Mediterraneans did
not cross the Alps from the south but spread around the mountains. In
attaining to Britain from Spain by way of Central France it is probable
that they swept with them Paleolithic remnants from the ancient centre
of population in the Auvergne district.
In all this vast range from the British Isles to Hindustan, it is not to
be supposed that there is absolute identity of race. Certain portions,
however, of the populations of the countries throughout this long
stretch do show in their physique clear indications of descent from a
Neolithic race of a common original type, which we may call
Proto-Mediterranean.
Quite apart from inevitable admixture with late Nordic and early
Paleolithic elements, the brunet type of Englishman has had perhaps ten
thousand years of independent evolution during which he has undergone
selection due to the climatic and physical conditions of his northern
habitat. The result is that he has specialized far away from the
Proto-Mediterranean race which contributed his blood originally to
Britain while it was, probably, still part of continental Europe.
At the other end of their range in India this race, the Mediterraneans,
have been crossed with Dravidians and with Pre-Dravidian Negroids. They
have also had imposed upon them other ethnic elements which came over
through the Afghan passes from the northwest. The resultant racial
mixture in India has had its own line of specialization. Residence in
the fertile but unhealthy river bottoms, the direct rays of a tropic sun
and competition with the immemorial autochthones have unsparingly weeded
generation after generation until the existing Hindu has little in
common with the ancestral Proto-Mediterranean.
It is to the Mediterranean race in the British Isles that the English,
Scotch and Americans owe whatever brunet characters they possess. In
western Europe, wherever it exists, it appears to underlie the Alpine
race and, in fact, wherever this race is in contact with either the
Alpines or the Nordics it would seem to represent the more ancient
stratum of the population.
So far as we know this Mediterranean type never existed in Scandinavia
and all brunet elements found there can be attributed to introductions
in the Bronze Age or in historic times. Nor did the Mediterranean race
ever enter or cross the high Alps as did the Nordics at a much later
date on their way to the Mediterranean basin from the Baltic coasts.
The Mediterranean race with its Asiatic extensions is bordered
everywhere on the north of its enormous range from Spain to India by
round skulls but there does not seem to be as much evidence of mixture
between these two subspecies of man as there is between the Alpines and
the Nordics.
Along its southern boundary the Mediterraneans are in contact with
either the long skulled Negroes of Africa or the ancient Negrito
population of southern Asia. In Africa this race has drifted southward
over the Sahara and up the Nile Valley and has modified the blood of the
Negroes in both the Senegambian and equatorial regions.
Beyond these mixtures of blood, there is absolutely no relationship
between the Mediterranean race and the Negroes. The fact that the
Mediterranean race is long skulled as well as the Negro does not
indicate relationship as has been suggested. An overemphasis of the
importance of the skull shape as a somatological character can easily
mislead and characters other than skull proportions must be carefully
considered in determining race.
From a zoological point of view Africa north of the Sahara is now and
has been since early Tertiary times a part of Europe. This is true both
of animals and of the races of man. The Berbers of north Africa to-day
are racially identical with the Spaniards and south Italians while the
ancient Egyptians and their modern descendants, the fellaheen, are
merely well-marked varieties of this Mediterranean race.
The Egyptians fade off toward the west into the so-called Hamitic
peoples (to use an obsolete name) of Libya, and toward the south the
infusion of Negro blood becomes increasingly great until we finally
reach the pure Negro. On the east in Arabia we find an ancient and
highly specialized subdivision of the Mediterranean race, which has from
time out of mind crossed the Red Sea and infused its blood into the
Negroes of east Africa.
To-day the Mediterranean race forms in Europe a substantial part of the
population of the British Isles, the great bulk of the population of the
Iberian Peninsula, nearly one-third of the population of France,
Liguria, Italy south of the Apennines and all the Mediterranean coasts
and islands, in some of which like Sardinia it exists in great purity.
It forms the substratum of the population of Greece and of the eastern
coast of the Balkan Peninsula. Everywhere in the interior of the Balkan
Peninsula, except in eastern Bulgaria and parts of Rumania, it has been
replaced by the South Slavs and by the Albanians, the latter a mixture
of the ancient Illyrians and the Slavs.
In the British Isles the Mediterranean race represents the Pre-Nordic
population and exists in considerable numbers in Wales and in certain
portions of England, notably in the Fen districts to the northeast of
London. In Scotland it is far less marked, but has left its brunetness
as an indication of its former prevalence and this dark hair and eye
color is very often associated with tall stature.
This is the race that gave the world the great civilizations of Egypt,
of Crete, of Phœnicia including Carthage, of Etruria, of Mycenæan
Greece, of Assyria and much of Babylonia. It gave us, when mixed and
invigorated with Nordic elements, which probably predominated in the
upper and ruling classes and imposed their guidance upon the masses, the
most splendid of all civilizations, that of ancient Hellas, and the most
enduring of political organizations, the Roman state.
To what extent the Mediterranean race entered into the blood and
civilization of Rome, it is now difficult to say, but the traditions of
the Eternal City, its love of organization, of law and military
efficiency, as well as the Roman ideals of family life, of loyalty and
truth, point clearly to a northern rather than to a Mediterranean
origin, although there must have been some Alpine strains mixed in with
the Nordic element.
The struggles in early Rome between Latin and Etruscan and the endless
quarrels between patrician and plebeian may have arisen from this
existence in Rome, side by side, of two distinct and clashing races,
probably Nordic and Mediterranean respectively. The Roman busts that
have come down to us often show features of a very Anglo-Saxon cast but
with a somewhat round head. The Romans were short in stature in
comparison with the nations north of the Alps and in the recently
discovered battlefield of the Teutoburgian Forest where Varus and his
legions perished in the reign of Augustus the skeletons of the Romans,
identified by their armor, were notably smaller and slighter than were
those of the German victors. The indications on the whole point to a
Nordic aristocracy in Rome with some Alpine elements. The Plebs, on the
other hand, was largely Mediterranean and Oriental and finally in the
last days of the Republic ceased to contain any purely Roman blood.
The northern qualities of Rome are in sharp contrast to the less
European traits of the classic Greeks, whose volatile and analytical
spirit, lack of cohesion, political incapacity and ready resort to
treason all point clearly to southern and eastern affinities.
While very ancient, located for probably ten thousand years in western
and southern Europe, and even longer on the south shore of the
Mediterranean, nevertheless this subspecies cannot be called purely
European. Its occupation of the north coast of Africa and the west coast
of Europe can be traced everywhere by its beautifully polished stone
weapons and tools. The megalithic monuments also, which are found in
association with this race, may mark its line of advance in western
Europe, although they extend beyond the range of the Mediterraneans into
the domain of the Scandinavian Nordics. These huge stone structures were
chiefly sepulchral memorials and are very suggestive of the Egyptian
funeral monuments. They date back to the first knowledge of the
manufacture and use of bronze tools by the Mediterranean race. They
occur in great numbers, size and variety along the north coast of Africa
and up the Atlantic seaboard through Spain, Brittany and England to
Scandinavia.
It is admitted that the various groups of the Mediterranean race did not
speak in the first instance any form of Aryan tongue and we know that
these languages were introduced into the Mediterranean world by invaders
from the north.
In Spain the language of the Nordic invaders was Celtic and is believed
to have nearly died out by Roman times. Its remnants and the ancient
speech of the natives were in turn superseded, along with the Phœnician
spoken in some of the southern coast towns, by the Latin of the
conquering Roman. Latin mixed with some small elements of Gothic
construction and Arabic vocabulary forms to-day the basis of modern
Portuguese, Castilian and Catalan.
The native Mediterranean race of the Iberian Peninsula quickly absorbed
the blood of these Celtic-speaking Nordic Gauls, just as it later
diluted beyond recognition the vigorous physical characters of the
Nordic Vandals, Suevi and Visigoths. A certain amount of Nordic blood
still persists to-day in northern Spain, especially in Galicia and along
the Pyrenees, as well as generally among the upper classes. According to
classic writers there were light and dark types in Spain in Roman times.
The Romans left no evidence of their domination except in their language
and religion; while the earlier Phœnicians on the coasts and the later
swarms of Moors and Arabs all over the peninsula, but chiefly in the
south, were closely related by race to the native Iberians.
That portion of the Mediterranean race which inhabits southern France
occupies most of the territory of ancient Languedoc and Provence and it
was these Provençals who developed and preserved during the Middle Ages
the romantic civilization of the Albigensians, a survival of classic
culture which was drowned in blood by a crusade from the north in the
thirteenth century.
In northern Italy only the coast of Liguria is occupied by the
Mediterranean race. In the valley of the Po the Mediterraneans
predominated during the early Neolithic but with the introduction of
bronze the Alpines appear and round skulls to this day prevail north of
the Apennines. About 1100 B. C. the Nordic Umbrians and Oscans swept
over the Alps from the northeast, conquered northern Italy and
introduced their Aryan speech, which gradually spread southward. The
Umbrian state was afterward overwhelmed by the Tyrrhenians or Etruscans,
who were of Mediterranean race and who, by 800 B. C. had extended their
empire northward to the Alps and temporarily checked the advance of the
Nordics. In the sixth century B. C. new swarms of Nordics, coming this
time from Gaul and speaking Celtic dialects, seized the valley of the Po
and in 382 B. C. these Gauls, heavily reinforced from the north and
under the leadership of Brennus, stormed Rome and completely destroyed
the Etruscan power. From that time onward the valley of the Po became
known as Cisalpine Gaul. Mixed with other Nordic elements, chiefly
Gothic and Lombard, this population persists to this day, and is the
backbone of modern Italy.
A continuation of this movement of these Gauls, or Galatians as the
Greek world called them, starting from northern Italy occurred a century
later when these Nordics suddenly appeared before Delphi in Greece in
279 B. C. and then crossed into Asia Minor and founded the state called
Galatia, which endured until Christian times.
South Italy until its conquest by Rome was Magna Græcia and the
population to-day retains many Pelasgian Greek elements. It is among
these classic remnants that artists search for the handsomest specimens
of the Mediterranean race. In Sicily also the race is purely
Mediterranean in spite of the admixture of types coming from the
neighboring coasts of Tunis. These intrusive elements, however, were all
of kindred race. Traces of Alpines in these regions and on the adjoining
African coast are very scarce and wherever found may be referred to the
final wave of round skull invasion which introduced bronze into Europe.
In Greece the Mediterranean Pelasgians speaking a Non-Aryan tongue were
conquered by the Nordic Achæans, who entered from the northeast
according to tradition prior to 1250 B. C. probably between 1400 and
1300 B. C. Doubtless there were still earlier waves of these same Nordic
invaders as far back as 1700 B. C., which was a period of general unrest
and migration throughout the ancient world.
The Nordic Achæans and Mediterranean Pelasgians as yet unmixed stand out
in clear contrast in the Homeric account of the ten year siege of Troy,
which is generally assigned to the date of 1194 to 1184 B. C.
The same invasion that brought the Achæans into Greece brought a related
Nordic people to the coast of Asia Minor, known as Phrygians. Of this
race were the Trojan leaders.
Both the Trojans and the Greeks were commanded by huge blond princes,
the heroes of Homer—in fact, even the Gods were fair-haired—while the
bulk of the armies on both sides was composed of little brunet
Pelasgians, imperfectly armed and remorselessly butchered by the leaders
on either side. The only common soldiers mentioned by Homer as of the
same race as the heroes were the Myrmidons of Achilles.
About the time that the Achæans and the Pelasgians began to amalgamate,
new hordes of Nordic barbarians collectively called Hellenes entered
from the northern mountains and destroyed this old Homeric-Mycenæan
civilization. This Dorian invasion took place a little before 1100 B. C.
and brought in the three main Nordic strains of Greece, the Dorian, the
Æolian and the Ionian groups, which remain more or less distinct and
separate throughout Greek history. Among these Nordics the Dorians may
have included some Alpine elements. It is more than probable that this
invasion or swarming of Nordics into Greece was part of the same general
racial upheaval that brought the Umbrians and Oscans into Italy.
Long years of intense and bitter conflict follow between the old
population and the newcomers and when the turmoil of this revolution
settled down classic Greece appears. What was left of the Achæans
retired to the northern Peloponnesus and the survivors of the early
Pelasgian population remained in Messenia serving as helots their
Spartan masters. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor were founded largely
by refugees fleeing from these Dorian invaders.
The Pelasgian strain seems to have persisted best in Attica and the
Ionian states. The Dorian Spartans appear to have retained more of the
character of the northern barbarians than the Ionian Greeks but the
splendid civilization of Hellas was due to a fusion of the two elements,
the Achæan and Hellene of Nordic and the Pelasgian of Mediterranean
race.
The contrast between Dorian Sparta and Ionian Athens, between the
military efficiency, thorough organization and sacrifice of the citizen
for the welfare of the state, which constituted the basis of
Lacedæmonian power, and the Attic brilliancy, instability and extreme
development of individualism, is strikingly like the contrast between
Prussia with its Spartan-like culture and France with its Athenian
versatility.
To this mixture of races in classic Greece the Mediterranean Pelasgians
contributed their Mycenæan culture and the Nordic Achæans and Hellenes
contributed their Aryan language, fighting efficiency and the European
aspect of Greek life.
The first result of a crossing of two such contrasted subspecies as the
Nordic and Mediterranean races has repeatedly been a new outburst of
civilization. This occurs as soon as the older race has imparted to the
conquerors its culture and before the victors have allowed their blood
to be attenuated by mixture. This process seems to have happened several
times in Greece.
Later, in 338 B. C., when the original Nordic blood had been hopelessly
diluted by mixture with the ancient Mediterranean elements, Hellas fell
an easy prey to Macedon. The troops of Philip and Alexander were Nordic
and represented the uncultured but unmixed ancestral type of the Achæans
and Hellenes. Their unimpaired fighting strength was irresistible as
soon as it was organized into the Macedonian phalanx, whether directed
against their degenerate brother Greeks or against the Persians, whose
original Nordic elements had also by this time practically disappeared.
When in its turn the pure Macedonian blood was impaired by intermixture
with Asiatics, they, too, vanished and even the royal Macedonian
dynasties in Asia and Egypt soon ceased to be Nordic or Greek except in
language and customs.
It is interesting to note that the Greek states in which the Nordic
element most predominated outlived the other states. Athens fell before
Sparta and Thebes outlived them both. Macedon in classic times was
considered quite the most barbarous state in Hellas and was scarcely
recognized as forming part of Greece, but it was through the military
power of its armies and the genius of Alexander that the Levant and
western Asia became Hellenized. Alexander with his Nordic features,
aquiline nose, fair skin, gently curling light hair and mixed eyes, the
left blue and the right very black, typifies this Nordic conquest of the
Near East.
It is scarcely possible to-day to find in purity the physical traits of
the ancient race in the Greek-speaking lands and islands and it is
chiefly among the pure Nordics of Anglo-Norman type that there occur
those smooth and regular classic features, especially the brow and nose
lines, that were the delight of the sculptors of Hellas.
To what extent any of the blood of the ancient Hellenes flows in the
veins of the Greeks of to-day is difficult to determine but it should be
found, if anywhere, in Crete and in the Ægean Islands. The modern Greek
is trying to purify his language back to classic Ionian and to
appropriate the traditions of the mighty Past, but to do this something
more is needed than the naming of children after Agamemnon and Hecuba.
Even in Roman times, the ancient Greek of the classic period was little
more than a tradition and the term Græculus given to the contemporary
Hellenes was one of contempt.
Concerning the physical type of classic in contrast to Homeric Greece,
we know that the Greeks were predominantly long-headed and of relatively
short stature in comparison with the northern barbarians. The modern
Greeks are also relatively short in stature, but are moderately
round-headed. As to color these modern Greeks are substantially all dark
as to eye and hair, with a somewhat swarthy skin.
Among Albanians and such Greeks as show blond traits light eyes are more
than ten times as numerous as light hair. The Albanians are members of
the tall, round-headed Dinaric race and have distant relationship with
the Nordics. They may possibly represent an ancient cross between
Nordics and Alpines and they constitute to-day a marked subdivision of
the latter. They resemble the Round Barrow brachycephs who entered
Britain just before or at the opening of the Bronze Age and who are
still scantily represented among the living English and Welsh. This type
called the Beaker Maker or Borreby type is characterized by a moderately
round head and great stature, strength and considerable intellectual
force. The Albanian or Dinaric type was not, so far as we know,
represented in ancient Greece although some modern archæologists have
suggested that the Spartans were of this type. We have as yet no
evidence of the color, size and skull shape of the Spartans, but we do
know that their Dorian ancestors claimed to have come from or through
the mountains of northern Epirus (Albania). The Dorian dialects are also
said to be more closely related to modern Albanian—which is derived from
the ancient Illyrian—than are the Ionian dialects. The Spartan
character, if that be any test of race, was heavy, slow and steady, and
would indicate northern rather than Mediterranean antecedents.
Concerning modern Europe north of the Alps, culture came from the south
and not from the east and to the Mediterranean subspecies is due the
foundation of our civilization. The ancient Mediterranean world was for
the most part of this race; the long-sustained civilization of Egypt,
which endured for thousands of years in almost uninterrupted sequence;
the brilliant Minoan Empire of Crete, which flourished between 3000 and
1200 B. C. and was the ancestor of the Mycenæan cultures of Greece,
Cyprus, Italy and Sardinia; the mysterious Empire of Etruria, the
predecessor and teacher of Rome; the Hellenic states and colonies
throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas; the maritime and mercantile
power of Phœnicia and its mighty colony, imperial Carthage; all were the
creation of this race. The sea empire of Crete, when its royal palace at
Cnossos was burned by the ‘sea peoples’ of the north, passed to Tyre,
Sidon and Carthage and from them to the Greeks. The early development of
the art of navigation is to be attributed to this race and from them the
North centuries later learned its maritime architecture.
Even though the Mediterranean race has no claim to the invention of the
synthetic languages and though it played a relatively small part in the
development of the civilization of the Middle Ages or of modern times,
nevertheless to it belongs the chief credit of the classic civilization
of Europe in the sciences, art, poetry, literature and philosophy, as
well as the major part of the civilization of Greece and a very large
share in the Empire of Rome.
In the Eastern Empire the Mediterraneans were the predominant factor
under the guise of Byzantine Greeks. Owing to the fact that our
histories have been written under the influence of Roman orthodoxy and
because in the eyes of the Frankish Crusaders the Byzantine Greeks were
heretics, they have been regarded by us as degenerate cowards.
But throughout the Middle Ages Byzantium represented in unbroken
sequence the Empire of Rome in the East and as the capital of that
Empire it held Mohammedan Asia in check for nearly a thousand years.
When at last in 1453 the imperial city deserted by western Christendom
was stormed by the Ottoman Turks and Constantine, last of Roman
Emperors, fell sword in hand there was enacted one of the greatest
tragedies of all time.
With the fall of Constantinople the Empire of Rome passes finally from
the scene of history and the development of civilization is transferred
from Mediterranean lands and from the Mediterranean race to the North
Sea and to the Nordic race.
VI
THE NORDIC RACE
We have shown that the Mediterranean race entered Europe from the south
and forms part of a great group of peoples extending into southern Asia,
that the Alpine race came from the east through Asia Minor and the
valley of the Danube and that its present European distribution is
merely the westernmost point of an ethnic pyramid, the base of which
rests solidly on the round skulled peoples of the great plateaux of
central Asia. Both of these races are, therefore, western extensions of
Asiatic subspecies and neither of them can be considered as exclusively
European.
With the remaining race, the Nordic, however, the case is different.
This is a purely European type, in the sense that it has developed its
physical characters and its civilization within the confines of that
continent. It is, therefore, the _Homo europæus_, the white man par
excellence. It is everywhere characterized by certain unique
specializations, namely, wavy brown or blond hair and blue, gray or
light brown eyes, fair skin, high, narrow and straight nose, which are
associated with great stature and a long skull, as well as with abundant
head and body hair.
A composite picture of this Nordic race and remarkable examples of its
best contemporary types can be found in the English illustrated
weeklies, which are publishing during this great war the lists and
portraits of their officers who have fallen in battle. No nation, not
even England although richly endowed with a Nordic gentry, can stand the
loss of so much good blood. Here is the evidence, if such be needed, of
the actual Passing of the Great Race.
Abundance of hair is an ancient and generalized character which the
Nordics share with the Alpines of both Europe and Asia, but the light
colored eyes and light colored hair are characters of relatively recent
specialization and consequently highly unstable.
The pure Nordic race is at present clustered around the shores of the
Baltic and North Seas from which it has spread west and south and east
fading off gradually into the two preceding races.
The centre of its greatest purity is now in Sweden and there is no doubt
that at first the Scandinavian Peninsula and later, also, the
immediately adjoining shores of the Baltic were the centres of radiation
of the Teutonic or Scandinavian branch of this race.
The population of Scandinavia has been composed of this Nordic
subspecies from the commencement of Neolithic times and Sweden to-day
represents one of the few countries which has never been overwhelmed by
foreign conquest and in which there has been but a single racial type
from the beginning. This nation is unique in its unity of race,
language, religion and social ideals.
Southern Scandinavia only became fit for human habitation on the retreat
of the glaciers about twelve thousand years ago and apparently was
immediately occupied by the Nordic race. This is one of the few
geological dates which is absolute and not relative. It rests on a most
interesting series of computations made by Baron DeGeer, based on an
actual count of the laminated deposits of clay laid down annually by the
retreating glaciers, each layer representing the summer deposit of the
subglacial stream.
The Nordics first appear at the close of the Paleolithic along the
coasts of the Baltic. The earliest industry discovered in this region,
named the Maglemose and found in Denmark and elsewhere around the
Baltic, is probably the culture of the Proto-Teutonic branch of the
Nordic race. No human remains in connection therewith have been found.
The vigor and power of the Nordic race as a whole is such that it could
not have been evolved in so restricted an area as southern Sweden
although its Teutonic or Scandinavian section did develop there in
comparative isolation. The Nordics must have had a larger field for
their specialization and a longer period for their evolution than is
afforded by the limited time which has elapsed since Sweden became
habitable. For the development of so marked a type there is required a
continental area isolated and protected for long ages from the intrusion
of other races. The climatic conditions must have been such as to impose
a rigid elimination of defectives through the agency of hard winters and
the necessity of industry and foresight in providing the year’s food,
clothing and shelter during the short summer. Such demands on energy if
long continued would produce a strong, virile and self-contained race
which would inevitably overwhelm in battle nations whose weaker elements
had not been purged by the conditions of an equally severe environment.
An area conforming to these requirements is offered by the forests and
plains of eastern Germany, Poland and Russia. It was here that the
Proto-Nordic type evolved and here their remnants are found. They were
protected from Asia on the east by the then almost continuous water
connections across eastern Russia between the White Sea and the old
Caspian-Aral Sea.
During the last glacial advance (known as the Würm) which, like the
preceding glaciations, is believed to have been a period of land
depression, the White Sea extended far to the south of its present
limits, while the enlarged Caspian Sea, then and long afterward
connected with the Sea of Aral, extended northward to the great bend of
the Volga. The intermediate area was studded with large lakes and
morasses. Thus an almost complete water barrier of shallow sea located
just west of the low Ural Mountains, separated Europe from Asia during
the Würm glaciation and the following period of glacial retreat. The
broken connection was restored just before the dawn of history by a
slight elevation of the land and the shrinking of the Caspian-Aral Sea
through the increasing desiccation which has left its present surface
below sea level.
An important element in the maintenance of the isolation of this Nordic
cradle on the south is the fact that from earliest times down to this
day the pressure of population has been unchangeably from the bleak and
sterile north, southward and eastward, into the sunny but enervating
lands of France, Italy, Greece, Persia and India.
In these forests and steppes of the north, the Nordic race gradually
evolved in isolation and at an early date spread north over the
Scandinavian Peninsula together with much of the land now submerged
under the Baltic and North Seas.
Nordic strains form everywhere a substratum of population throughout
Russia and underlie the round skulled Slavs who first appear a little
over a thousand years ago as coming not from the direction of Asia but
from south Poland. Burial mounds called kurgans are widely scattered
throughout Russia from the Carpathians to the Urals and contain numerous
remains of a dolichocephalic race,—in fact, more than three-fourths of
the skulls are of this type. Round skulls first become numerous in
ancient Russian graveyards about 900 A. D. and soon increase to such an
extent that in the Slavic period from the ninth to the thirteenth
centuries one-half of the skulls were brachycephalic, while in modern
cemeteries the proportion of round skulls is still greater. The ancient
Nordic element, however, still forms a very considerable portion of the
population of northern Russia and contributes the blondness and the
red-headedness so characteristic of the Russian of to-day. As we leave
the Baltic coasts the Nordic characters fade out both toward the south
and east. The blond element in the nobility of Russia is of later
Scandinavian and Teutonic origin.
When the seas which separated Russia from Asia dried, when the isolation
and exacting climate of the north had done their work and produced the
vigorous Nordic type, and when in the fulness of time bronze for their
weapons reached them these men burst upon the southern races, conquering
east, south and west. They brought with them from the north the
hardihood and vigor acquired under the rigorous selection of a long
winter season and vanquished in battle the inhabitants of older and
feebler civilizations, but only to succumb in their turn to the
softening influences of a life of ease and plenty in their new homes.
The earliest recorded appearance of Aryan-speaking Nordics is our first
dim vision of the Sacæ introducing Sanskrit into India, the Cimmerians
pouring through the passes of the Caucasus from the grasslands of South
Russia to invade the Empire of the Medes and the Achæans and Phrygians
conquering Greece and the Ægean coast of Asia Minor. About 1100 B. C.
Nordics enter Italy as Umbrians and Oscans and soon after other Nordics
cross the Rhine into Gaul. The latter were the western vanguard of the
Celtic-speaking tribes which had long occupied those districts in
Germany which lay south and west of the Teutonic Nordics. These Teutons
at this early date were confined probably to Scandinavia and the
immediate shores of the Baltic and were just beginning to press
southward.
This first Celtic wave of Nordics seems to have swept westward along the
sandy plains of northern Europe, and entered France through the Low
Countries. From this point as Goidels they spread north into Britain,
reaching there about 800 B. C. As Gauls they conquered all France and
pushed on southward and westward into Spain and over the Maritime Alps
into northern Italy, where they encountered the kindred Nordic Umbrians,
who at an earlier date had crossed the Alps from the northeast. Other
Celtic-speaking Nordics apparently migrated up the Rhine and down the
Danube and by the time the Romans came on the scene the Alpines of
central Europe had been thoroughly Celticized. These tribes pushed
eastward into southern Russia and reached the Crimea as early as the
fourth century B. C. Mixed with the natives, they were called by the
Greeks the Celto-Scyths. This swarming out of what is now called Germany
of the first Nordics was during the closing phases of the Bronze Period
and was contemporary with and probably caused by the first great
expansion of the Teutons from Scandinavia by way both of Denmark and the
Baltic coasts.
These invaders were succeeded by a second wave of Celtic-speaking
peoples, the Cymry or Brythons, who drove their Goidelic predecessors
still farther westward and exterminated and absorbed them over large
areas. These Cymric invasions occurred about 300–100 B. C. and were
probably the result of the growing development of the Teutons and their
final expulsion of the Celtic-speaking tribes from Germany. These Cymry
occupied northern France under the name of Belgæ and invaded England as
Brythons in several waves, the last being the true Belgæ. The conquests
of these Cymric tribes in both Gaul and Britain were only checked by the
legions of Rome.
These migrations are exceedingly hard to trace because of the confusion
caused by the fact that Celtic speech is now found on the lips of
populations in nowise related to the Nordics who first introduced it.
But one fact stands out clearly, all the original Celtic-speaking tribes
were Nordic.
What were the special physical characters of these tribes in which they
differed from their Teutonic successors is now impossible to say, beyond
the possible suggestion that in the British Isles the Scottish and Irish
populations in which red hair and gray or green eyes are abundant have
rather more of this Celtic strain in them than have the flaxen haired
Teutons, whose china-blue eyes are clearly not Celtic.
When the peoples called Gauls or Celts by the Romans and Galatians by
the Greeks first appear in history they are described in exactly the
same terms as were later the Teutons. They were all gigantic barbarians
with fair and very often red hair, then more frequent than to-day, with
gray or fiercely blue eyes and were thus clearly members of the Nordic
subspecies.
The first Celtic-speaking nations with whom the Romans came in contact
were Gaulish and had probably incorporated much Alpine blood by the time
they crossed the mountains into the domain of classic history. The
Nordic element had become still weaker by absorption from the conquered
populations when at a later date the Romans broke through the ring of
Celtic nations and came into contact with the Nordic Cymry and Teutons.
After these early expansions of Gauls and Cymry the Teutons appear upon
the scene. Of the pure Teutons within the ken of history, it is not
necessary to mention more than the most important of the long series of
conquering tribes.
The greatest of them all were perhaps the Goths, who came originally
from the south of Sweden and were long located on the opposite German
coast at the mouth of the Vistula. From here they crossed Poland to the
Crimea where they were known in the first century. Three hundred years
later they were driven westward by the Huns and forced into the Dacian
plain and over the Danube into the Roman Empire. There they split up;
the Ostrogoths after a period of subjection to the Huns on the Danube,
ravaged the European provinces of the Eastern Empire, conquered Italy
and founded there a great but shortlived nation. The Visigoths occupied
much of Gaul and then entered Spain driving the Nordic Vandals before
them into Africa. The Teutons and Cimbri, destroyed by Marius in
southern Gaul about 100 B. C., the Gepidæ, the Alans, the Suevi, the
Vandals, the Alemanni of the upper Rhine, the Marcomanni, the Saxons,
the Batavians, the Frisians, the Angles, the Jutes, the Lombards and the
Heruli of Italy, the Burgundians of the east of France, the Franks of
the lower Rhine, the Danes, and, latest of all, the Norse Vikings emerge
from the northern forests and seas one after another and sweep through
history. Less well known but of great importance are the Varangians, who
coming from Sweden in the ninth and tenth centuries, conquered the coast
of the Gulf of Finland and much of White Russia and left there a dynasty
and aristocracy of Nordic blood. In the tenth and eleventh centuries
they were the rulers of Russia.
The traditions of Goths, Vandals, Lombards and Burgundians all point to
Sweden as their earliest homeland and probably all the pure Teutonic
tribes came originally from Scandinavia and were closely related.
When these Teutonic tribes poured down from the Baltic coasts, their
Celtic-speaking Nordic predecessors were already much mixed with the
underlying populations, Mediterranean in the west and Alpine in the
south. These “Celts” were not recognized by the Teutons as kin in any
sense and were all called, Welsh, or foreigners. From this word are
derived the names “Wales,” “Cornwales” or “Cornwall,” “Valais,”
“Walloons,” and “Vlach” or “Wallachian.”
VII
TEUTONIC EUROPE
No proper understanding is possible of the meaning of the history of
Christendom or full appreciation of the place in it of the Teutonic
Nordics without a brief review of the events in Europe of the last two
thousand years.
When Rome fell and changed trade conditions necessitated the transfer of
power from its historic capital in Italy to a strategic situation on the
Bosporus, western Europe was definitely and finally abandoned to its
Teutonic invaders. These same barbarians swept up again and again to the
Propontis, only to recoil before the organized strength of the Byzantine
Empire and the walls of Mikklegard. The final line of cleavage between
the western and eastern Empires corresponded closely to the boundaries
of Latin and Greek speech and differences of language no doubt were the
chief cause of the political and later of the religious divergence
between them.
Until the coming of the Alpine Slavs the Eastern Empire still held in
Europe the Balkan Peninsula and much of the eastern Mediterranean. The
Western Empire, however, collapsed utterly under the impact of hordes of
Nordic Teutons at a much earlier date. In the fourth and fifth centuries
of our era north Africa, once the empire of Carthage, had become the
seat of the kingdom of Nordic Vandals. Spain fell under the control of
the Visigoths and Lusitania, now Portugal, under that of the Suevi. Gaul
was Visigothic in the south and Burgundian in the east, while the
Frankish kingdom dominated the north until it finally absorbed and
incorporated all the territories of ancient Gaul and made it the land of
the Franks. Strictly speaking, the northern half of France and the
adjoining districts, the country of Langued’oil, is the true land of the
Franks while the southern Languedoc was never Frankish except by
conquest, and was never as thoroughly Nordicized as the north. Whatever
Nordic elements are still to be found there are Gothic and Burgundian
but not Frankish.
Italy fell under the control first of the Ostrogoths and then of the
Lombards. The purely Nordic Saxons with kindred tribes conquered the
British Isles and meanwhile the Norse and Danish Scandinavians
contributed a large element to all the coast populations as far south as
Spain and the Swedes organized in the eastern Baltic what is now Russia.
Thus when Rome passed all Europe had become superficially Teutonic. At
first these Teutons were isolated and independent tribes bearing some
shadowy relation to the one organized state they knew, the Empire of
Rome. Then came the Mohammedan invasion, which reached western Europe
from Africa and destroyed the Visigothic kingdom. The Moslems swept on
unchecked until their light horsemen dashed themselves to pieces against
the heavy armed cavalry of Charles Martel and his Franks at Tours in 732
A. D.
The destruction of the Vandal kingdom by the armies of the Byzantine
Empire, the conquest of Spain by the Moors and finally the overthrow of
the Lombards by the Franks were all greatly facilitated by the fact that
these barbarians, Vandals, Goths, Suevi and Lombards, with the sole
exception of the Franks, were originally Christians of the Arian or
Unitarian confession and as such were regarded as heretics by their
orthodox Christian subjects. The Franks alone were converted from
heathenism directly to the Trinitarian faith to which the old
populations of the Roman Empire adhered. From this orthodoxy of the
Franks arose the close relation between France, “the eldest daughter of
the church,” and the papacy, a connection which lasted for more than a
thousand years—in fact nearly to our own day.
With the Goths eliminated western Christendom became Frankish. In the
year 800 A. D. Charlemagne was crowned at Rome and re-established the
Roman Empire in the west, which included all Christendom outside of the
Byzantine Empire. In some form or shape this Roman Empire endured until
the beginning of the nineteenth century and during all that time it
formed the basis of the political concept of European man.
This same concept lies to-day at the root of the imperial idea. Kaiser,
Tsar and Emperor each takes his name and in some way undertakes to trace
his title from Cæsar and the Empire. Charlemagne and his successors
claimed and often exercised overlordship as to all the other continental
Christian nations and when the Crusades began it was the German Emperor
who led the Frankish hosts against the Saracens. Charlemagne was a
German Emperor, his capital was at Aachen within the present limits of
the German Empire and the language of his court was German. For several
centuries after the conquest of Gaul by the Franks their Teutonic tongue
held its own against the Latin speech of the Romanized Gauls.
The history of all Christian Europe is in some degree interwoven with
this Holy Roman Empire. Though the Empire was neither holy nor Roman but
altogether secular and Teutonic, it was, nevertheless, the heart of
Europe for ages. Holland and Flanders, Lorraine and Alsace, Burgundy and
Luxemburg, Lombardy and the Veneto, Switzerland and Austria, Bohemia and
Styria are states which were originally component parts of the Empire
although many of them have since been torn away by rival nations or have
become independent, while much of northern Italy remained under the sway
of Austria within the memory of living men.
The Empire wasted its strength in imperial ambitions and foreign
conquests instead of consolidating, organizing and unifying its own
territories and the fact that the imperial crown was elective for many
generations before it became hereditary in the House of Hapsburg checked
the unification of Germany during the Middle Ages.
A strong hereditary monarchy, such as arose in England and in France,
would have anticipated the Germany of to-day by a thousand years and
made it the predominant state in Christendom, but disruptive elements in
the persons of great territorial dukes were successful throughout its
history in preventing an effective concentration of power in the hands
of the Emperor.
That the German Emperor was regarded, though vaguely, as the overlord of
all Christian monarchs was clearly indicated when Henry VIII of England
and Francis I of France appeared as candidates for the imperial crown
against Charles of Spain, afterward the Emperor Charles V.
Europe was the Holy Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire was Europe
predominantly until the Thirty Years’ War. This war was perhaps the
greatest catastrophe of all the ghastly crimes committed in the name of
religion. It destroyed an entire generation, taking each year for thirty
years the finest manhood of the nations.
Two-thirds of the population of Germany was destroyed, in some states
such as Bohemia three-fourths of the inhabitants were killed or exiled,
while out of 500,000 inhabitants in Würtemberg there were only 48,000
left at the end of the war. Terrible as this loss was, the destruction
did not fall equally on the various races and classes in the community.
It bore, of course, most heavily upon the big blond fighting man and at
the end of the war the German states contained a greatly lessened
proportion of Nordic blood. In fact, from that time on the purely
Teutonic race in Germany has been largely replaced by the Alpine types
in the south and by the Wendish and the Polish types in the east. This
change of race in Germany has gone so far that it has been computed that
out of the 70,000,000 inhabitants of the German Empire, only 9,000,000
are purely Teutonic in coloration, stature and skull characters. The
rarity of pure Teutonic and Nordic types among the German immigrants to
America in contrast to its almost universal prevalence among those from
Scandinavia is traceable to the same cause.
In addition, the Thirty Years’ War virtually destroyed the land owning
yeomanry and lesser gentry formerly found in mediæval Germany as
numerously as in France or in England. The religious wars of France,
while not as devasting to the nation as a whole as was the Thirty Years’
War in Germany, nevertheless greatly weakened the French cavalier type,
the “petite noblesse de province.” In Germany this class had flourished
and throughout the Middle Ages contributed great numbers of knights,
poets, thinkers, artists and artisans who gave charm and variety to the
society of central Europe. But, as said, this section of the population
was practically exterminated in the Thirty Years’ War and this class of
gentlemen practically vanishes from German history from that time on.
When the Thirty Years’ War was over there remained in Germany nothing
except the brutalized peasantry, largely of Alpine derivation in the
south and east, and the high nobility which turned from the toils of
endless warfare to mimic on a small scale the court of Versailles. After
this long struggle the boundaries in central Europe between the
Protestant North and the Catholic South follow in a marked degree the
frontier between the northern plain inhabited chiefly by Nordics and the
more mountainous countries in the south populated almost entirely by
Alpines.
It has taken Germany two centuries to recover her vigor, her wealth and
her aspirations to a place in the sun.
During these years Germany was a political nonentity, a mere congeries
of petty states bickering and fighting with each other, claiming and
owning only the Empire of the Air as Napoleon happily phrased it.
Meantime France and England founded their colonial empires beyond the
seas.
When in the last generation Germany became unified and organized, she
found herself not only too late to share in these colonial enterprises,
but also lacking in much of the racial element and still more lacking in
the very classes which were her greatest strength and glory before the
Thirty Years’ War. To-day the ghastly rarity in the German armies of
chivalry and generosity toward women and of knightly protection and
courtesy toward the prisoners or wounded can be largely attributed to
this annihilation of the gentle classes. The Germans of to-day, whether
they live on the farms or in the cities, are for the most part
descendants of the peasants who survived, not of the brilliant knights
and sturdy foot soldiers who fell in that mighty conflict. Knowledge of
this great past when Europe was Teutonic and memories of the shadowy
grandeur of the Hohenstaufen Emperors, who, generation after generation,
led Teutonic armies over the Alps to assert their title to Italian
provinces, have played no small part in modern German consciousness.
These traditions and the knowledge that their own religious dissensions
swept them from the leadership of the European world lie at the base of
the German imperial ideal of to-day and it is for this ideal that the
German armies are dying, just as did their ancestors for a thousand
years under their Fredericks, Henrys, Conrads and Ottos.
But the Empire of Rome and the Empire of Charlemagne are no more and the
Teutonic type is divided almost equally between the contending forces in
this world war. With the United States in the field the balance of pure
Nordic blood will be heavily against the Central Powers, which pride
themselves on being “the Teutonic powers.”
Germany is too late and is limited to a destiny fixed and ordained for
her on the fatal day in 1618 when the Hapsburg Ferdinand forced the
Protestants of Bohemia into revolt.
Although as a result of the Thirty Years’ War the German Empire is far
less Nordic than in the Middle Ages, the north and northwest of Germany
are still Teutonic throughout and in the east and south the Alpines have
been thoroughly Germanized with an aristocracy and upper class very
largely of pure Teutonic blood.
VIII
THE EXPANSION OF THE NORDICS
The men of Nordic blood to-day form practically all the population of
Scandinavian countries, as also a majority of the population of the
British Isles and are almost pure in type in Scotland and eastern and
northern England. The Nordic realm includes nearly all the northern
third of France with extensions into the fertile southwest; all the rich
lowlands of Flanders; all Holland; the northern half of Germany with
extensions up the Rhine and down the Danube; and the north of Poland and
of Russia. Recent calculations indicate that there are about 90,000,000
of purely Nordic physical type in Europe out of a total population of
420,000,000.
Throughout southern Europe a Nordic nobility of Teutonic type everywhere
forms the old aristocratic and military classes or what now remains of
them. These aristocrats, by as much as their blood is pure, are taller
and blonder than the native populations, whether these be Alpine in
central Europe or Mediterranean in Spain or in the south of France and
Italy.
The countries speaking Low German dialects are almost purely Nordic but
the populations of High German speech are very largely Teutonized
Alpines and occupy lands once Celtic-speaking. The main distinction
between the two dialects is the presence of a large number of Celtic
elements in High German.
In northern Italy there is a large amount of Nordic blood. In Lombardy,
Venice and elsewhere throughout the country the aristocracy is blonder
and taller than the peasantry, but the Nordic element in Italy has
declined noticeably since the Middle Ages. From Roman times onward for a
thousand years the Teutons swarmed into northern Italy, through the Alps
and chiefly by way of the Brenner Pass. With the stoppage of these
Nordic reinforcements this strain seems to have grown less all through
Italy.[3]
Footnote 3:
Procopius tells a significant story which illustrates the contrast in
racial character between the natives and the barbarians. He relates
that, at the surrender of Ravenna in 540 A. D. by the Goths to the
army of the Byzantines, “when the Gothic women saw how swarthy, small
men of mean aspect had conquered their tall, robust, fair-skinned
barbarians, they were furious and spat in their husbands’ faces and
cursed them for cowards.”
In the Balkan Peninsula there is little to show for the floods of Nordic
blood that have poured in for the last 3,500 years, beginning with the
Achæans of Homer, who first appeared _en masse_ about 1400 B. C. and
were followed successively by the Dorians, Cimmerians and Gauls, down to
the Goths and the Varangians of Byzantine times.
The tall stature of the population along the Illyrian Alps from the
Tyrol to Albania on the south is undoubtedly of Nordic origin and dates
from some of these early invasions, but these Illyrians have been so
crossed with Slavs that all other blond elements have been lost and the
existing population is essentially of brachycephalic Alpine type. They
are known as the Dinaric race. What few remnants of blondness occur in
this district, more particularly in Albania, as well as the so-called
Frankish elements in Bosnia, may probably be attributed to later
infiltrations.
The Tyrolese seem to be largely Nordic except in respect to their round
skull.
In Russia and in Poland the Nordic stature, blondness and long skull
grow less and less pronounced as one proceeds south and east from the
Gulf of Finland.
It would appear that in all those parts of Europe outside of its natural
habitat, the Nordic blood is on the wane from England to Italy and that
the ancient, acclimated and primitive populations of Alpine and
Mediterranean race are subtly reasserting their long lost political
power through a high breeding rate and democratic institutions.
In western Europe the first wave of the Nordic tribes appeared about
three thousand years ago and was followed by other invasions with the
Nordic element becoming stronger until after the fall of Rome whole
tribes moved into its provinces, Teutonizing them more or less for
varying lengths of time.
PROVISIONAL OUTLINE OF NORDIC INVASIONS AND METAL CULTURES
┌───┬───────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────┬───────────────┐
│ │ B. C. │ GREAT BRITAIN │ SCANDINAVIA │ GERMANY AND │
│ │ │ │ │ AUSTRIA │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Neolithic. │ │
│ │ │ │ Rough │ │
│ 1.│Before 3000│Neolithic │ pottery. │Neolithic. │
│ │ │ │ Domesticated│ │
│ │ │ │ dog. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Copper. │
│ │ │ │ │ Great │
│ │ │ │ │ expansion of │
│ │ │ │ │ Alpines, │
│ 2.│3000–2500 │ │ │ introducing │
│ │ │ │ │ bronze into │
│ │ │ │ │ Austria and │
│ │ │ │ │ later into │
│ │ │ │ │ Germany. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ Neolithic. │ Neolithic. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 3.│2500–1800 │Copper. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┴───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ Transition from stone to │
│ │ │ │ bronze. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Alpine │ │
│ │ │ │ invasion │ │
│ │ │Alpine invasion │ with bronze │ │
│ │ │ with bronze │ culture │ │
│ 4.│1800–1600 │ culture. │ reaches │ │
│ │ │ Round Barrows. │ Denmark and │ │
│ │ │ Megaliths. │ southwest │ │
│ │ │ │ Norway. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Hallstatt iron │
│ │ │ │ │ culture in │
│ │ │ │ │ Austrian │
│ 5.│1600–1400 │ │ │ Tyrol has │
│ │ │ │ │ first │
│ │ │ │ │ beginning. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ Full Bronze Age. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ 6.│1400–1200 │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Hallstatt iron │
│ │ │ │ │ culture │
│ │ │ │ │ flourishes. │
│ │ │ │ │ Mixed │
│ 7.│1200–1000 │ │Beginning of │ inhumation │
│ │ │ │ cremation. │ and │
│ │ │ │ │ incineration.│
│ │ │ │ │ Goidels │
│ │ │ │ │ occupy │
│ │ │ │ │ Germany. │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │Nordic Teutons│ │
│ │ │ │ cross from │ │
│ │ │ │Scandinavia to│ │
│ │ │ │ south coasts │ │
│ │ │ │of Baltic and │ │
│ │ │ │ to Denmark. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │First invasion │
│ │ │ │ │ of Nordic │
│ │ │ │ │ Teutons from │
│ │ │ │ │ Scandinavia. │
│ │ │First │ │ Other Celtic │
│ 8.│1000–800 │ Nordics—Goidels.│ │ Nordics on │
│ │ │ │ │ Rhine and │
│ │ │ │ │ Danube, who │
│ │ │ │ │ Celticized │
│ │ │ │ │ the Alpines. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ 800 │First iron swords,│ │ │
│ │ │ 800. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │The Goidels are│
│ │ │ │ │ driven south │
│ │ │ │ │ and west by │
│ │ │ │ │ the Cymry. │
│ │ │ │ │ Expansion of │
│ │ │ │ │ the Cymry. │
│ │ │First Aryan │ │ Pressure of │
│ 9.│800–600 │ speech. │ │ Teutons in │
│ │ │ │ │ north. │
│ │ │ │ │ Last Goidels │
│ │ │ │ │ expelled from│
│ │ │ │ │ Germany. Iron│
│ │ │ │ │ swords in │
│ │ │ │ │ Central │
│ │ │ │ │ Europe. │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │La Tène iron │
│ │ │ │ │ culture. │
│ │ │First Goidels in │ │ Cymric Belgæ │
│10.│600–400 │ Ireland, 600. │ │ driven │
│ │ │ │ │ westward by │
│ │ │ │ │ Teutons. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ La Tène iron. │La Tène Iron. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│11.│400–300 │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ Great │ Expansion of │
│ │ │ │ expansion of │ Teutons and │
│ │ │ │Nordic Teutons│ expulsion of │
│ │ │ │ out of │ Cymry as far │
│ │ │ │ Scandinavia. │ west as the │
│ │ │ │ │ Weser. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │_c._ 250. First│
│ │ │Cymric │ │ Teutons in │
│12.│300–200 │ Belgæ—invasion, │ │ Austria. │
│ │ │ _c._ 300. Known │ │ Gold, silver,│
│ │ │ as Brythons. │ │ and bronze │
│ │ │ │ │ money. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Teutons drive │
│ │ │Few Cymry or │ │ Cymry out of │
│13.│200–100 │ Brythons in │ │ Germany. │
│ │ │ Ireland. │ │ Teutons cross│
│ │ │ │ │ the Rhine. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │55. Julius Cæsar. │ │ │
│ │100 to │ Copper and iron │ │ │
│14.│ Christian│ money as │ │ │
│ │ Era │ currency. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │Defeat of Varus│
│ │ │ │ │ and Roman │
│15.│ │ │ │ legions in │
│ │ │ │ │ old Saxony, 9│
│ │ │ │ │ A. D. │
└───┴───────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────┴───────────────┘
┌───┬───────────┬─────────────┬───────────────┬────────────────────────┐
│ │ B. C. │ FRANCE AND │ ITALY │ RUSSIA, GREECE, AND │
│ │ │ SPAIN │ │ BALKANS │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │3000 B. C. Commencement │
│ │ │ │Terramara │ of early Minoan in │
│ 1.│Before 3000│Neolithic. │ culture. │ Crete. │
│ │ │ │ │ Copper. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │Copper. │ │
│ │ │ │ Great │ │
│ │ │ │ expansion of │ │
│ │ │ │ Alpines, │ │
│ │ │ │ introducing │ │
│ 2.│3000–2500 │Copper. │ bronze into │ │
│ │ │ │ north Italy. │ │
│ │ │ │ Bronze │ │
│ │ │ │ introduced in│ │
│ │ │ │ South from │ │
│ │ │ │ Crete. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ Eneolithic │ Great expansion of │
│ │ │ │ culture. │ Alpines, introducing │
│ │ │ │ │ bronze from │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Asia Minor. │
│ │ │ │ │ Middle Minoan in │
│ 3.│2500–1800 │ │ │ Crete, 2000–1800. │
│ │ │ │ │ Second city of │
│ │ │ │ │ Hissarlik—2000. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Alpine │ │ │
│ │ │ invasion │ │ │
│ │ │ with bronze│ │ │
│ │ │ culture in │ │ │
│ │ │ France. │ │Early Nordic invasions. │
│ 4.│1800–1600 │ Later, same│ │ Cnossos. │
│ │ │ wave of │ │ Mycenæan culture. │
│ │ │ invasion │ │ │
│ │ │ enters │ │ │
│ │ │ Spain. │ │ │
│ │ │ Megaliths. │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Late Minoan in Crete, │
│ 5.│1600–1400 │ │ │ 1600–1450. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ Last Minoan, │ │
│ │ │ │ 1450–1200. │ │
│ │ │ │ │Mycenæan culture. │
│ │ │ │ │ Bronze. │
│ │ │ │ │ Nordic Achæans from │
│ │ │ │ │ south Russia introduce│
│ 6.│1400–1200 │ │Villanova │ Aryan speech, │
│ │ │ │ culture. │ 1400–1300. Have iron │
│ │ │ │ │ swords. │
│ │ │ │ │ 1200. Transition from │
│ │ │ │ │ bronze to iron in │
│ │ │ │ │ Crete. │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │_c._ 1100. │ │
│ │ │ │ Umbrians and │Hallstatt iron. │
│ │ │Cadiz founded│ Oscans │ Trojan war, 1194–1184.│
│ │ │ in Spain, │ introduce │ Nordic │
│ 7.│1200–1000 │ _c._ 1100, │ first Aryan │ Hellenes—Dorians—enter│
│ │ │ by │ speech from │ Greece, 1100. │
│ │ │ Phœnicians.│ northeast. │ Iron in full │
│ │ │ │ Iron in │ development. │
│ │ │ │ Etruria, │ │
│ │ │ │ 1100. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │1000. Nordic │ │ │
│ │ │Goidels cross│ │ │
│ │ │ Rhine and │ │ │
│ │ │ introduce │ │ │
│ │ │Aryan speech │ │ │
│ │ │ (Gaulish). │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Hallstatt │ │ │
│ │ │ iron │ │ │
│ │ │ culture. │First │ │
│ │ │ Before 950 │ settlements │ │
│ 8.│1000–800 │ Phœnicians │ on the site │Iron common in Greece. │
│ │ │ masters of │ of Rome. │ │
│ │ │ more than │ │ │
│ │ │ half of │ │ │
│ │ │ Spain. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ 800 │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Expansion of │ │
│ │ │ │ Mediterranean│ │
│ │ │ │ Etruscans │ │
│ │ │ │ over Umbrians│Iron Age in Russia. │
│ │ │ │ to Alps. │ Megarian colonization,│
│ │ │Gauls in │ Legendary │ 700. │
│ 9.│800–600 │ France. │ founding of │ Greek colonies in │
│ │ │ │ Rome, 753. │ Italy and Sicily. │
│ │ │ │ First Greek │ Appearance of │
│ │ │ │ colonies in │ Cimmerians. │
│ │ │ │ south │ │
│ │ │ │ Italy—Magna │ │
│ │ │ │ Græcia. │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │La Tène iron │ │ │
│ │ │ culture in │ │ │
│ │ │ France. │ │ │
│ │ │ Nordic │ │ │
│ │ │ Goidels │ │ │
│ │ │ cross │ │ │
│ │ │ Pyrenees │Nordic Gauls in│500. End of non-Aryan │
│ │ │ and │ valley of │ speech in Crete. │
│10.│600–400 │ introduce │ Po—Cisalpine │ Invasion of Scythia by│
│ │ │ Aryan │ Gaul. │ Darius, 512 B. C. │
│ │ │ speech in │ │ Persian wars, 500–449.│
│ │ │ Spain. │ │ │
│ │ │ First │ │ │
│ │ │ Gallic │ │ │
│ │ │ money of │ │ │
│ │ │ Marseilles,│ │ │
│ │ │ silver. │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │La Tène iron │ │ │
│ │ │ in Spain. │Gauls under │ │
│ │ │ Cymric │ Brennus sack │Macedon conquers Greece,│
│ │ │ Belgæ │ Rome, 382, │ 338. │
│ │ │ conquer │ and destroy │ Celto-Scyths in │
│11.│400–300 │ northern │ Etruria. New │ Crimea, 4th century B.│
│ │ │ France. │ invasion of │ C. │
│ │ │ Bronze │ Nordics into │ Alexander the Great, │
│ │ │ money in │ Cisalpine │ 356–323. │
│ │ │ western │ Gaul. │ │
│ │ │ France. │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Gold coinage │ │ │
│ │ │ in │ │Decline of Scythians in │
│ │ │ northeast │ │ Russia, and appearance│
│ │ │ France. │ │ in Russia of Alpine │
│ │ │ Bronze │ │ Sarmatians. │
│12.│300–200 │ coinage in │Expansion of │ Nordic Galatians enter│
│ │ │ the │ Rome. │ Thrace and │
│ │ │ southwest. │ │ Greece—Delphi, 279; │
│ │ │ Gaul │ │ cross into Asia Minor │
│ │ │ fertile and│ │ and found Galatia. │
│ │ │ well │ │ │
│ │ │ cultivated.│ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ Punic Wars, │ │
│ │ │ │ 264–146. │ │
│ │ │Teutons enter│ │ │
│ │ │ France. │Slaves imported│ │
│ │ │ Marius │ in Rome to │ │
│13.│200–100 │ destroys │ work the │ │
│ │ │ Teutones │ latifundia. │ │
│ │ │ and Cimbri,│ │ │
│ │ │ 100 B. C. │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │Augustus and │ │
│ │ │Cæsar │ the │ │
│ │100 to │ conquers │ organization │ │
│14.│ Christian│ Gaul, │ of the Roman │ │
│ │ Era │ 59–51. │ Empire. │ │
│ │ │ │ Extinction of│ │
│ │ │ │ old Romans. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │Sarmatians appear in │
│15.│ │ │ │ Danube valley, 50 A. │
│ │ │ │ │ D. │
│ │ │ │ │ │
└───┴───────────┴─────────────┴───────────────┴────────────────────────┘
┌───┬───────────┬─────────────────────┬────────────────┐
│ │ B. C. │ ASIA MINOR │NORTH AFRICA AND│
│ │ │ │ EGYPT │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │Copper for │
│ │ │ │ ornaments, │
│ │ │ │ 4000. │
│ │ │Alpines (Hissarlik). │ Copper │
│ │ │ Founding of Troy. │ systematically│
│ 1.│Before 3000│ Copper in Cyprus. │ mined, 3400. │
│ │ │ Introduction of │ Pieces of iron│
│ │ │ bronze from Egypt. │ from interior │
│ │ │ │ of Great │
│ │ │ │ Pyramid of │
│ │ │ │ Gizeh, 3733. │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Gizeh skulls; │
│ │ │ │ Alpine. │
│ │ │ │ First │
│ 2.│3000–2500 │Bronze smelting. │ illustration │
│ │ │ │ of ship in │
│ │ │ │ Egypt, 2800. │
│ │ │ │ Pyramids, │
│ │ │ │ Memphis. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Period of │
│ │ │ │ agricultural │
│ │ │ │ depression │
│ │ │Destruction of │ with invasions│
│ 3.│2500–1800 │ Hissarlik II. │ from the │
│ │ │ │ desert. │
│ │ │ │ Feudal Age in │
│ │ │ │ Egypt. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Beginnings of Hittite│Hyksos in Egypt,│
│ 4.│1800–1600 │ Empire. │ 1700. │
│ │ │ │ First horses. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Egyptian Empire │
│ │ │First Aryan names of │ at Thebes, │
│ │ │ deities—Cappadocia.│ 1600–1150. │
│ 5.│1600–1400 │ Hittite Empire with│ Egyptian │
│ │ │ iron. │ campaigns in │
│ │ │ │ Asia. Conquest│
│ │ │ │ of Syria. │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Hittites invade │
│ │ │ │ Syria. │
│ │ │ │ Rameses II. │
│ 6.│1400–1200 │Nordic Phrygians. │ 1230. Sea │
│ │ │ (Trojan leaders.) │ peoples │
│ │ │ │ (Achæans) │
│ │ │ │ attack Egypt. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ Hittites Alpines │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ 7.│1200–1000 │Armenians acquire │Phœnicia supreme│
│ │ │ Aryan tongue. │ at sea. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Greek colonies in │Carthage │
│ 8.│1000–800 │ Asia Minor. │ founded, 813. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ 800 │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Early Nordic raids. │ │
│ 9.│800–600 │ Cimmerians, 650. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Persian │
│ │ │Tyre under Babylonian│ conquest, 525.│
│10.│600–400 │ yoke. │ The last of │
│ │ │ │ the native │
│ │ │ │ Pharaohs. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Alexander │
│11.│400–300 │ │ conquers │
│ │ │ │ Egypt, 332. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│12.│300–200 │Nordic Galatians, │ │
│ │ │ 279. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│13.│200–100 │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │100 to │ │ │
│14.│ Christian│ │ │
│ │ Era │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│15.│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
└───┴───────────┴─────────────────────┴────────────────┘
┌───┬───────────┬─────────────┬────────────┐
│ │ B. C. │ MESOPOTAMIA │ INDIA AND │
│ │ │ AND PERSIA │ CHINA │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │Copper for │ │
│ │ │ ornaments. │ │
│ │ │ Early │Mongolian │
│ │ │ Babylonian │ bands come│
│ │ │ graves. │ from west │
│ 1.│Before 3000│ Cylinder │ into the │
│ │ │ seals at │ Yellow │
│ │ │ Fara about │ River │
│ │ │ 3400. │ Valley. │
│ │ │ Cuneiform │ │
│ │ │ writing. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │Ur in Sumer. │ │
│ │ │ Nippur, │ │
│ │ │ 3000–2500. │ │
│ │ │ Beginning │Chinese │
│ │ │ of │ claim │
│ 2.│3000–2500 │ greatness │ first │
│ │ │ of │ empire, │
│ │ │ Babylonia. │ 2850–2730.│
│ │ │ Sargon of │ │
│ │ │ Accad │ │
│ │ │ (Semitic), │ │
│ │ │ 2750. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Sumer and │ │
│ │ │ Accad │ │
│ │ │ unite, │ │
│ │ │ 2500. │Phonetic │
│ │ │ Babylon │ writing in│
│ │ │ under │ China, │
│ 3.│2500–1800 │ Hammurapi │ probably │
│ │ │ supreme, │ at 2000 B.│
│ │ │ 2100. │ C. │
│ │ │ First │ │
│ │ │ horses from│ │
│ │ │ Kassites in│ │
│ │ │ Elam. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Kassite │ │
│ │ │ dynasty of │ │
│ 4.│1800–1600 │ Babylon │ │
│ │ │ begins. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ Kassitites │ │
│ │ │and Mitanni, │ │
│ │ │ 1700–1400. │ │
│ │ │ │First │
│ │ │ │ Nordics │
│ │ │First Nordics│ enter │
│ 5.│1600–1400 │ in Persia. │ India. │
│ │ │ │ Nordic │
│ │ │ │ states in │
│ │ │ │ Punjab. │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ Nordic │ │
│ │ │ invasions. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Semitic │ │
│ 6.│1400–1200 │ Babylonians│ │
│ │ │ overrun │ │
│ │ │ Sumer. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Nordic Sacæ │
│ │ │ │ introduce │
│ 7.│1200–1000 │ │ Sanskrit │
│ │ │ │ into │
│ │ │ │ India. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Zoroaster. │ │
│ │ │ Nordic │ │
│ │ │ Persians │ │
│ │ │ recorded at│ │
│ │ │ Lake Urmia,│ │
│ │ │ 900. │ │
│ 8.│1000–800 │ Iron mines │ │
│ │ │ at │ │
│ │ │ Carchemish.│ │
│ │ │ Assyrian │ │
│ │ │ chronology │ │
│ │ │ begins, 911│ │
│ │ │ B. C. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ 800 │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Invasion of │ │
│ │ │ Scythians. │ │
│ │ │ Assyrian │ │
│ │ │ Empire, │ │
│ │ │ 750–606, │Nordic │
│ │ │ with armies│ Hiung-nu │
│ │ │ equipped │ in western│
│ 9.│800–600 │ with iron │ China │
│ │ │ borrowed │ become │
│ │ │ from the │ restless. │
│ │ │ Hittites. │ │
│ │ │ Semitic │ │
│ │ │ Chaldeans │ │
│ │ │ rebuild │ │
│ │ │ Babylon. │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │Nordic │ │
│ │ │ Persians │Confucius, │
│ │ │ overthrow │ 551–479. │
│10.│600–400 │ Medes, 550.│ Buddha, │
│ │ │ Reign of │ _c._ │
│ │ │ Darius, │ 557–477. │
│ │ │ 525–485. │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Conquests of│
│ │ │Conquests of │ Alexander │
│11.│400–300 │ Alexander. │ in India, │
│ │ │ │ 327. │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Nordic │
│ │ │ │ Wu-Suns in│
│ │ │ │ Chinese │
│ │ │ │ Turkestan │
│ │ │ │ and │
│ │ │ │ Ting-Ling │
│ │ │ │ in │
│ │ │ │ Siberia. │
│ │ │ │ Ts’in │
│12.│300–200 │ │ dynasty │
│ │ │ │ (255–209) │
│ │ │ │ resist │
│ │ │ │ Nomads and│
│ │ │ │ secure │
│ │ │ │ China │
│ │ │ │ against │
│ │ │ │ them by │
│ │ │ │ building │
│ │ │ │ the Great │
│ │ │ │ Wall. │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│13.│200–100 │Nordic Alans in Sogdiana. │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │Kian-Kuan in│
│ │ │ │ Turkestan.│
│ │ │ │ Hiung-nu, │
│ │ │ │ turned │
│ │ │ │ westward, │
│ │ │ │ drove the │
│ │ │ │ Wu-sun │
│ │ │ │ into the │
│ │ │ │ mountains │
│ │ │ │ about Ili │
│ │ │ │ and the │
│ │ │ │ great │
│ │ │ │ Yue-chih │
│ │ │ │ into the │
│ │ │ │ Tarim │
│ │ │ │ basin. │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │100 to │ │ │
│14.│ Christian│ │ │
│ │ Era │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│15.│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │
└───┴───────────┴─────────────┴────────────┘
These incoming Nordics intermarried with the native populations and were
gradually bred out and the resurgence of the old native stock, chiefly
Alpine, has proceeded steadily since the Frankish Charlemagne destroyed
the Lombard kingdom and is proceeding with unabated vigor to-day. This
process was greatly accelerated in western Europe by the Crusades, which
were extremely destructive to the Nordic feudal lords, especially the
Frankish and Norman nobility and was continued by the wars of the
Reformation and by those of the Revolution. The world war now in full
swing with its toll of millions will leave Europe much poorer in Nordic
blood. One of its most certain results will be the partial destruction
of the aristocratic classes everywhere in northern Europe. In England
the nobility has already suffered in battle more than in any century
since the Wars of the Roses. This will tend to realize the
standardization of type so dear to democratic ideals. If equality cannot
be obtained by lengthening and uplifting the stunted of body and of
mind, it can be at least realized by the destruction of the exalted of
stature and of soul. The bed of Procrustes operates with the same fatal
exactness when it shortens the long as when it stretches the undersized.
The first Nordics in Spain were the Gauls who crossed the western
Pyrenees about the end of the sixth century before our era and
introduced Aryan speech into the Iberian Peninsula. They quickly mixed
with Mediterranean natives and the composite Spaniards were called
Celtiberians by the Romans.
In Portugal and Spain there are in the physical structure of the
population few traces of these early Celtic-speaking Nordic invaders but
the Suevi, who a thousand years later occupied parts of Portugal, and
the Vandals and Visigoths, who conquered and held Spain for 300 years,
have left some small evidence of their blood. In the provinces of
northern Spain a considerable percentage of light colored eyes reveals
these Nordic elements in the population.
Deep seated Castilian traditions associate aristocracy with blondness
and the _sangre azul_, or blue blood of Spain, probably refers to the
blue eye of the Goth, whose traditional claim to lordship is also shown
in the Spanish name for gentleman, “hidalgo,” said to mean “the son of
the Goth.” The fact that the blood shows as “blue” through the fair
Nordic skin is also to be taken into account.
As long as this Gothic nobility controlled the Spanish states during the
endless crusades against the Moors, Spain belonged to the Nordic
kingdoms, but when their blood became impaired by losses in wars waged
outside of Spain and in the conquest of the Americas, the sceptre fell
from this noble race into the hands of the native Iberian, who had not
the physical vigor or the intellectual strength to maintain the world
empire built up by the stronger race. For 200 years the Spanish infantry
had no equal in Europe but this distinction disappeared with the opening
decades of the seventeenth century.
The splendid conquistadores of the New World were of Nordic type, but
their pure stock did not long survive their new surroundings and to-day
they have vanished utterly, leaving behind them only their language and
their religion. After considering well these facts we shall not have to
search further for the causes of the collapse of Spain.
Gaul at the time of Cæsar’s conquest was under the rule of the Nordic
race, which furnished the bulk of the population of the north as well as
the military classes elsewhere and, while the Romans killed off an undue
proportion of this fighting element, the power and vigor of the French
nation have been based on this blood and its later reinforcements. In
fact, in the Europe of to-day the amount of Nordic blood in each nation
is a very fair measure of its strength in war and standing in
civilization. The proportion of men of pure type of each constituent
race to the mixed type is also a powerful factor.
When, about 1000 B. C., the first Nordics crossed the lower Rhine they
found the Mediterranean race in France everywhere overwhelmed by an
Alpine population except in the south. Long before the time of Cæsar the
Celtic language of these invaders had been imposed upon the entire
population and the country had been saturated with Nordic blood, except
in Aquitaine which seems to have retained until at least that date its
Anaryan Iberian speech. These earliest Nordics in the west were known to
the ancient world as Gauls. These Gauls, or “Celts,” as they were called
by Cæsar, occupied in his day the centre of France. The actual racial
complexion of this part of France was overwhelmingly Alpine then and is
so now, but this population had been Celticized thoroughly by the Gauls,
just as it was Latinized as completely at a later date by the Romans.
The northern third of France, that is above Paris, was inhabited in
Cæsar’s time by the Belgæ, a Nordic people of the Cymric division of
Celtic speech. They were largely of Teutonic blood and in fact should be
regarded as the immediate forerunners of the Germans. They probably
represent the early Teutons who had crossed from Sweden and adopted the
Celtic speech of their Nordic kindred whom they found on the mainland.
These Belgæ had followed the earlier Goidels across Germany into Britain
and Gaul and were rapidly displacing their Nordic predecessors, who by
this time were much weakened by mixture with the autochthones, when Rome
appeared upon the scene and set a limit to their conquests by the Pax
Romana.
The Belgæ of the north of France and the Low Countries were the bravest
of the peoples of Gaul, according to Cæsar’s oft-quoted remark, but the
claim of the modern Belgians to descent from this race is without basis
and rests solely on the fact that the present kingdom of Belgium, which
only became independent and assumed its proud name in 1831, occupies a
small and relatively unimportant corner of the land of the Belgæ. The
Flemings of Belgium are Nordic Franks speaking a Low German tongue and
the Walloons are Alpines whose language is an archaic French.
The Belgæ and the Goidelic remnants of Nordic blood in the centre of
Gaul taken together probably constituted only a small minority in blood
of the population, but were everywhere the military and ruling classes.
These Nordic elements were later reinforced by powerful Teutonic tribes,
namely, Vandals, Visigoths, Alans, Saxons, Burgundians and, most
important of all, the Franks of the lower Rhine, who founded modern
France and made it for long centuries “_la grande nation_” of
Christendom.
The Frankish dynasties long after Charlemagne were of purely Teutonic
blood and the aristocratic land owning and military classes down to the
great Revolution were very largely of this type, which by the time of
the creation of the Frankish kingdom had incorporated all the other
Nordic elements of old Roman Gaul, both Gaulish and Belgic.
The last invasion of Teutonic-speaking barbarians was that of the Danish
Northmen, who were, of course, of unmixed Nordic blood and who conquered
and settled Normandy in 911 A. D. No sooner had the barbarian invasions
ceased than the ancient aboriginal blood strains, Mediterranean, Alpine
and elements derived from Paleolithic times, began a slow and steady
recovery. Step by step with the reappearance of these primitive and deep
rooted stocks the Nordic element in France declined and with it the
vigor of the nation. Even in Normandy the Alpines now tend to
predominate and the French blonds are becoming more and more limited to
the northeastern and eastern provinces.
The chief historic events of the last thousand years have hastened this
process and the fact that the Nordic element everywhere forms the
fighting section of the community caused the loss in war to fall
disproportionately as among the three races in France. The religious
wars greatly weakened the Nordic provincial nobility, which was before
the Massacre of St. Bartholomew largely Protestant and the extermination
of the upper classes was hastened by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars. These last wars are said to have shortened the stature of the
French by four inches; in other words, the tall Nordic strain was killed
off in greater proportions than the little brunet.
When by universal suffrage the transfer of power was completed from a
Nordic aristocracy to lower classes predominantly of Alpine and
Mediterranean extraction, the decline of France in international power
set in. In the country as a whole, the long skulled Mediterraneans are
also yielding rapidly to the round skulled Alpines and the average of
the cephalic index in France has steadily risen since the Middle Ages
and is still rising.
The survivors of the aristocracy, being stripped of political power and
to a large extent of wealth, quickly lost their caste pride and
committed class suicide by mixing their blood with inferior breeds. One
of the most conspicuous features of some of the French nobility of
to-day is the strength of Oriental and Mediterranean strains in them.
Being for political reasons ardently clerical the nobility welcomes
recruits of any racial origin as long as they bring with them money and
devotion to the Church.
The loss in war of the best stock through death, wounds or absence from
home has been clearly shown in France. The conscripts who were examined
for military duty in 1890–2 were those descended in a large measure from
the military rejects and other stay-at-homes during the Franco-Prussian
War. In Dordogne this contingent showed seven per cent more deficient
statures than the normal rate. In some cantons this unfortunate
generation was in height an inch below the recruits of preceding years
and in it the exemptions for defective physique rose from the normal six
per cent to sixteen per cent.
When each generation is decimated or destroyed in turn a race can be
injured beyond recovery but it more frequently happens that the result
is the annihilation of an entire class, as in the case of the German
gentry in the Thirty Years’ War. Desolation of wide districts often
resulted from the plagues and famines which followed the armies in old
days but deaths from these causes fall most heavily on the weaker part
of the population. The loss of valuable breeding stock is far more
serious when wars are fought with volunteer armies of picked men than
with conscript armies, because in the latter cases the loss is more
evenly spread over the whole nation. Before England resorted in the
present war to universal conscription the injury to her more desirable
and patriotic classes was much more pronounced than in Germany where all
types and ranks were called to arms.
In the British Isles we find, before the appearance of the Nordic race,
a Mediterranean population and no important element of Alpine blood, so
that at the present day we have to deal with only two of the main races
instead of all three as in France. In Britain there were, as elsewhere,
representatives of earlier races but the preponderant strain of blood
was Mediterranean before the first arrival of the Aryan-speaking
Nordics.
Ireland was connected with Britain and Britain with the continent until
times very recent in a geological sense. The depression of the Channel
coasts is progressing rapidly to-day and is known to have been
substantial during historic times. The close parallel in blood and
culture between England and the opposite coasts of France also indicates
a very recent land connection, possibly in early Neolithic times. Men
either walked from the continent to England and from England to Ireland,
or they paddled across in primitive boats or coracles. The art of
ship-building or even archaic navigation cannot go much further back
than late Neolithic times.
The Nordic tribes of Celtic speech came to the British Isles in two
distinct waves. The earlier invasion of the Goidels, who were still in
the Bronze culture, arrived in England about 800 B. C. and in Ireland
two centuries later. It was part of the same movement which brought the
Gauls into France. The later conquest was by the Cymric-speaking Belgæ
who were equipped with iron weapons. It began in the third century B. C.
and was still going on in Cæsar’s time. These Cymric Brythons found the
early Goidels, with the exception of the aristocracy, much weakened by
intermixture with the Mediterranean natives and would probably have
destroyed all trace of Goidelic speech in Ireland and Scotland, as they
actually did in England, if the Romans had not intervened. The Brythons
reached Ireland in small numbers only in the second century B. C.
These Nordic elements in Britain, both Goidelic and Brythonic, were in a
minority during Roman times and the ethnic complexion of the island was
not much affected by the Roman occupation, as the legions stationed
there represented the varied racial stocks of the Empire.
After the Romans abandoned Britain and about 400 A. D., floods of pure
Nordics poured into the islands for nearly six centuries, arriving in
the north as the Norse pirates, who made Scotland Scandinavian, and in
the east as Saxons and Angles, who founded England.
The Angles came from somewhere in central Jutland and the Saxons came
from coast lands immediately at the base of the Danish Peninsula. All
these districts were then and are now almost purely Teutonic; in fact,
this is part of old Saxony and is to-day the core of Teutonic Germany.
These Saxon districts sent out at that time swarms of invaders not only
into England but into France and over the Alps into Italy, just as at a
much later period the same land sent swarming colonies into Hungary and
Russia.
The same Saxon invaders passed down the Channel coasts and traces of
their settlement on the mainland remain to this day in the Cotentin
district around Cherbourg. Scandinavian sea peoples called Danes or
Northmen swarmed over as late as 900 A. D. and conquered all eastern
England. This Danish invasion of England was the same that brought the
Northmen or Normans into France. In fact the occupation of Normandy was
probably by Danes and the conquest of England was largely the work of
Norsemen, as Norway at that time was under Danish kings.
Both of these invasions, especially the later, swept around the greater
island and inundated Ireland, driving both the Neolithic aborigines and
their Celtic-speaking masters into the bogs and islands of the west.
The blond Nordic element to-day is very marked in Ireland as in England.
It is derived, to some extent, from the early invaders of Celtic speech,
but the Goidelic element has been very largely absorbed in Ireland as in
western England and in Scotland by the Iberian substratum of the
population and is found to-day rather in the form of Nordic characters
in brunets than in the entirely blond individuals who represent later
and purer Nordic strains.
The figures for recruits taken some decades ago in the two countries
would indicate that the Irish as a whole are considerably lighter in eye
and darker in hair color than are the English. The combination of black
Iberian hair with blue or gray Nordic eyes is frequently found in
Ireland and also in Spain and in both these countries is justly admired
for its beauty, but it is by no means an exclusively Irish type.
The tall, blond Irishmen are to-day chiefly Danish with the addition of
English, Norman and Scotch elements, which have poured into the lesser
island for a thousand years and have imposed the English speech upon it.
The more primitive and ancient elements in Ireland have always shown
great ability to absorb newcomers and during the Middle Ages it was
notorious that the Norman and English colonists quickly sank to the
cultural level of the natives.
In spite of the fact that Paleoliths have not been found there some
indications of Paleolithic man appear in Ireland both as single
characters and as individuals. Being, like Brittany, situated on the
extreme western outposts of Eurasia, it has more than its share of
generalized and low types surviving in the living populations and these
types, the Firbolgs, have imparted a distinct and very undesirable
aspect to a large portion of the inhabitants of the west and south and
have greatly lowered the intellectual status of the population as a
whole. The cross between these elements and the Nordics appears to be a
bad one and the mental and cultural traits of the aborigines have proved
to be exceedingly persistent and appear especially in the unstable
temperament and the lack of coordinating and reasoning power, so often
found among the Irish. To the dominance of the Mediterraneans mixed with
Pre-Neolithic survivals in the south and west are to be attributed the
aloofness of the island from the general trend of European civilization
and its long adherence to ancient forms of religion and even to
Pre-Christian superstitions.
In England, the same two ethnic elements are present, namely the Nordic
and the Mediterranean. There is, especially in Wales and in the west
central counties of England, a large substratum of ancient Mediterranean
blood but the later Nordic elements are everywhere superimposed upon it.
Scotland is by race Anglian in the Lowlands and Norse in the Highlands
with underlying Goidelic and Brythonic elements, which are exceedingly
hard to identify. The Mediterranean strain is marked in the Highlands
and is frequently associated with tall stature.
This brunetness in Scotland is, of course, derived from the same
underlying Mediterranean stock which we have found elsewhere in the
British Islands.
The inhabitants of Scotland before the arrival of the Celtic-speaking
Nordics seem to have been the Picts, whose language was almost surely
Non-Aryan. Judging from the remnants of Anaryan syntax in the Goidelic
and to a lesser degree in the Cymric languages, Pictish was related to
the Anaryan Berber tongues still spoken in North Africa. No trace of
this Pre-Aryan syntax is found in English.
Where one race imposes a new language on another, the change is most
marked in the vocabulary while the ancient usage in syntax or the
construction of sentences is the more apt to survive and these ancient
forms often give us a valuable clew to the aboriginal speech. This same
Anaryan syntax is particularly marked in the Irish language, a condition
which fits in with the other Pre-Aryan usages and types found there.
This divergence between the new vocabulary and the ancient habits of
syntax is probably one of the causes of the extreme splitting up of the
various branches of the Aryan mother tongue.
Wales, like western Ireland, is a museum of racial antiquities and being
an unattractive and poor country has exported men rather than received
immigration, while such invasions as did arrive came with spent force.
The mass of the population of Wales especially in the upland or moorland
districts is Mediterranean, with a considerable addition of Paleolithic
remnants. With changing social and industrial conditions these Neolithic
Mediterraneans are pushing into the valleys or towns with a resultant
replacement of the Nordic types.
Recent and intensive investigations reveal everywhere in Wales distinct
physical types living side by side or in adjoining villages unchanged
and unchangeable throughout the centuries. Extensive blending has not
taken place though much crossing has occurred and the persistence of the
skull shape has been particularly marked. Such individuals as are of
pure Nordic type are generally members of the old county families and
land owning class.
As to language in Wales, the Cymric is everywhere spoken in various
dialects, but there are indications of the ancient underlying Goidelic.
In fact, Brythonic or Cymric may not have reached Wales much before the
Roman conquest of Britain. The earlier Goidelic survived in parts of
Wales as late as the seventh century but by the eleventh century all
consciousness of race and linguistic distinctions had disappeared in the
common name of Cymry. This name should perhaps be limited to the
Brythons of England and not used for their kindred on the Continent.
In Cornwall and along the Welsh border racial types are often grouped in
separate villages and the intellectual and moral distinctions between
them are well recognized.
The Nordic species of man in its various branches made Gaul the land of
the Franks and made Britain the land of the Angles and the Englishmen
who built the British Empire and founded America were of the Nordic and
not of the Mediterranean type.
One of the most vigorous Nordic elements in France, England and America
was contributed by the Normans and their influence on the development of
these countries cannot be ignored. The descendants of the Danish and
Norse Vikings who settled in Normandy as Teutonic-speaking heathen and
who as Normans crossed over to Saxon England and conquered it in 1066
are among the finest and noblest examples of the Nordic race. Their only
rivals in these characters were the early Goths.
This Norman strain, while purely Nordic, seems to have been radically
different in its mental makeup, and to some extent in its physical
detail from the Saxons of England and also from their kindred in
Scandinavia.
The Normans appear to have been “_fine race_” to use a French idiom and
their descendants are often characterized by a tall, slender figure,
much less bulky than the typical Teuton, of proud bearing and with
clearly marked features of classic Greek regularity. The type is seldom
extremely blond and is often dark. These Latinized Vikings were and are
animated by a restless and nomadic energy and by a fierce
aggressiveness. They played a brilliant role during the twelfth and
following centuries but later, on the continent, this strain ran out,
though leaving here and there traces of its former presence, notably in
Sicily where the grayish blue Sicilian eye called “the Norman eye” is
still found among the old noble families.
The Norman type is still very common among the English of good family
and especially among hunters, explorers, navigators, adventurers and
officers in the British army. These latter-day Normans are natural
rulers and administrators and it is to this type that England largely
owes her extraordinary ability to govern justly and firmly the lower
races. This Norman blood occurs often among the native Americans but
with the changing social conditions and the filling up of the waste
places of the earth it is doomed to a speedy extinction.
The Normans were Nordics with a dash of brunet blood and their conquest
of England strengthened the Nordic and not the Mediterranean elements in
the British Isles, but the connection once established with France
especially with Aquitaine later introduced from southern France certain
brunet elements of Mediterranean affinities.
The upper class Normans on their arrival in England were probably purely
Scandinavian, but in the lower classes there were some dark strains.
They brought with them large numbers of ecclesiastics who were, for the
most part drawn from the more ancient types throughout France. Careful
investigation of the graveyards and vaults in which these churchmen were
buried revealed a large percentage of round skulls among them.
In both Normandy and in the lowlands of Scotland there was much the same
mixture of blood between Scandinavian and Saxon but with a smaller
amount of Saxon blood in France. The result in both cases was the
production of an extraordinarily forceful race.
The Nordics in England are in these days apparently receding before the
Neolithic Mediterranean type. The causes of this decline are the same as
in France and the chief loss is through the wastage of blood by war and
through emigration.
The typical British soldier is blond or red bearded and the typical
sailor is always a blond. The migrating type from England is also
chiefly Nordic. These facts would indicate that nomadism as well as love
of war and adventure are Nordic characteristics.
An extremely potent influence, however, is the transformation of the
nation from an agricultural to a manufacturing community. Heavy,
healthful work in the fields of northern Europe enables the Nordic type
to thrive, but the cramped factory and crowded city quickly weed him
out, while the little brunet Mediterranean can work a spindle, set type,
sell ribbons or push a clerk’s pen far better than the big, clumsy and
somewhat heavy Nordic blond, who needs exercise, meat and air and cannot
live under Ghetto conditions.
The increase of urban communities at the expense of the countryside is
also an important element in the fading of the Nordic type, because the
energetic countryman of this blood is more apt to improve his fortunes
by moving to the city than the less ambitious Mediterranean.
The country villages and the farms are the nurseries of nations, while
cities are consumers and seldom producers of men. The effort now being
made in America to settle undesirable immigrants on farms may, from the
viewpoint of race replacement, be more dangerous than allowing them to
remain in crowded Ghettos or tenements.
If England has deteriorated and there are those who think they see
indications of such decline, it is due to the lowering proportion of the
Nordic blood and the transfer of political power from the vigorous
Nordic aristocracy and middle classes to the radical and labor elements,
both largely recruited from the Mediterranean type.
Only in Scandinavia and northwestern Germany does the Nordic race seem
to maintain its full vigor in spite of the enormous wastage of three
thousand years of the swarming forth of its best fighting men. Norway,
however, after the Viking outburst has never exhibited military power
and Sweden, in the centuries between the Varangian period and the rise
of Gustavus Adolphus, did not enjoy a reputation for fighting
efficiency. All the three Scandinavian countries after vigorously
attacking Christendom a thousand years ago disappear from history as a
nursery for soldiers until the Reformation when Sweden suddenly
reappears just in time to save Protestantism on the Continent. To-day
all three seem to be intellectually anæmic.
Upper and Lower Austria, the Tyrol and Styria have a very considerable
Nordic element which is in political control but the Alpine races are
slowly replacing the Nordics both there and in Hungary.
Holland and Flanders are purely Teutonic, the Flemings being the
descendants of those Franks who did not adopt Latin speech as did their
Teutonic kin across the border in Artois and Picardy; and Holland is the
ancient Batavia with the Frisian coast lands eastward to old Saxony.
Denmark, Norway and Sweden are purely Nordic and yearly contribute
swarms of a splendid type of immigrants to America and are now, as they
have been for thousands of years, the chief nursery and broodland of the
master race.
In southwestern Norway and in Denmark, there is a substantial number of
short, dark round heads of Alpine affinities. These dark Norwegians are
regarded as somewhat inferior socially by their Nordic countrymen.
Perhaps as a result of this disability, a disproportionately large
number of Norwegian immigrants to America are of this type. Apparently
America is doomed to receive in these later days the least desirable
classes and types from each European nation now exporting men.
In mediæval times the Norse and Danish Vikings sailed not only the
waters of the known Atlantic, but ventured westward through the fogs and
frozen seas to Iceland, Greenland and America.
Sweden, after sending forth her Goths and other early Teutonic tribes,
turned her attention to the shores of the eastern Baltic, colonized the
coast of Finland and the Baltic provinces and supplied also a strong
Scandinavian element to the aristocracy of Russia.
The coast of Finland is as a result Swedish and the natives of the
interior have distinctly Nordic characters with the exception of the
skull, which in its roundness shows an Alpine cross.
The population of the so-called Baltic provinces of Russia is everywhere
Nordic and their affinities are with Scandinavia and Germany rather than
with Slavic Moscovy. The most primitive Aryan languages, namely,
Lettish, Lithuanian and the recently extinct Old Prussian, are found in
this neighborhood and here we are not far from the original Nordic
homeland.
IX
THE NORDIC FATHERLAND
The area in Europe where the Nordic race developed and in which the
Aryan languages originated probably included the forest region of
eastern Germany, Poland and Russia, together with the grasslands which
stretched from the Ukraine eastward into the steppes south of the Ural.
From causes already mentioned this area was long isolated from the rest
of the world and especially from Asia. When the unity of the Aryan race
and of the Aryan language was broken up at the end of the Neolithic and
the beginning of the Bronze Age, wave after wave of the early Nordics
pushed westward along the sandy plains of the north and pressed against
and through the Alpine populations of central Europe. Usually these
early Nordics, as indeed many of the later ones, constituted only a thin
layer of ruling classes and there must have been many countries
conquered by them in which we have no historic evidence of their
existence, linguistic or otherwise. This must have certainly been the
case in those numerous instances where only the leaders were Nordics and
the great mass of their followers slaves or serfs of inferior races.
The Nordics also swept down through Thrace into Greece and Asia Minor,
while other large and important groups entered Asia partly through the
Caucasus Mountains, but in greater strength they migrated around the
northern and eastern sides of the Caspian-Aral Sea.
That portion of the Nordic race which continued to inhabit south Russia
and grazed their flocks of sheep and herds of horses on the grasslands
were the Scythians of the Greeks and from these nomad shepherds came the
Cimmerians, Persians, Sacæ, Massagetæ and perhaps the leaders of the
Kassites, Mitanni and other early Aryan-speaking Nordic invaders of
Asia. The descendants of these Nordics are scattered throughout Russia
but are now submerged by the later Slavs.
Well marked characters of the Nordic race, which were established in
Neolithic times if not earlier, enable us to distinguish it definitely
wherever it appears in history and we know that all the blondness in the
world is derived from this source. As blondness is easily observed and
recorded we are apt to lay too much emphasis on this single character.
The brown shades of hair are equally Nordic.
When the Nordics first enter the Mediterranean world their arrival is
everywhere marked by a new and higher civilization. In most cases the
contact of the vigorous barbarians with the ancient civilizations
created a sudden impulse of life and an outburst of culture as soon as
the first destruction wrought by the conquest was repaired.
In addition to the long continued selection exercised by severe climatic
conditions and the consequent elimination of ineffectives, both of which
affects a race, there is another force at work which concerns the
individual as well. The energy developed in the north is not lost
immediately when transferred to the softer conditions of existence in
the Mediterranean and Indian countries. This energy endures for several
generations and only dies away slowly as the northern blood becomes
diluted and the impulse to strive fades.
The contact of Hellene and Pelasgian caused the blossoming of the
ancient civilization of Hellas, just as two thousand years later when
the Nordic invaders of Italy had absorbed the science, art and
literature of Rome, they produced that splendid century we call the
Renaissance.
The chief men of the Cinque Cento and the preceding century were of
Nordic blood, largely Gothic and Lombard, which is recognized easily by
a close inspection of busts or portraits in northern Italy. Dante,
Raphael, Titian, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci were all of Nordic
type, just as in classic times many of the chief men and of the upper
classes were Nordic.
Similar expansions of civilization and organization of empire followed
the incursion of the Nordic Persians into the land of the round skulled
Medes and the introduction of Sanskrit into India by the Nordic Sacæ who
conquered that peninsula. These outbursts of progress due to the first
contact and mixture of two contrasted races are, however, only
transitory and pass with the last lingering trace of Nordic blood.
In India the blood of these Aryan-speaking invaders has been absorbed by
the dark Hindu and in the final event only their synthetic speech
survives.
The marvellous organization of the Roman state made use of the services
of Nordic mercenaries and kept the Western Empire alive for three
centuries after the ancient Roman stock had virtually ceased to exist.
The date when the population of the Empire had become predominantly of
Mediterranean and Oriental blood, due to the introduction of slaves from
the east and the wastage of Italian blood in war, coincides with the
establishment of the Empire under Augustus and the last Republican
patriots represent the final protest of the old patrician Nordic strain.
For the most part they refused to abdicate their right to rule in favor
of manumitted slaves and imperial favorites and they fell in battle and
sword in hand. The Romans died out but the slaves survived and their
descendants form the great majority of the south Italians of to-day.
In the last days of the Republic, Cæsar was the leader of the mob, the
Plebs, which by that time had ceased to be of Roman blood. Pompey’s
party represented the remnants of the old native Roman aristocracy and
was defeated at Pharsalia not by Cæsar’s plebeian clients but by his
Nordic legionaries from Gaul. Cassius and Brutus were the last
successors of Pompey and their overthrow at Philippi was the final death
blow to the Republican party; with them the native Roman families
disappear almost entirely.
The decline of the Romans and for that matter of the native Italians
began with the Punic Wars when in addition to the Romans who fell in
battle a large portion of the country population of Italy was destroyed
by Hannibal. Native Romans suffered greatly in the Social and Servile
Wars as well as in the civil conflicts between the factions of Sylla,
who led the Patricians, and Marius who represented the Plebs. Bloody
proscriptions of the rival parties followed alternately the victory of
one side and then of the other and under the tyranny of the Emperors of
the first century also the old Roman stock was the greatest sufferer
until it practically vanished from the scene.
Voluntary childlessness was the most potent cause of the decline under
the Empire and when we read of the abject servility of bearers of proud
names in the days of Nero and Caligula, we must remember that they could
not rally to their standard followers among the Plebs. They had only the
choice of submission or suicide and many chose the latter alternative.
The abjectness of the Roman spirit under the Empire is thus to be
explained by a change in race.
With the expanding dominion of Rome the native elements of vigor were
drawn year after year into the legions and spent their active years in
wars or in garrisons, while the slaves and those unfit for military duty
stayed home and bred. In the present great war while the native
Americans are at the front fighting the aliens and immigrants are
allowed to increase without check and the parallel is a close one.
Slaves began to be imported into Italy in numbers in the second century
B. C. to work the large plantations—latifundia—of the wealthy Romans.
This importation of slaves and the ultimate extension of the Roman
citizenship to their manumitted descendants and to inferior races
throughout the growing Empire and the losses in internal and foreign
wars, ruined the state. In America we find another close parallel in the
Civil War and the subsequent granting of citizenship to Negroes and to
ever increasing numbers of immigrants of plebeian, servile or Oriental
races, who throughout history have shown little capacity to create,
organize or even to comprehend Republican institutions.
In Rome, when this change in blood was substantially complete, the state
could no longer be operated under Republican forms of government and the
Empire arose to take its place. At the beginning the Empire was clothed
in the garb of republicanism in deference to such Roman elements as
still persisted in the Senate and among the Patricians but ultimately
these external forms were discarded and the state became virtually a
pure despotism.
The new population understood little and cared less for the institutions
of the ancient Republic but they were jealous of their own rights of
“Bread and the Circus”—“panem et circenses”—and there began to appear in
place of the old Roman religion the mystic rites of Eastern countries so
welcome to the plebeian and uneducated soul. The Emperors to please the
vulgar erected from time to time new shrines to strange gods utterly
unknown to the Romans of the early Republic. In America, also, strange
temples, which would have been abhorrent to our Colonial ancestors, are
multiplying and our streets and parks are turned over to monuments to
foreign “patriots,” designed not to please the artistic sense of the
passer-by but to gratify the national preference of some alien element
in the electorate.
These comments on the change of race in Rome at the beginning of our era
are not mere speculation. An examination of many thousands of Roman
columbaria or funeral urns and the names inscribed thereon show quite
clearly that as early as the first century of our era eighty to ninety
per cent of the urban population of the Roman Empire was of servile
extraction and that about seven-eighths of this slave population was
drawn from districts within the boundaries of the Empire and very
largely from the countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean. Few
names are found which indicate that their bearers came from Gaul or the
countries beyond the Alps. These Nordic barbarians were of more use in
the legions than as household servants.
At the beginning of the Christian era the entire Levant and countries
adjoining it in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt had been so thoroughly
hellenized that many of their inhabitants bore Greek names. It was from
these countries and from northern Africa that the slave population of
Rome was drawn. Their descendants were the most important element in the
Roman melting pot and even to-day form the predominant element in the
population of Italy south of the Apennines. When the Nordic barbarians a
few centuries later poured in, these Romanized Orientals disappeared
temporarily from view under the rule of the vigorous northerners but
they have steadily absorbed the latter until the Nordic elements in
Italy now are to be found chiefly in the Lombard plains and the region
of the Alps.
The Byzantine Empire from much the same causes as the Roman became in
its turn gradually less and less European and more and more Oriental
until it, too, withered and expired.
Regarded in the light of the facts the fall of Rome ceases to be a
mystery. The wonder is that the State lived on after the Romans were
extinct and that the Eastern Empire survived so long with an ever fading
Greek population. In Rome and in Greece only the language of the
dominant race survived.
So entirely had the blood of the Romans vanished in the last days of the
Empire that sorry bands of barbarians wandered at will through the
desolated provinces. Cæsar and his legions would have made short work of
these unorganized banditti but Cæsar’s legions were a memory, though one
great enough to inspire in the intruders somewhat of awe and desire to
imitate. Against invaders, however, brains and brawn are more effective
than tradition and culture, however noble these last may be.
Early ascetic Christianity played a large part in this decline of the
Roman Empire as it was at the outset the religion of the slave, the meek
and the lowly while Stoicism was the religion of the strong men of the
time. This bias in favor of the weaker elements greatly interfered with
their elimination by natural processes and the fighting force of the
Empire was gradually undermined. Christianity was in sharp contrast to
the worship of tribal deities which preceded it and it tended then as
now to break down class and race distinctions.
The maintenance of such distinctions is absolutely essential to race
purity in any community when two or more races live side by side.
Race feeling may be called prejudice by those whose careers are cramped
by it but it is a natural antipathy which serves to maintain the purity
of type. The unfortunate fact that nearly all species of men interbreed
freely leaves us no choice in the matter. Races must be kept apart by
artificial devices of this sort or they ultimately amalgamate and in the
offspring the more generalized or lower type prevails.
X
THE NORDIC RACE OUTSIDE OF EUROPE
We find few traces of Nordic characters outside of Europe. When Egypt
was invaded by the Libyans from the west in 1230 B. C. they were
accompanied by “sea peoples,” probably the Achæan Greeks. There is some
evidence of blondness among the people of the south shore of the
Mediterranean down to Greek times and the Tamahu or fair Libyans are
constantly mentioned in Egyptian records. The reddish blond or partly
blond Berbers found to-day on the northern slopes of the Atlas Mountains
may well be their descendants. That this blondness of the Berbers,
though small in amount, is of Nordic origin we may with safety assume,
but through what channels it came we have no means of knowing. There is
no historic invasion of north Africa by Nordics except the Vandal
conquests but there seems to be little probability that this small
Teutonic tribe left behind any physical trace in the native population.
There seem to have been traces of Nordic blood among the Philistines and
still more among the Amorites. Certain references to the size of the
sons of Anak and to the fairness of David, whose mother was an Amoritish
woman, point vaguely in this direction.
References in Chinese annals to the green eyes of the Wu-suns or to the
Hiung-Nu in central Asia are almost the only evidence we have of the
Nordic race in contact with the peoples of eastern Asia, though there
are statements in ancient Chinese or Mongolian records as to the
existence of blond and tall tribes and nations in those parts of
northern Asia where Mongols are now found exclusively. We may expect to
acquire much new light on this subject during the next few decades.
The so-called blondness of the hairy Ainus of the northern islands of
Japan seems to be due to a trace of what might be called Proto-Nordic
blood. In hairiness these people are in sharp contrast with their
Mongoloid neighbors but this is a generalized character common to the
highest and the lowest races of man. The primitive Australoids and the
highly specialized Scandinavians are among the most hairy populations in
the world. So in the Ainus this somatological peculiarity is merely the
retention of a primitive trait. The occasional brown or greenish eye and
the sometimes fair complexion of the Ainus are, however, suggestive of
Nordic affinities and of an extreme easterly extension of Proto-Nordics
at a very early period.
The skull shape of the Ainus is dolichocephalic or mesaticephalic, while
the broad cheek bones indicate a Mongolian cross as among the Esquimaux.
The Ainus, like many other small, mysterious peoples, are probably
merely the remnants of one of the early races that are fast fading into
extinction. The division of man into species and subspecies is very
ancient and the chief races of the earth are the successful survivors of
a long and fierce competition. Many species, subspecies and races have
vanished utterly, except for reversional characters occasionally found
in the larger races.
The only Nordics in Asia Minor, so far as we know, were the Phrygians
who crossed the Hellespont about 1400 B. C. as part of the same
migration which brought the Achæans into Greece, the Cimmerians who
entered by the same route and also through the Caucasus about 650 B. C.
and still later, in 270 B. C., the Gauls who, coming from northern Italy
through Thrace, founded Galatia. So far as our present information goes
little or no trace of these invasions remains in the existing
populations of Anatolia. The expansions of the Persians and the
Aryanization of their empire and the conquests of the Nordics east and
south of the Caspian-Aral Sea, will be discussed in connection with the
spread of Aryan languages.
XI
RACIAL APTITUDES
Such are the three races, the Alpine, the Mediterranean and the Nordic,
which enter into the composition of European populations of to-day and
in various combinations comprise the great bulk of white men all over
the world. These races vary intellectually and morally just as they do
physically. Moral, intellectual and spiritual attributes are as
persistent as physical characters and are transmitted substantially
unchanged from generation to generation. These moral and physical
characters are not limited to one race but given traits do occur with
more frequency in one race than in another. Each race differs in the
relative proportion of what we may term good and bad strains, just as
nations do, or, for that matter, sections and classes of the same
nation.
In considering skull characters we must remember that, while indicative
of independent descent, the size and shape of the head are not closely
related to brain power. Aristotle was a Mediterranean if we may trust
the authenticity of his busts and had a small, long skull, while
Humboldt’s large and characteristically Nordic skull was equally
dolichocephalic. Socrates and Diogenes were apparently quite un-Greek
and represent remnants of some early race, perhaps of Paleolithic man.
The history of their lives indicates that each was recognized by his
fellow countrymen as in some degree alien, just as the Jews apparently
regarded Christ as, in some indefinite way, non-Jewish.
Mental, spiritual and moral traits are closely associated with the
physical distinctions among the different European races, although like
somatological characters, these spiritual attributes have in many cases
gone astray. Enough remain, however, to show that certain races have
special aptitudes for certain pursuits.
The Alpine race is always and everywhere a race of peasants, an
agricultural and never a maritime race. In fact they only extend to salt
water at the head of the Adriatic and, like all purely agricultural
communities throughout Europe, tend toward democracy, although they are
submissive to authority both political and religious being usually Roman
Catholics in western Europe. This race is essentially of the soil and in
towns the type is mediocre and bourgeois.
The coastal and seafaring populations of northern Europe are everywhere
Nordic as far as the shores of Spain and among Europeans this race is
pre-eminently fitted for maritime pursuits. Enterprise at sea during the
Middle Ages was in the hands of Mediterraneans just as it was originally
developed by Cretans, Phœnicians and Carthaginians but after the
Reformation the Nordics seized and occupied this field almost
exclusively.
The Nordics are, all over the world, a race of soldiers, sailors,
adventurers and explorers, but above all, of rulers, organizers and
aristocrats in sharp contrast to the essentially peasant and democratic
character of the Alpines. The Nordic race is domineering,
individualistic, self-reliant and jealous of their personal freedom both
in political and religious systems and as a result they are usually
Protestants. Chivalry and knighthood and their still surviving but
greatly impaired counterparts are peculiarly Nordic traits, and
feudalism, class distinctions and race pride among Europeans are
traceable for the most part to the north.
The social status of woman varies largely with race but here religion
plays a part. In the Roman Republic and in ancient Germany women were
held in high esteem. In the Nordic countries of to-day women’s rights
have received much more recognition than among the southern nations with
their traditions of Latin culture. To this general statement modern
Germany is a marked exception. The contrast is great between the mental
attitude toward woman of the ancient Teutons and that of the modern
Germans.
The pure Nordic peoples are characterized by a greater stability and
steadiness than are mixed peoples such as the Irish, the ancient Gauls
and the Athenians among all of whom the lack of these qualities was
balanced by a correspondingly greater versatility.
The mental characteristics of the Mediterranean race are well known and
this race, while inferior in bodily stamina to both the Nordic and the
Alpine, is probably the superior of both, certainly of the Alpines, in
intellectual attainments. In the field of art its superiority to both
the other European races is unquestioned, although in literature and in
scientific research and discovery the Nordics far excel it.
Before leaving this interesting subject of the correlation of spiritual
and moral traits with physical characters we may note that these
influences are so deeply rooted in everyday consciousness that the
modern novelist or playwright does not fail to make his hero a tall,
blond, honest and somewhat stupid youth and his villain a small, dark
and exceptionally intelligent individual of warped moral character. So
in Celtic legend as in the Græco-Roman and mediæval romances, prince and
princess are always fair, a fact rather indicating that the mass of the
people were brunet at the time when the legends were taking shape. In
fact, “fair” is a synonym for beauty. Most ancient tapestries show a
blond earl on horseback and a dark-haired churl holding the bridle.
The gods of Olympus were almost all described as blond, and it would be
difficult to imagine a Greek artist painting a brunet Venus. In church
pictures all angels are blond, while the denizens of the lower regions
revel in deep brunetness. “Non Angli sed angeli,” remarked Pope Gregory
when he first saw Saxon children exposed for sale in the Roman
slave-mart.
In depicting the crucifixion no artist hesitates to make the two thieves
brunet in contrast to the blond Saviour. This is something more than a
convention, as such quasi-authentic traditions as we have of our Lord
strongly suggest his Nordic, possibly Greek, physical and moral
attributes.
These and similar traditions clearly point to the relations of the one
race to the other in classic, mediæval and modern times. How far they
may be modified by democratic institutions and the rule of the majority
remains to be seen.
The wars of the past two thousand years in Europe have been almost
exclusively wars between the various nations of this race or between
rulers of Nordic blood.
From a race point of view the present European conflict is essentially a
civil war and nearly all the officers and a large proportion of the men
on both sides are members of this race. It is the same old tragedy of
mutual butchery and mutual destruction between Nordics, just as the
Nordic nobility of Renaissance Italy seems to have been possessed with a
blood mania to murder one another. It is the modern edition of the old
Berserker blood rage and is class suicide on a gigantic scale.
At the beginning of the war it was difficult to say on which side there
was the preponderance of Nordic blood. Flanders and northern France are
more Nordic than south Germany, while the backbone of the armies that
England put into the field as well as of those of her colonies was
almost purely Nordic and a large proportion of the Russian army was of
the same race. As heretofore stated, with America in the war, the
greater part of the Nordics of the world are fighting against Germany.
Although the writer has limited carefully the use of the word “Teutonic”
to that section of the Nordic race which originated in Scandinavia and
which later spread over northern Europe, nevertheless this term is
unfortunate because it is currently given a national and not a racial
meaning and is used to denote the populations of the central empires.
This popular use includes millions who are un-Teutonic and excludes
millions of pure Teutonic blood who are outside of the political borders
of Austria and Germany and who are bitterly hostile to the very name
itself.
The present inhabitants of the German Empire, to say nothing of Austria,
are only to a limited extent descendants of the ancient Teutonic tribes,
being very largely Alpines, especially in the east and south. To abandon
to the Germans and Austrians the exclusive right to the name Teuton or
Teutonic would be to acquiesce in one of their most grandiose
pretensions.
XII
ARYA
Having shown the existence in Europe of three distinct subspecies of man
and a single predominant group of languages called the Aryan or
synthetic group, it remains to inquire to which of the three races can
be assigned the honor of inventing, elaborating and introducing this
most highly developed form of human speech. Our investigations will show
that the facts point indubitably to an original unity between the Nordic
or rather the Proto-Nordic race and the Proto-Aryan language or the
generalized, ancestral, Aryan mother tongue.
Of the three claimants to the honor of being the original creator of the
Aryan group of languages, we can at once dismiss the Mediterranean race.
The members of this subspecies on the south shores of the Mediterranean,
the Berbers and the Egyptians, and many peoples in western Asia speak
now and have always spoken Anaryan tongues. We also know that the speech
of the original Pelasgians was not Aryan, that in Crete remnants of
Pre-Aryan speech persisted until about 500 B. C. and that the Hellenic
language was introduced into Ægean countries from the north. In Italy
the Etruscan in the north and the Messapian in the south were Anaryan
languages and the ancestral form of Latin speech in the guise of Umbrian
and Oscan came through the Alps from the countries beyond.
In Spain a Celtic language was introduced from the north about 500 B. C.
but with so little force behind it that it was unable to replace
entirely the Anaryan Basque language of at least a portion of the
aborigines.
In Britain, Aryan speech was introduced about 800 B. C. and in France
somewhat earlier. In central and northern Europe no certain trace of the
Anaryan languages at one time spoken there persists, except among the
Lapps and in the neighborhood of the Gulf of Finland, where Non-Aryan
Finnic dialects are spoken to-day by the Finlanders and the Esthonians.
We thus know the approximate dates of the introduction of Aryan speech
into western and southern Europe and that it came in through the medium
of the Nordic race.
In Spain and in the adjoining parts of France nearly half a million
people continue to speak an agglutinative language, called Basque or
Euskarian. In skull shape these Basques correspond closely with the
Aryan-speaking populations around them, being dolichocephalic in Spain
and brachycephalic or pseudo-brachycephalic in France. In the case of
both the long skulled and the round skulled Basques the lower part of
the face is long and thin, with a peculiar and pointed chin and among
the French Basques the skull is broadened in the temporal region. In
other words, their faces show certain secondary racial characters which
have been imposed by selection upon a people composed originally of two
races of independent origin, but long isolated by the limitations of
language.
The Euskarian language is believed to have been related to the ancient
Iberian but has affinities which point to Asia as its place of origin
and make possible the hypothesis that it may have been derived from the
ancient language of the Proto-Alpines in the west.
The problem of the extinct Ligurian language must be considered in this
connection. It seems to have been Anaryan, but we do not know whether it
was the speech originally of Alpines or of Mediterraneans either of whom
could be reasonably considered as a claimant.
Other than the Basque language there are in western Europe but few
remains of Pre-Aryan speech, and these are found chiefly in place names
and in a few obscure words.
Remnants of Anaryan speech exist here and there throughout European
Russia, but many of them can be traced to historic invasions. Until we
reach the main body of Ural-Altaic speech in the east of Russia, the
Esthonians, with kindred tribes of Livonians and Tchouds, and the Finns
are the only peoples who speak Non-Aryan tongues, but the physical type
with the exception of the skull shape of all these tribes is distinctly
Nordic. In this connection the Lapps and related groups in the far north
can be disregarded.
The problem of the Finns is a difficult one. The coast of Finland, of
course, is purely Swedish, but the great bulk of the population in the
interior is brachycephalic, though otherwise thoroughly Nordic in type.
The Anaryan Finnish, Esthonian and Livonian languages were probably
introduced at the same time as were round skulls into Finland. The
shores of the Gulf of Finland were originally inhabited by Nordics and
the intrusion of round skulled Finns probably came soon after the
Christian era. This immigration and that of the Livonians and Esthonians
may possibly have been part of the same movement which brought the
Alpine Wends into eastern Germany. The earliest references to the Finns
that we have locate them in central Russia.
The most important Anaryan language in Europe is the Magyar of Hungary,
but this we know was introduced from the eastward at the end of the
ninth century, as was the earlier but now extinct Avar.
In the Balkans the language of the Turks has never been a vernacular as
it is in Asia Minor. In Europe it was spoken only by the soldiers and
the civil administrators and by very sparse colonies of Turkish
settlers. The mania of the Turks for white women, which is said to have
been one of the motives that led to the conquest of the Byzantine
Empire, has unconsciously resulted in the obliteration of the Mongoloid
type of the original Asiatic invaders. Persistent crossing with
Circassian and Georgian women, as well as with slaves of every race in
Asia Minor and in Europe with whom they came in contact, has made the
European Turk of to-day indistinguishable in physical characters from
his Christian neighbors. At the same time, polygamy has greatly
strengthened the hold of the dominant Turk. In fact, among the upper
classes of the higher races monogamy and the resultant limitation in
number of offspring has been a source of weakness from the viewpoint of
race expansion. The Turks of Seljukian and Osmanli origin were never
numerous and the Sultan’s armies were largely composed of Islamized
Anatolians and Europeans.
In Persia and India, also, the Aryan languages were introduced from the
north at known periods, so in view of all these facts the Mediterranean
race cannot claim the honor of either the invention or dissemination of
the synthetic languages.
The chief claim of the Alpine race of central Europe and western Asia to
the invention and introduction into Europe of the Proto-Aryan form of
speech rests on the fact that nearly all the members of this race in
Europe speak well developed Aryan languages, chiefly in some form of
Slavic. This fact taken by itself may have no more significance than the
fact that the Mediterranean race in Spain, Italy and France speaks
Romance languages, but it is, nevertheless, an argument of some weight.
Outside of Europe the Armenians and other Armenoid brachycephalic
peoples of Asia Minor and the Iranian Highlands, all of Alpine race,
together with a few isolated tribes of the Caucasus, speak Aryan
languages and these peoples lie on the highroad along which knowledge of
the metals and other cultural developments entered Europe.
If the Aryan language were invented and developed by these Armenoid
Alpines we should be obliged to assume that they introduced it along
with bronze culture into Europe about 3000 B. C. and taught the Nordics
both their language and their metal culture. There are, however, in
western Asia many Alpine peoples who do not speak Aryan languages and
yet are Alpine in type, such as the Turcomans and in Asia Minor the
so-called Turks are also largely Islamized Alpines of the Armenoid
subspecies who speak Turki. There is no trace of Aryan speech south of
the Caucasus until after 1700 B. C. and the Hittite language spoken
before that date in central and eastern Asia Minor, although not yet
clearly deciphered, was Anaryan to the best of our present knowledge.
The Hittites themselves were probably ancestral to the living Armenians.
We are sufficiently acquainted with the languages of the ancient
Mesopotamian countries to know that the speech of Accad and Sumer, of
Susa and Media was agglutinative and that the languages of Assyria and
of Palestine were Semitic. The speech of the Kassites was Anaryan, but
they seem to have been in contact with the horse-using Nordics and some
of their leaders bore Aryan names. The language of the shortlived empire
of the Mitanni in the foothills south of Armenia is the only one about
the character of which there can be serious doubt. There is, therefore,
much negative evidence against the existence of Aryan speech in that
part of the world earlier than its known introduction by Nordics.
If, then, the last great expansion into Europe of the Alpine race
brought from Asia the Aryan mother tongue, as well as the knowledge of
metals, we must assume that all the members of the Nordic race thereupon
adopted synthetic speech from the Alpines.
We know that these Alpines reached Britain about 1800 B. C. and probably
they had previously occupied much of Gaul, so that if they are to be
credited with the introduction of the synthetic languages into western
Europe, it is difficult to understand why we have no known trace of any
form of Aryan speech in central Europe or west of the Rhine prior to
1000 B. C. while we have some, though scanty, evidence of Non-Aryan
languages.
It may be said in favor of this claim of the Alpine race to be the
original inventor of synthetic speech, that language is ever a measure
of culture and the higher forms of civilization are greatly hampered by
the limitations of speech imposed by the less highly evolved languages,
namely, the monosyllabic and the agglutinative, which include nearly all
the Non-Aryan languages of the world. It does not seem probable that
barbarians, however fine in physical type and however well endowed with
the potentiality of intellectual and moral development, dwelling as
hunters in the bleak and barren north along the edge of the retreating
glaciers and as nomad shepherds in the Russian grasslands, could have
evolved a more complicated and higher form of articulate speech than the
inhabitants of southwestern Asia, who many thousand years earlier were
highly civilized and are known to have invented the arts of agriculture,
metal working and domestication of animals, as well as of writing and
pottery. Nevertheless, such seems to be the fact.
To summarize, it appears that a study of the Mediterranean race shows
that so far from being purely European, it is equally African and
Asiatic and that in the narrow coastal fringe of southern Persia, in
India and even farther east the last strains of this race gradually fade
into the Negroids through prolonged cross breeding. A similar inquiry
into the origin and distribution of the Alpine subspecies shows clearly
the fundamentally Asiatic origin of the type and that on its easternmost
borders in central Asia it marches with the round skulled Mongols, and
that neither the one nor the other was the inventor of Aryan speech.
XIII
ORIGIN OF THE ARYAN LANGUAGES
By the process of elimination set forth in the preceding chapter we are
competed to acknowledge that the strongest claimant for the honor of
being the race of the original Aryans, is the tall, blond Nordic. An
analysis of the various languages of the Aryan group reveals an extreme
diversity which can be best explained by the hypothesis that the
existing languages are now spoken by people upon whom Aryan speech has
been forced from without. This theory corresponds exactly with the known
historic fact that the Aryan languages, during the last three or four
thousand years at least have, again and again, been imposed by Nordics
upon populations of Alpine and Mediterranean blood.
Within the present distributional area of the Nordic race on the Gulf of
Riga and in the very middle of a typical area of isolation, are the most
generalized members of the Aryan group, namely Lettish and Lithuanian,
both almost Proto-Aryan in character. Close at hand existed the closely
related Old Prussian or Borussian, very recently extinct. These archaic
languages are relatively close to Sanskrit and exist in actual contact
with the Anaryan speech of the Esthonians and Finns.
The Anaryan languages in eastern Russia are Ugrian, a form of speech
which extends far into Asia and which appears to contain elements which
unite it with synthetic speech and may be dimly transitory in character.
In the opinion of many philologists, a primitive form of Ugrian might
have given birth to the Proto-Aryan ancestor of existing synthetic
languages.
This hypothesis, if sustained by further study, will provide additional
evidence that the site of the development of the Aryan languages and of
the Nordic subspecies was in eastern Europe, in a region which is close
to the meeting place between the most archaic synthetic languages and
the most nearly related Anaryan tongue, the agglutinative Ugrian.
The Aryan tongue was introduced into Greece by the Achæans about 1400 B.
C. and later, about 1100 B. C. by the true Hellenes, who brought in the
classic dialects of Dorian, Ionian and Æolian.
These Aryan languages superseded their Anaryan predecessor, the
Pelasgian. From the language of these early invaders came the Illyrian,
Thracian, Albanian, classic Greek and the debased modern Romaic, a
descendant of the Ionian dialect.
Aryan speech was introduced among the Anaryan-speaking Etruscans of the
Italian Peninsula by the Umbrians and Oscans about 1100 B. C. and from
the language of these conquerors was derived Latin which later spread to
the uttermost confines of the Roman Empire. Its descendants to-day are
the Romance tongues spoken within the ancient imperial boundaries,
Portuguese on the west, Castilian, Catalan, Provençal, French, the
Langue d’oïl of the Walloons, Romansch, Ladin, Friulian, Tuscan,
Calabrian and Rumanian.
The problem of the existence of a language clearly descended from Latin,
the Rumanian, in the eastern Carpathians cut off by Slavic and Magyar
tongues from the nearest Romance tongues presents difficulties. The
Rumanians themselves make two claims; the first, which can be safely
disregarded, is an unbroken linguistic descent from a group of Aryan
languages which occupied this whole section of Europe, from which Latin
was derived and of which Albanian is also a remnant.
The more serious claim, however, made by the Rumanians is to linguistic
and racial descent from the military colonists planted by the Emperor
Trajan in the great Dacian plain north of the Danube. This may be
possible, so far as the language is concerned, but there are some
weighty objections to it.
We have little evidence for, and much against, the existence of Rumanian
speech north of the Danube for nearly a thousand years after Rome
abandoned this outlying region. Dacia was one of the last provinces to
be occupied by Rome and was the first from which the legions were
withdrawn upon the decline of the Empire. The northern Carpathians,
furthermore, where the Rumanians claim to have taken refuge during the
barbarian invasions formed part of the Slavic homeland and it was in
these same mountains and in the Ruthenian districts of eastern Galicia
that the Slavic languages were developed, probably by the Sarmatians and
Venethi, from whence they spread in all directions in the centuries that
immediately followed the fall of Rome. So it is almost impossible to
credit the survival of a frontier community of Romanized natives
situated not only in the path of the great invasions of Europe from the
east, but also in the very spot where Slavic tongues were at the time
evolving.
Rumanian speech occupies large areas outside of the present kingdom of
Rumania, in Russian Bessarabia, Austrian Bukowina and above all in
Hungarian Transylvania.
The linguistic problem is further complicated by the existence in the
Pindus Mountains of Thessaly of another large community of Vlachs of
Rumanian speech. How this later community could have survived from Roman
times until to-day, untouched either by the Greek language of the
Byzantine Empire or by the Turkish conquest is another difficult
problem.
The evidence, on the whole, points to the descent of the Vlachs from the
early inhabitants of Thrace, who adopted Latin speech in the first
centuries of the Christian era and clung to it during the domination of
the Bulgarians from the seventh century onward in the lands south of the
Danube. In the thirteenth century the mass of these Vlachs, leaving
scattered remnants behind them, crossed the Danube and founded Little
and Great Wallachia. From there they spread into Transylvania and a
century later into Moldavia.
The solution of this problem receives no assistance from anthropology,
as these Rumanian-speaking populations both on the Danube and in the
Pindus Mountains in no way differ physically from their neighbors on all
sides. But through whatever channel they acquired their Latin speech the
Rumanians of to-day can lay no valid claim to blood descent even in a
remote degree from the true Romans.
The first Aryan languages known in western Europe were the Celtic group
which first appears west of the Rhine about 1000 B. C.
Only a few dim traces of Pre-Aryan speech have been found in the British
Isles, and these largely in place names. The Pre-Aryan language of the
Pre-Nordic population of Britain may have survived down to historic
times as Pictish.
In Britain, Celtic speech was introduced in two successive waves, first
by the Goidels or “Q” Celts, who apparently appeared about 800 B. C. and
this form exists to this day as Erse in western Ireland, as Manx of the
Isle of Man and as Gaelic in the Scottish Highlands.
The Goidels were still in a state of bronze culture. When they reached
Britain they must have found there a population preponderantly of
Mediterranean type with numerous remains of still earlier races of
Paleolithic times and also some round skulled Alpines of the Round
Barrows, who have since largely faded from the living population. When
the next invasion, the Cymric or Brythonic, occurred the Goidels had
been absorbed very largely by the underlying Mediterranean aborigines
who had meanwhile accepted the Goidelic form of Celtic speech, just as
on the continent the Gauls had mixed with Alpine and Mediterranean
natives and had imposed upon the conquered their own tongue. In fact, in
Britain, Gaul and Spain the Goidels and Gauls were chiefly a ruling,
military class, while the great bulk of the population remained
unchanged although Aryanized in speech.
These Brythonic or Cymric tribes or “P” Celts followed the “Q” Celts
four or five hundred years later, and drove the Goidels westward through
Germany, Gaul and Britain and this movement of population was still
going on when Cæsar crossed the Channel. The Brythonic group gave rise
to the modern Cornish, extinct within a century, the Cymric of Wales and
the Armorican of Brittany.
In central Europe we find traces of these same two forms of Celtic
speech with the Goidelic everywhere the older and the Cymric the more
recent arrival. The cleavage between the dialects of the “Q” Celts and
the “P” Celts was probably less marked two thousand years ago than at
present, since in their modern form they are both Neo-Celtic languages.
What vestiges of Celtic languages remain in France belong to Brythonic.
Celtic was not generally spoken in Aquitaine in Cæsar’s time.
When the two Celtic-speaking races came into conflict in Britain their
original relationship had been greatly obscured by the crossing of the
Goidels with the underlying dark Mediterranean race of Neolithic culture
and by the mixture of the Belgæ with Teutonic tribes. The result was
that the Brythons did not distinguish between the blond Goidels and the
brunet but Celticized Mediterraneans as they all spoke Goidelic
dialects.
In the same way when the Saxons and the Angles entered Britain they
found there a population speaking Celtic of some form, either Goidelic
or Cymric and promptly called them all Welsh (foreigners). These Welsh
were preponderantly of Mediterranean type with some mixture of a blond
Goidel strain and a much stronger blond strain of Cymric origin and
these same elements exist to-day in England. The Mediterranean race is
easily distinguished, but the physical types derived from Goidel and
Brython alike are merged and lost in the later floods of pure Nordic
blood, Angle, Saxon, Dane, Norse and Norman. In this primitive, dark
population with successive layers of blond Nordics imposed upon it, each
one more purely Nordic and in the relative absence of round heads lie
the secret and the solution of the anthropology of the British Isles.
This Iberian substratum was able to absorb to a large extent the earlier
Celtic-speaking invaders, both Goidels and Brythons, but it is only just
beginning to seriously threaten the later Nordics and to reassert its
ancient brunet characters after three thousand years of submergence.
In northwest Scotland there is a Gaelic-speaking area where the place
names are all Scandinavian and the physical types purely Nordic. This is
the only spot in the British Isles where Celtic speech has reconquered a
district from the Teutonic languages and it was the site of one of the
conquests of the Norse Vikings, probably in the early centuries of the
Christian era. In Caithness in north Scotland, as well as in some
isolated spots on the Irish coasts, the language of these same Norse
pirates persisted within a century. In the fifth century of our era and
after the break-up of Roman domination in Britain there was much racial
unrest and a back wave of Goidels crossed from Ireland and either
reintroduced or reinforced the Gaelic speech in the highlands. Later,
Goidelic speech was gradually driven northward and westward by the
intrusive English of the lowlands and was ultimately forced over this
originally Norse-speaking area. We have elsewhere in Europe evidence of
similar shiftings of speech without any corresponding change in the
blood of the population.
Except in the British Isles and in Brittany Celtic languages have left
no modern descendants, but have everywhere been replaced by languages of
Neo-Latin or of Teutonic origin. Outside of Brittany one of the last, if
not quite the last, reference to Celtic speech in Gaul is the historic
statement that “Celtic” tribes, as well as “Armoricans,” took part at
Châlons in the great victory in 451 A. D. over Attila the Hun and his
confederacy of subject nations.
On the continent the only existing populations of Celtic speech are the
primitive inhabitants of central Brittany, a population noted for their
religious fanaticism and for other characteristics of a backward people.
This Celtic speech is claimed to have been introduced about 450–500 A.
D. by Britons fleeing from the Saxons. These refugees, if there were any
substantial number of them, must have been dolichocephs of either
Mediterranean or Nordic race or both. We are asked by this tradition to
believe that their long skull was lost, but that their language was
adopted by the round skulled Alpine population of Armorica. It is much
more probable that the Cymric-speaking Alpines of Brittany have merely
retained in this isolated corner of France a form of Celtic speech which
was prevalent throughout northern Gaul and Britain before these
provinces were conquered by Rome and Latinized and which, perhaps, was
reinforced later by British Cymry. Cæsar remarked that there was little
difference between the speech of the Belgæ in northern Gaul and in
Britain. In both cases the speech was Cymric.
Long after the conquest of Gaul by the Goths and Franks Teutonic speech
remained predominant among the ruling classes and, by the time it
succumbed to the Latin tongue of the Romanized natives, the old Celtic
languages had been entirely forgotten outside of Brittany.
An example of similar changes of language is to be found in Normandy
where the country was inhabited by the Nordic Belgæ speaking a Cymric
language before that tongue was replaced by Latin. This coast was
ravaged about 300 or 400 A. D. by Saxons who formed settlements along
both sides of the Channel and the coasts of Brittany which were later
known as the Litus Saxonicum. Their progress can best be traced by place
names as our historic record of these raids is scanty.
The Normans landed in Normandy in the year 911 A. D. They were heathen,
Danish barbarians, speaking a Teutonic tongue. The religion, culture and
language of the old Romanized populations worked a miracle in the
transformation of everything except blood in one short century. So quick
was the change that 155 years later the descendants of the same Normans
landed in England as Christian Frenchmen armed with all the culture of
their period. The change was startling, but the Norman blood remained
unchanged and entered England as a substantially Nordic type.
XIV
THE ARYAN LANGUAGE IN ASIA
In the Ægean region and south of the Caucasus Nordics appear after 1700
B. C. but there were unquestionably invasions and raids from the north
for many centuries previous to our first records. These early migrations
were probably not in sufficient force to modify the blood of the
autochthonous races or to substitute Aryan languages for the ancient
Mediterranean and Asiatic tongues.
These men of the North came from the grasslands of Russia in successive
waves and among the first of whom we have fairly clear knowledge were
the Achæans and Phrygians. Aryan names are mentioned in the dim
chronicles of the Mesopotamian empires about 1700 B. C. among the
Kassites and later, Mitanni. Aryan names of prisoners captured beyond
the mountains in the north and of Aryan deities before whom oaths were
taken are recorded about 1400 B. C. but one of the first definite
accounts of Nordics south of the Caucasus describes the presence of
Nordic Persians at Lake Urmia about 900 B. C. There were many incursions
from that time on, the Cimmerians raiding across the Caucasus as early
as 650 B. C. and shortly afterward overrunning all Asia Minor.
The easterly extension of the Russian steppes or Kiptchak north of the
Caspian-Aral Sea in Turkestan as far as the foothills of the Pamirs was
occupied by the Sacæ or Massagetæ, who were also Nordics and akin to the
Cimmerians and Persians, as were, perhaps, the Ephtalites or White Huns
in Sogdiana north of Persia, destroyed by the Turks in the sixth
century.
For several centuries groups of Nordics drifted as nomad shepherds
across the Caucasus into the empire of the Medes, introducing little by
little the Aryan tongue which later developed into Old Persian. By 550
B. C. these Persians had become sufficiently numerous to overthrow their
rulers and under the leadership of the great Cyrus they organized the
Persian Empire, one of the most enduring of Oriental states. The base of
the population of the Persian Empire rested on the round skulled Medes
who belonged to the Armenoid subdivision of the Alpines. Under the
leadership of their priestly caste of Magi these Medes rebelled again
and again against their Nordic masters before the two peoples became
fused.
From 525 to 485 B. C. during the reign of Darius, whose sculptured
portraits show a man of pure Nordic type, the tall, blond Persians had
become almost exclusively a class of great ruling nobles and had
forgotten the simplicity of their shepherd ancestors. Their language
belonged to the Eastern or Iranian division of Aryan speech and was
known as Old Persian, which continued to be spoken until the fourth
century before the Christian era. From it were derived Pehlevi, or
Parthian as well as modern Persian. The great book of the old Persians,
the Avesta, which was written in Zendic, also an Iranian language, does
not go back to the reign of Darius and was remodelled after the
Christian era, but the Old Persian of Darius was closely related to the
Zendic of Bactria and to the Sanskrit of Hindustan. From Zendic, also
called Medic, are derived Ghalcha, Balochi, Kurdish and other dialects.
The rise to imperial power of the dolichocephalic Aryan-speaking
Persians was largely due to the genius of their leaders but the
Aryanization of western Asia by them is one of the most amazing events
in history. The whole region became completely transformed so far as the
acceptance by the conquered of the language and religion of the Persians
was concerned, but the blood of the Nordic race quickly became diluted
and a few centuries later disappears from history.
During the great wars with Greece the pure Persian blood was still
unimpaired and in control. In the literature of the time there is little
evidence of race antagonism between the Greek and the Persian leaders
although their rival cultures were sharply contrasted. In the time of
Alexander the Great the pure Persian blood was obviously confined to the
nobles and it was the policy of Alexander to Hellenize the Persians and
to amalgamate his Greeks with them. The amount of pure Macedonian blood
was not sufficient to reinforce the Nordic strain of the Persians and
the net result was the entire loss of the Greek stock.
It is a question whether the Armenians of Asia Minor derived their Aryan
speech from this invasion of the Nordic Persians, or whether they
received it at an earlier date from the Phrygians and from the west.
These Phrygians entered Asia Minor by way of the Dardanelles and broke
up the Hittite Empire. Their language was Aryan and probably was related
to Thracian. In favor of the theory of the introduction of the Armenian
language by the Phrygians from the west, rather than by the Persians
from the east, is the highly significant fact that the basic structure
of that tongue shows its relationship to be with the western or Centum
rather than with the eastern or Satem group of Aryan languages and this,
too, in spite of a very large Persian vocabulary.
The Armenians themselves, like all the other natives of the plateaux and
highlands as far east as the Hindu Kush Mountains, while of Aryan
speech, are of the Armenoid subdivision, in sharp contrast to the
predominant types south of the mountains in Persia, Afghanistan and
Hindustan, all of which are dolichocephalic and of Mediterranean
affinity but generally betraying traces of admixture with still more
ancient races of Negroid origin, especially in India.
We now come to the last and easternmost extension of Aryan languages in
Asia. As mentioned above, the grasslands and steppes of Russia extend
north of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea to ancient Bactria,
now Turkestan. This whole country was occupied by the Nordic Sacæ and
the closely related Massagetæ. These Sacæ may be identical with the
later Scythians.
Soon after the opening of the second millennium B. C. and perhaps even
earlier, the first Nordics crossed over the Afghan passes, entered the
plains of India and organized a state in the Punjab, “the land of the
five rivers,” bringing with them Aryan speech to a population probably
of Mediterranean type and represented to-day by the Dravidians. The
Nordic Sacæ arrived later in India and introduced the Vedas, religious
poems, which were at first transmitted orally but which were reduced to
written form in Old Sanskrit by the Brahmans at the comparatively late
date of 300 A. D. From this classic Sanskrit are derived all the modern
Aryan languages of Hindustan, as well as the Singalese of Ceylon and the
chief dialects of Assam.
There is great diversity among scholars as to the date of the first
entry of these Aryan-speaking tribes into the Punjab but the consensus
of opinion seems to indicate a period between 1600 and 1700 B. C. or
even somewhat earlier. However, the very close affinity of Sanskrit to
the Old Persian of Darius and to the Zendavesta would strongly indicate
that the final introduction of Aryan languages in the form of Sanskrit
occurred at a much later time. The most recent tendency is to bring
these dates somewhat forward.
If close relationship between languages indicates correlation in time
then the entry of the Sacæ into India would appear to have been nearly
simultaneous with the crossing of the Caucasus by the Nordic Cimmerians
and their Persian successors.
The relationship between the Zendavesta and the Sanskrit Vedas is as
near as that between High and Low German and consequently such close
affinity prevents our thrusting back the date of the separation of the
Persians and the Sacæ more than a few centuries.
A simultaneous migration of nomad shepherds on both sides of the
Caspian-Aral Sea would naturally occur in a general movement southward
and such migrations may have taken place several times. In all
probability these Nordic invasions occurred one after another for a
thousand years or more, the later ones obscuring and blurring the memory
of their predecessors.
When shepherd tribes leave their grasslands and attack their
agricultural neighbors, the reason is nearly always a famine due to
prolonged drought and causes such as these have again and again in
history put the nomad tribes in motion over large areas. During many
centuries fresh tribes composed of Nordics or under the leadership of
Nordics but all Aryan-speaking, poured over the Afghan passes from the
northwest and pushed before them the earlier arrivals. Clear traces of
these successive floods of conquerors are to be found in the Vedas
themselves.
The Zendic form of the Iranian group of Aryan languages was spoken by
those Sacæ who remained in old Bactria and from it is derived a whole
group of closely related dialects still used in the Pamirs of which
Ghalcha is the best known.
The Sacæ and Massagetæ were, like the Persians, tall, blond dolichocephs
and they have left behind them dim traces of their blood among the
living Mongolized nomads of Turkestan, the Kirghizes. Ancient Bactria
maintained its Nordic and Aryan aspect long after Alexander’s time and
did not become Mongolized and receive the sinister name of Turkestan
until the seventh century, when it was the first victim of the series of
ferocious invasions from the north and east, which under various Mongol
leaders destroyed civilization in Asia and threatened its existence in
Europe. These conquests culminated in 1241 A. D. at Wahlstatt in Silesia
where the Germans, though themselves badly defeated, put a final limit
to this westward rush of Asiatics.
The Sacæ were the most easterly members of the Nordic race of whom we
have definite record. The Chinese knew well these “green eyed devils,”
whom they called by their Tatar name, the “Wu-suns,”—the tall ones—and
with whom they came into contact about 200 B. C. in what is now Chinese
Turkestan. Other Nordic tribes are recorded in this region. Evidence is
accumulating that central Asia had a large Nordic population in the
centuries preceding the Christian era. The discovery of the Aryan
Tokharian language in Chinese Turkestan considered in connection with
other facts indicates intensive occupation by Nordics of territories in
central Asia now wholly Mongol, just as in Europe dark-haired Alpines
occupy large territories where in Roman times fair-haired Nordics were
preponderant. In short we find both in Europe and in western and central
Asia the same record of Nordic decline during the last two thousand
years and their replacement by races of inferior value and civilization.
This Tokharian is undoubtedly a pure Aryan language related, curiously
enough, to the western group rather than to the Indo-Iranian. It has
been deciphered from inscriptions recently found in northeast Turkestan
and was a living language prior to the ninth century A. D.
Of all the wonderful conquests of the Sacæ there remain as evidence of
their invasions only these Indian and Afghan languages. Dim traces of
their blood have been found in the Pamirs and in Afghanistan, but in the
south their blond traits have vanished, even from the Punjab. It may be
that the stature of some of the Afghan hill tribes and of the Sikhs and
some of the facial characters of the latter are derived from this
source, but all blondness of skin, hair or eye of the original Sacæ has
utterly vanished.
The long skulls all through India are to be attributed to the
Mediterranean race rather than to this Nordic invasion, while the
Pre-Dravidians and Negroids of south India, with which the former are
largely mixed, are also dolichocephs.
In short, the introduction in Iran and India of Aryan languages,
Iranian, Ghalchic and Sanskrit, represents a linguistic and not an
ethnic conquest.
In concluding this revision of the racial foundations upon which the
history of Europe has been based it is scarcely necessary to point out
that the actual results of the spectacular conquests and invasions of
history have been far less permanent than those of the more insidious
victories arising from the crossing of two diverse races and that in
such mixtures the relative prepotency of the various human subspecies in
Europe appears to be in inverse ratio to their social value.
The continuity of physical traits and the limitation of the effects of
environment to the individual only are now so thoroughly recognized by
scientists that it is at most a question of time when the social
consequences which result from such crossings will be generally
understood by the public at large. As soon as the true bearing and
import of the facts are appreciated by lawmakers a complete change in
our political structure will inevitably occur and our present reliance
on the influence of education will be superseded by a readjustment based
on racial values.
Bearing in mind the extreme antiquity of physical and spiritual
characters and the persistency with which they outlive those elements of
environment termed language, nationality and forms of government, we
must consider the relation of these facts to the development of the race
in America. We may be certain that the progress of evolution is in full
operation to-day under those laws of nature which control it and that
the only sure guide to the future lies in the study of the operation of
these laws in the past.
We Americans must realize that the altruistic ideals which have
controlled our social development during the past century and the
maudlin sentimentalism that has made America “an asylum for the
oppressed,” are sweeping the nation toward a racial abyss. If the
Melting Pot is allowed to boil without control and we continue to follow
our national motto and deliberately blind ourselves to all “distinctions
of race, creed or color,” the type of native American of Colonial
descent will become as extinct as the Athenian of the age of Pericles,
and the Viking of the days of Rollo.
APPENDIX
The maps shown facing pages 266, 268, 270, and 272 of this book attempt
in broad and somewhat hypothetical lines to represent by means of color
diagrams the original distribution and the subsequent expansion and
migration of the three main European races, the Mediterranean, the
Alpine and the Nordic, as outlined in this book.
THE MAXIMUM EXPANSION OF THE ALPINES WITH BRONZE CULTURE, 3000–1800 B.
C.
The first map (Pl. I) shows the distribution of these races at the close
of the Neolithic, as well as their later expansion. It also indicates
the sites of earlier cultures. The distribution of megaliths in Asia
Minor on the north coast of Africa and up the Atlantic seaboard through
Spain, France and Britain to Scandinavia is set forth. These great stone
monuments were seemingly the work of the Mediterranean race using,
however, a culture of bronze acquired from the Alpines. The map also
shows the sites throughout Russia of the kurgans, or ancient artificial
mounds, distribution of which seems to correspond closely with the
original habitat of the Nordics.
In southwestern France there is indicated the area where the Cro-Magnon
race persisted longest and where traces of it are still to be found. The
site is shown of the type station of the latest phase of the Paleolithic
known as the Mas d’Azil—a great cavern in the eastern Pyrenees from
which that period took its name of Azilian.
At the entrance of the Baltic Sea is also shown the type station of the
Maglemose culture which flourished at the close of the Paleolithic and
was probably the work of early Nordics.
In the centre of the district occupied by the Alpines is located
Robenhausen, the most characteristic of the Neolithic lake dwelling
stations and also the Terramara stations in which a culture transitional
between the Neolithic and the bronze existed. In the Tyrol the site is
indicated of the village of Hallstatt, which gave its name to the first
iron culture.
The site of La Tène at the north end of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland is
also shown. From this village the La Tène Iron Age takes its name.
The difficulty of depicting the shifting of races during twelve
centuries is not easily overcome, but the map attempts to show that at
the close of the Neolithic all the coast lands of the Mediterranean and
of the Atlantic seaboard up to Germany and including the British Isles
were populated by the Mediterranean race, in addition, of course, to
remnants of earlier Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, who probably, at that
date, still formed an appreciable portion of the population.
The yellow arrows indicate the route of the migrations of Mediterranean
man, who appears to have entered Europe from the east along the African
littoral. But the main invasions passed up through Spain and Gaul into
the British Isles, where from that time to this they have formed the
substratum of the population. In the central portion of their range
these Mediterraneans were swamped by the Alpines, as shown by the
spreading green, while in northern Gaul and Britain the Mediterraneans
were submerged afterward by Nordics, as appears on the later maps.
The arrows and routes of migration shown on the yellow area of this map
indicate changes which occurred during the Neolithic and perhaps
earlier, but the pink and red arrows in the northern and southeastern
portions represent migrations which were in full swing and in fact were
steadily increasing during the entire period involved. The next map
shows these Nordics bursting out of their original homeland in every
direction and in their turn conquering Europe.
[Illustration: MAXIMUM EXPANSION of ALPINES with BRONZE
CULTURE—3000–1800 B.C. (generalized scheme) by Madison Grant]
Between these two races, the Mediterranean and the Nordic, there entered
a great intrusion of Alpines, flowing from the highlands of western Asia
through Asia Minor and up the valley of the Danube throughout central
Europe and thence expanding in every direction. Forerunners of these
same Alpines were found in western Europe as far back as the closing
Azilian phase of the Paleolithic, where they are known as the
Furfooz-Grenelle race and are thus contemporary in western Europe with
the earliest Mediterraneans.
During all the Neolithic the Alpines occupied the mountainous core of
Europe, but their great and final expansion occurred at the close of the
Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Period, when a new and
extensive Alpine invasion from the region of the Armenian highlands
brought in the Bronze culture. This last migration apparently followed
the routes of the earlier invasions and, in the extreme southwest, it
even reached Spain in small numbers, where its remnants can still be
found in the Cantabrian Alps. The Alpines occupied all Savoy and central
France, where from that day to this they constitute the bulk of the
peasant population. They reached Brittany and to-day that peninsula is
their westernmost outpost. They crossed over in small numbers to Britain
and some even reached Ireland. In England they were the men of the Round
Barrows, but nearly all trace of this invasion has vanished from the
living population.
The Alpines also reached Holland, Denmark and southwestern Norway and
traces of their colonization in these countries are still found.
The author has attempted to indicate the lines of this Alpine expansion
by means of the solid green spreading over central Europe and Asia
Minor, with outlying dots showing the outer limits of the invasion.
Black arrows proceeding from the east denote its main lines and routes.
Those Alpines who crossed the Caucasus passed through southern Russia
and a side wave of the same migration passed down the Syrian coast to
Egypt and along the north coast of Africa, entering Italy by way of
Sicily. The last African invasion left behind it the Giza round skulls
of Egypt. This final Alpine expansion taught the other races of Europe,
both Mediterranean and Nordic, the art of metallurgy.
The Nordics apparently originated in southern Russia, but long before
the Bronze Period they had spread northward across the Baltic into
Scandinavia, where they specialized into the race now known as the
Scandinavian or Teutonic. On the map the continental Nordics are
indicated by pink and the Nordics of Scandinavia are shown in red. At
the very end of the period covered by this map, these Scandinavian
Nordics were beginning to return to the continent. The routes of these
migrations and their extent are indicated by red arrows and circles
respectively.
To sum up, this map shows the expansion from central Asia of the round
skull Alpines across central Europe, submerging, in the south and west,
the little, dark, long skulled Mediterraneans of Neolithic culture,
while at the same time they pressed heavily upon the Nordics in the
north and introduced Bronze culture among them.
This development of the Alpines at the expense of the Mediterraneans had
a permanent influence in western Europe, but in the north their impress
was of a more temporary character. It is probable that in the first
instance they were able to conquer the Nordics by reason of the
superiority of bronze weapons to stone hatchets. But no sooner had they
imparted the knowledge of the manufacture and use of metal weapons and
tools to the Nordics than the latter turned on their conquerors and
completely mastered them, as appears on the next map.
THE EXPANSION OF THE PRE-TEUTONIC NORDICS, 1800–100 B. C.
The second map (Pl. II) of the series shows the shattering and
submergence of the green Alpine area by the pink Nordic area. It will be
noted that in Italy, Spain, France and Britain the solid green and the
green dots have steadily declined and in central Europe the green has
been torn apart and riddled in every direction by pink arrows and pink
dots, leaving solid green only in mountainous and infertile districts.
This submergence of the Alpines by the Nordics was so complete that
their very existence was forgotten until in our own day it was
discovered that the central core of Europe was inhabited by a short,
stocky, round skulled race originally from Asia. To-day these Alpines
are gradually recovering their influence in the world by sheer weight of
numbers. On this map the green Alpine area is shown to be everywhere
shrinking except in the countries around the Carpathians and the Dnieper
River, where the Sarmatians and Wends are located. It was in this
district that the Slavic-speaking Alpines were developing.
Simultaneously with this expansion toward the west, south and east of
the continental Nordics, the Scandinavian or Teutonic tribes appear on
the scene in increasing numbers, as shown by the red area and red
arrows, pressing upon and forcing ahead of them their kinsmen on the
mainland.
[Illustration: EXPANSION OF THE PRE-TEUTONIC NORDICS 1800–100 B.C.
(generalized scheme) by Madison Grant]
The pink arrows in Spain show the invasion of Celtic-speaking Nordics,
closely related to the Nordic Gauls who a little earlier had conquered
France. This same wave of Nordic invasion crossed the Channel and
appears in the pink dots of Britain and Ireland, where the intruders are
known as Goidels. These early Nordics were followed some centuries later
by another wave of kindred peoples who were known as Brythons or Cymry
in Britain and as Belgæ on the continent. These Cymric Belgæ or Brythons
probably represented the mixed descendants of the earliest Teutons who
crossed from Scandinavia and had adopted and modified the Celtic
languages spoken by the continental Nordics. These Cymric-speaking
Nordics drove before them the earlier Gauls in France and the Goidels in
Britain, but their impulse westward was very likely caused by the
oncoming rush of pure Teutons from Scandinavia and the Baltic coasts.
In Italy the pink arrows entering from the west show the route of the
invading Gauls, who occupied the country north of the Apennines and made
it Cisalpine Gaul, while the arrows entering Italy from the northeast
show the earlier invasions of the Nordic Umbrians and Oscans, who
introduced Aryan speech into Italy. Farther east in Greece and the
Balkans, the pink arrows show the routes of invasion of the Achæans and
the kindred Phrygians of Homer as well as the later Dorians and
Cimmerians. In the region of the Caucasus, the routes of the invading
Persians are shown and, north of the Caspian Sea, the line of migration
of the Sacæ from the grasslands of southern Russia toward the east. In
the inset map in the upper right corner is shown the expansion of these
Nordics into Asia, where the Sacæ and closely related Massagetæ occupied
what is now Turkestan and from this centre swarmed over the mountains of
Afghanistan into India and introduced Aryan speech among the swarming
millions of that peninsula.
In the northern part of the main map the expansion of the Teutonic
Nordics is shown, with the Goths in the east and Saxons in the west of
the red area, but the salient feature is the expansion of the pink at
the expense of the green and the ominous growth of the red area centring
around Scandinavia in the north.
THE EXPANSION OF THE TEUTONIC NORDICS AND SLAVIC ALPINES, 100 B. C. TO
1100 A. D.
This map (Pl. III) shows the yellow area greatly diminished in central
and northern Europe, while it retains its supremacy in Spain and Italy
as well as on the north coast of Africa. In the latter areas the green
dots have nearly vanished and have been replaced by pink and red dots.
In central Europe the green area is still more broken up and reduced to
a minimum. In the Balkans and eastern Europe, however, two large centres
of green, north and south of the Danube respectively, represent the
expanding power of the Slavic-speaking Alpines. The pink area of the
continental Nordics is everywhere fading and is on the point of
vanishing as a distinctive type and of merging in the red. The expansion
of the Teutonic Nordics from Scandinavia and from the north of Germany
is now at its maximum and they are everywhere pressing through the
Empire of Rome and laying the foundations of the modern nations of
Europe. The Vandals have migrated from the coasts of the Baltic to what
is now Hungary, then westward into France and finally, after occupying
for a while southern Spain, under pressure of the kindred Visigoths to
northern Africa, where they established a kingdom which is the sole
example we have of a Teutonic state on that continent. The Visigoths and
Suevi laid the foundations of Spain and Portugal, while the Franks,
Burgundians and Normans transformed Gaul into France.
[Illustration: EXPANSION OF THE TEUTONIC NORDICS AND SLAVIC ALPINES 100
BC–1100 AD (generalized scheme) by Madison Grant]
Into Italy for a thousand years floods of Nordic Teutons crossed the
Alps and settled along the Po Valley. While many tribes participated in
these invasions, the most important migration was that of the Lombards,
who, coming from the basin of the Baltic by way of the Danubian plains,
occupied the Po Valley in force and scattered a Teutonic nobility
throughout the peninsula. The Lombard and kindred strains in the north
give to that portion of the peninsula its present predominance over the
provinces south of the Apennines.
The conquest of the British Isles by the Teutonic and Scandinavian
Nordics was far more complete than was their conquest of Spain, Italy or
even northern France. When these Teutons arrived upon the scene, the
ancient, dark Neolithics had very largely absorbed the early Nordic
invaders, Goidels and Cymry alike. Floods of Saxons, of Angles and later
of Danes, crossed the Channel and the North Sea and displaced the old
population in Scotland and the eastern half of England, while Norse
Vikings following in their wake occupied nearly all of the outlying
islands and much of the coast. Both these later invasions, Danish and
Norse, passed around the greater island and inundated Ireland, so that
the big, blond or red-haired Irishman of to-day is to a large extent a
Dane in a state of culture analogous to that of Scotland before the
Reformation.
This map shows that the vitality of Scandinavia was far from exhausted
after sending for upward of two thousand years tribe after tribe across
to the continent and that it was now producing an extraordinarily
vigorous type, the Vikings in the west and the equally warlike and
energetic Varangians in the east, who migrated back to the motherland of
the Nordics and laid the foundations of modern Russia.
While all these splendid conquests were in full swing a little known
group of tribes was growing and spreading in eastern and southern
Germany and in Austria-Hungary and occupying the lands left vacant by
the Teutonic nations, which had invaded the Roman Empire. From this
centre in the neighborhood of the Carpathians and in Galicia eastward to
the head of the Dnieper River, the Wends and Sarmatians expanded in all
directions. They were the ancestors of those Alpines who are to-day
Slavic-speaking. From this obscure beginning came the bulk of the
Russians and the South Slavs. The expansion of the Slavs is one of the
most significant features of the Dark Ages and the author has attempted
to indicate the centre of expansion of these tribes by green dots and
green arrows, radiating in all directions from the solid green area in
Europe. To sum up this map, the yellow area has steadily declined
everywhere, while in western Europe the green area is now limited to the
infertile and backward mountain regions. In eastern Europe, however,
this same green Alpine area is showing a marvellous capacity for
recovery, as will appear from the map of the races of to-day.
The red area is widely spread and occupies the river valleys and the
fertile lands and represents everywhere the ruling, military aristocracy
more or less thinly scattered over a conquered peasantry of
Mediterranean and Alpine blood. One phenomenon of dire import is shown
on the map, where, coming from the districts north and east of the
Caspian Sea, certain black arrows are seen shooting westward into
Europe, reaching in one extreme instance as far as Châlons in France,
where Attila nearly succeeded in destroying what remained of western
civilization. These arrows mark respectively Huns, Cumans, Avars,
Magyars, Bulgars and other Asiatic hordes, probably for the most part of
Mongoloid origin and coming originally from central Asia far beyond the
range of Aryan speech. These hordes of Mongoloids destroyed the budding
culture of Russia, while at a later date kindred tribes under the name
of Turks or Tatars flooded the Balkans and the valley of the Danube but
these later invasions entered Europe from Asia Minor.
[Illustration:
PRESENT DISTRIBUTION
OF
EUROPEAN RACES
(generalized scheme)
by
Madison Grant
]
THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF EUROPEAN RACES
The preparation of the last map (Pl. IV), showing the present
distribution of European races, was in some respects a more intricate
task than that of the earlier maps. The main difficulty is that, as a
result of successive migrations and expansions, the different races of
Europe are now often represented by distinct classes. Numerically one
type may be in a majority, as are the Rumanians in eastern Hungary,
where they constitute nearly two-thirds of the population. At the same
time this majority is of no intellectual or social importance, since all
the professional and military classes in Transylvania are either Magyar
or Saxon. Under the existing scheme of showing majorities by color these
ruling minorities do not appear at all. In this last map the yellow is
beginning to expand, especially in the British Isles. The green also is
recovering somewhat in central and western Europe, but in the Balkans,
eastern Germany, Austria and above all in Poland and Russia, it has
largely replaced the former Nordic color. The pink, _i. e._, the
continental Nordics as a distinct type, has entirely vanished and has
been everywhere replaced by the Teutonic red. This does not mean that
there are no existing remnants of the continental Nordics, but it does
mean that these remnants cannot now be distinguished from the
all-pervading and masterful type of the Teutonic Nordics.
In general, this last map, as compared with the earlier ones, although
showing a steady shrinkage of the Nordic area, brings out clearly the
manner in which it centres around the basins of the Baltic and the North
Sea, radiating thence in every direction and in decreasing numbers. The
menace of the continued expansion of the green area westward and
northward into the red area of the Nordics is undoubtedly one of the
causes of the present world war. This expansion began as far back as the
fall of Rome, but only in our day and generation has this backward race
even claimed a parity of strength and culture with the Master Race.
DOCUMENTARY SUPPLEMENT
The purpose of these notes is to meet an insistent demand for
authorities for the statements made in the body of the book. As was
mentioned in the Introduction, in a work of this compass and aim, mere
lack of space forbade all but the barest outlines, so that often an
appearance of dogmatism was the result.
There is a vast literature on the subjects discussed and to give all the
references would be almost a physical impossibility. It is particularly
difficult to name all that has appeared in periodicals, since they have
become so numerous, especially during the last few years.
The author has in mind to refer only to those works which bear directly
on the most essential statements made and, necessarily, to but a part of
these. In many cases only books which are most easily available have
been used. The author has intentionally quoted chiefly works in English,
where these exist, and when using foreign authorities has translated the
statements.
It must be clearly understood that the references are given for the
facts rather than the theories they contain. In no case, unless
specifically stated, is the author committed to the conclusions drawn in
the works cited. In order to present all sides, authorities who differ
in viewpoint are sometimes listed, the reader being left to make his own
decision of the case.
It is hoped that the references will be of assistance to students of
anthropology and to those who care to inquire further into the subjects
under discussion.
Where an author is quoted frequently or for more than one book, he is
referred to merely by name; the book is given by number immediately
following. Its full title may be ascertained in the bibliography.
DOCUMENTARY SUPPLEMENT
_PART I_
INTRODUCTION
Page xix : line 22. Immutability of somatological or bodily characters.
Charles B. Davenport, pp. 225 _seq._ and 252 _seq._: William E. Castle,
1, pp. 125 _seq._; Frederick Adams Woods, 3, p. 107; and Edwin G.
Conklin, 1, pp. 191 _seq._ See the note to p. 226, 7 for a quotation
from Conklin bearing on this point.
xix : 23. Immutability of psychical predispositions and impulses. See
note above. Professor Irving Fisher said, on p. 627 of _National
Vitality_, speaking of laws relating to eugenics: “What such laws might
accomplish may be judged from the history of two criminal families, the
‘Jukes’ and the ‘Tribe of Ishmael.’ Out of 1,200 descendants from the
founder of the ‘Jukes’ through 75 years, 310 were professional
paupers ... 50 were prostitutes, 7 murderers, 60 habitual thieves, and
130 common criminals.” Certainly these facts were not all due entirely
to identity or similarity of environment. On p. 675 we read: “Similarly,
the ‘Tribe of Ishmael,’ numbering 1,692 individuals in six generations,
has produced 121 known prostitutes and has bred hundreds of petty
thieves, vagrants and murderers. The history of the tribe is a swiftly
moving picture of social degeneration and gross parasitism extending
from its seventeenth century convict ancestry to the present day horde
of wandering and criminal descendants.” See R. L. Dugdale and Oscar C.
McCulloch, pp. 154–159. For transmission of opposite tendencies see pp.
675–676, Fisher. The Jukes were a family of Dutch descent, living in an
isolated valley in the mountains of northern New York. The Ishmaels were
a family of central Indiana which came from Maryland through Kentucky.
The Kalikak family is another striking instance. See also Davenport, 1,
and the note to p. 226: 7.
xxi : 5. Professor Charles B. Davenport says in correspondence: “By the
way, it was Judge John Lowell who added ‘free and’ to the words of the
Declaration in writing the Constitution of Massachusetts in the latter
part of the eighteenth century.”
xxiii : 20–25. _A Statistical Account of the British Empire._ J. R.
McCulloch, vol. I, pp. 400 seq.
CHAPTER I. RACE AND DEMOCRACY
4 : 6. Archbishop Ussher, 1581–1656. See the _New Schaff-Herzog
Religious Encyclopedia_; also other religious encyclopedias. Taylor,
_Origin of the Aryans_, p. 8.
5 : 15. See Émile Faguet, _Le Culte de l’Incompétence_.
6 : 3. _Cf._ _The Loyalists of Massachusetts_, by James H. Stark.
9 : 7. A good description of conditions is to be found in Bryce’s _The
Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company_, p. 73, all of chapter
XLII and elsewhere.
10 : 3 _seq._ Charles B. Davenport, _passim_, has discussed migratory
instincts, see especially 1.
10 : 16–17. These conditions are quaintly described in what is known as
the _Italian Relation_, translated by Charlotte Augusta Sneyd. See
especially pp. 34 and 36. The resulting laws may be found in Sir James
Fitzjames Stephen’s _History of the Criminal Law of England_, vol. III,
pp. 267 seq.; Pollard’s Political History of England, vol. VI, pp.
29–30; Green’s _History of the English People_, vol. II, pp. 20; and
elsewhere.
11 : 3. See the note to p. 79: 15.
11 : 17. See Notes to p. 218: 16.
11 : 20. For a very interesting series of letters written from Santo
Domingo in 1808 concerning conditions among the whites as the negro
slaves were gaining the ascendancy, consult the anonymous _Secret
History, or The Horrors of Santo Domingo_, in a series of letters
written by a lady at Cape François to Colonel Burr (late Vice-President
of the United States), principally during the command of General
Rochambeau. Lothrop Stoddard, in his _French Revolution in San Domingo_,
pp. 25 _seq._, gives a vivid picture of these times and conditions.
11 : 24. _Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics_, Prescott Hall,
pp. 125–127.
CHAPTER II. THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF RACE
13 : 7. See W. D. Matthew, _Climate and Evolution_; John C. Merriam,
_The Beginnings of Human History, Read from the Geological Record: The
Emergence of Man_, especially pp. 208–209 of the first part; and Madison
Grant, _The Origin and Relationships of North American Mammals_, pp.
5–7.
13 : 20. Mendelism. See Edwin G. Conklin, 1, chap. III, C, pp. 224
_seq._, or 2, vol. X, no. 2, pp. 170 _seq._ Also Punnett’s _Mendelism_,
or the appendix to Castle’s _Genetics and Eugenics_, which is a
translation of Mendel’s paper. Practically all late writers on heredity
give Mendel’s principles.
13 : 22–14 : 10 For these and other statements on heredity see the
writings of Charles B. Davenport, Frederic Adams Woods, G. Archdall
Reid, Edwin G. Conklin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, E. B. Wilson, J. Arthur
Thomson, William E. Castle, and Henry Fairfield Osborn, 2.
14 : 10 _seq._ Blends. E. G. Conklin remarks in correspondence: “In so
far as races interbreed, their characters mingle but do not blend or
fuse, and come out again in all their purity in descendants.” See also
the same authority, 1, pp. 208, 280, 282–287.
Every now and then an observation is met with which corroborates this
statement. The inheritance from one parent or the other of the shape of
the skull, in a fairly pure form, has been noted a number of times.
Fleure and James in their study of the _Anthropological Types in Wales_,
p. 39, make the following observation: “It may be said that certain
component features of head form, in many cases, seem to segregate more
or less in Mendelian fashion, but this is a matter for further
investigation; we are on safer ground in saying that the children of
parents of different head form very frequently show a fairly complete
resemblance to one or other parent, _i. e._, that head form is
frequently inherited in a fairly pure fashion.”
Von Luschan found still more striking evidence of this in his study of
modern Greeks, which he describes in his _Early Inhabitants of Western
Asia_. He has found that the children of parents of different head form
inherit in quite strict fashion the shape of skull of one or the other
parent, and that the population, instead of being mesaticephalic, is
to-day as distinctly divided into two groups, dolichol- and
brachycephalic, as in prehistoric times, in spite of the constant
intermixture that has occurred.
14 : 18. See notes to p. 13. This is a statement made by Dr. Davenport,
in correspondence.
15 : 17. On the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon types consult Professor
Arthur Keith, 1, pp. 101–120, and 2; also Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1, the
table on p. 23, pp. 214 _seq._, 289 _seq._, 291–305 and elsewhere, and
the authorities given.
On the resurgence of types, see Beddoe, 4; Fleure and James;
Giuffrida-Ruggeri; Parsons; and numerous other recent anthropologists.
15 : 25. See the notes to p. xix of the Introduction to this book, and
Keith, 2.
15 : 29 _seq._ Professor G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, chap.
IV, and pp. 41 _seq._ On p. 43 we read: “If we want to add to such
sources of information and complete the picture of the early
Egyptian ... he can be found reincarnated in his modern descendants with
surprisingly little change, either in physical characteristics or mode
of life, to show for the passage of six thousand years.” On p. 44:
“Although alien elements from north and south have been coming into
Upper Egypt for fifty centuries, it has been a process of percolation,
and not an overwhelming rush; the population has been able to assimilate
the alien minority and retain its own distinctive features and customs
with only slight change; and however large a proportion of the
population has taken on hybrid traits resulting from Negro, Arab, or
Armenoid admixture, there still remain in the Thebaid large numbers of
its people who present features and bodily conformation precisely
similar to those of their remote ancestors, the Proto-Egyptians.” See
also G. Sergi, 1, p. 65, and 4, p. 200.
17 : 5. See Franz Boas, _Changes in the Bodily Form of the Descendants
of Immigrants_, pp. 9, 27, etc.
17 : 28–18 : 7. See the notes to p. 13.
18 : 13. See notes to p. 14. Also Ripley, pp. 465–466 for a statement as
to brunetness.
18 : 24–19 : 2. E. G. Conklin, 1, pp. 454–455, and 2, especially vol. X,
no. 1, pp. 55–58.
19 : 3. Anders Retzius was the first to make use of the head form in
anthropological study, and to give the impetus to the index measurement
system in _The Form of the Skulls of the Northern Peoples of Europe_.
See also A. C. Haddon, 1, chap. I, in which he discusses these traits in
full, and Ripley, chap. III, especially pp. 55 _seq._ Modern physical
anthropologists still agree that the skull form is a most stable and
reliable character.
19 : 25. Ripley, p. 39.
19 : 27–pp. 20 and 21. Beddoe, Broca, Collignon, Livi, Topinard and a
host of other anthropologists all affirm the existence of three European
racial types, which Ripley has discussed exhaustively. Deniker alone
differs from them in classifying the populations of Europe, from the
same data, into six principal races and four or more sub-races. See
Appendix D, in Ripley’s _Races of Europe_.
The three terms, Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean, have now become quite
generally accepted designations for the three European races. The term
Nord, rather than Nordic, has been chosen, perhaps more wisely, by some
authors. In the present book these names are applied with quite
different connotations from those usually understood.
It cannot be too clearly stated that in speaking of Nordics, the
proto-type was probably quite generalized, with hair shades including
the browns and reds. In the author’s opinion the blond Scandinavian
represents an extreme specialization of Nordic characters. (See p. 167
of this book.)
20 : 5–24. The term Nordic was first used by Deniker. The authorities
for the descriptions of these races may all be found in Ripley. The
Mediterranean race was first defined by Sergi, who also calls it
Eurafrican. The term Alpine, proposed by Linnæus, was revived by
DeLapouge, and later adopted by Ripley, since when it has come into
general use. Sergi and Zaborowski prefer that of Eurasian. While this
latter name does cover the requirements, since it correctly signifies
not only the European and Asiatic range of the people under discussion,
but also their actual relationship to Asiatics, it is objectionable
because it implies the adoption of the similarly constructed term
Eurafrican, which, as defined by Sergi, is misleading. Correct as
Eurafrican may be for signifying the European and African range of the
Mediterranean race, it involves an acceptance of the theory put forward
by its sponsor, that the Mediterranean race originated in Africa and is
closely related to the negro, both being long skulled peoples, descended
from a common stock, the Eurafrican.
The chief objection to the term Mediterranean is that the race extends
in habitat beyond the Mediterranean region, but the name is now so
generally accepted and this fact so well known that misunderstandings
are unlikely. The term Alpine, also, is not as inappropriate as it might
seem, since the word Alps is frequently not confined to the Swiss ranges
but extended to many other mountain chains, and Alpine, like the term
Mediterranean, is not, at this late date, apt to be misunderstood.
20 : 24–21: 9. Von Luschan, _The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia_, pp.
221–244, and G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_.
22 : 10. Thomson, _Heredity_, p. 387; Darwin, _Descent of Man_; Boas,
_Modern Populations of America_, p. 571.
22: 25. Haddon, 1, pp. 15 _seq._
22 : 29. The same, pp. 12–14.
23 : 8. Clark Wissler, in _The American Indian_, makes clear the general
uniformity of American Indian types in chap. XVIII. See also Haddon, 1,
p. 8, and Hrdlička, _The Genesis of the American Indian_, pp. 559 _seq._
23 : 13. Haddon, 1, pp. 10 and 11. There are numerous other references
to this fact, especially in articles in various anthropological
journals, and general works on anthropology, such as those of Deniker,
Collignon, Martin and Ratzel.
23 : 16. For the differentiation of skull types in Europe during the
Paleolithic period, see Keith, 2, the chapters on Pre-Neolithic,
Mousterian and Neanderthal man; and 1, pp. 74 _seq._; as well as Osborn,
1, who also gives the dates of the Paleolithic in the table on p. 18.
24 : 3–5. This claim was put forth by Sergi, in his _Mediterranean
Race_, pp. 252, 258–259, and was followed by Ripley in his _Races of
Europe_.
24 : 14. Deniker, _Races of Man_, pp. 48–49; Ripley, p. 465.
25 : 5. Topinard, 1, 4; Collignon, 1; and Virchow, 1, p. 325; Ripley, p.
64. Ripley says: “If the hair be light, one can generally be sure that
the eyes will be of a corresponding shade. Bassanovitch, ... p. 29,
strikingly confirms this rule even for so dark a population as the
Bulgarian.”
25 : 6. See p. 163 of this book on the Albanians.
25 : 8. Ripley, pp. 75–76 and the footnote on p. 76.
25 : 11. Deniker, 2, p. 51. Also Davenport, _passim_.
25 : 13. Sir Edmund Loder, in correspondence, February, 1917, asks: “Has
it been noticed at Creedmore and elsewhere in America that nearly all
noted shots have blue eyes? It has been very noticeable at Wimbledon and
Bisby, where it was quite exceptional to find a man in the front rank of
marksmen with dark colored eyes. There was, however, one man who shot in
my team who had very dark eyes and was one of the best shots of the
day.”
25 : 16. There are said to be blue eyes occasionally in other races,
where traces of Nordic blood cannot be discovered. Green and blue eyes
have been found among the Rendeli (Desert Masai), although they are
otherwise normal negroes.
25 : 19. The following quotation is from Von Luschan, 1, p. 224: “In
Marmaritza near Halikarnassos, where a British squadron had a winter
station for many years, a very great proportion of the children is said
to be ‘flaxen-haired.’” According to a statement made to the author by
Professor G. Elliot Smith on May 4, 1920, a similar nest of blondness is
found in the Egyptian delta near Aboukir and is due to the fact that
after the battle of the Nile the Seaforth Highlanders were long
stationed there. At one time this blondness was supposed to bear some
relation to the ancient Lybian blondness depicted on the monuments.
25 : 25 _seq._ On the Berbers see Sergi, 4, pp. 59 _seq._, and Topinard,
3. In regard to the Albanians, Ripley refers to their blondness, on p.
414, as follows: “The Albanian colonists, studied by Livi and Zampa in
Calabria, still, after four centuries of Italian residence and
intermixture, cling to many of their primitive characteristics, notably
their brachycephaly and their relative blondness.” See also Zampa, 1,
and Deniker, 1, for scientific discussions of their physical characters.
Giuffrida-Ruggeri gives a summary of the most recent literature on
Albania.
25 : 29–26: 6. See Beddoe, _The Races of Britain_, pp. 14, 15 and
_passim_.
26 : 18. Beddoe, 4, p. 147.
27 : 1 _seq._ See Ripley, pp. 399–400 for a summary of observations on
this point. See also Darwin, _Descent of Man_, pp. 340–341 and 344
_seq._; and Fleure and James, p. 49.
27 : 14–28: 19. Haddon, 1, p. 2; also 2; Deniker, 2, chap. II and
_passim_.
28 : 19. Davenport, _passim_; Ripley, _passim_; and any general book on
anthropology.
28 : 24–29: 17. Ripley, pp. 80, 81, 84, 108–109, 131, 132, 252, 271,
307. Also see Davenport and Conklin, _passim_, and the notes to p. 18 of
this book.
30 : 18–31: 8. For a very interesting discussion of this question see
Conklin, 2, vol. IX, no. 6, pp. 492–6; Deniker, 2, p. 18; Haddon, 2,
chap. IV; and Louis R. Sullivan, _The Growth of the Nasal Bridge in
Children_, are other authorities. Some special studies of the nose have
been made by Majer and Koperniki, Weisbach, and Olechnowicz, for which
see Ripley, pp. 39 4–395. Jacobs, pp. 23–62, is particularly good on
nostrility.
31 : 9. Deniker, 2, p. 83.
31 : 13. On the shape of the foot as a racial character see Rudolf
Martin, _Lehrbuch der Anthropologie_, pp. 317 _seq._; and Beddoe, 4, pp.
245 _seq._; W. K. Gregory, 2, p. 14, and John C. Merriam, vol. IX, pp.
202 _seq._, have both discussed the evolution of the foot and the hand,
and the anatomical differences which distinguish those of man from those
of the apes.
31 : 16. P. Topinard, 2, chap. X, and Rudolf Martin, pp. 367 _seq._
32 : 4. Beard lighter than head hair. Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 850.
32 : 8. The red-haired branch of the Nordics. On red hair see Beddoe, 4,
pp. 3, 151–156; Fleure and James, _Anthropological Types in Wales_, pp.
118 _seq._; Ripley, pp. 205–207, based on Arbo; T. Rice Holmes, _Cæsar’s
Conquest of Gaul_, p. 337; and F. G. Parsons, _Anthropological
Observations on German Prisoners of War_, pp. 32 _seq._
32 : 21. See notes to p. 66.
33 : 7. Haddon, 1, p. 9 _seq._; Deniker, _Races of Man_; Ratzel,
_History of Mankind_; etc.
33 : 13. Haddon, 1, p. 16 _seq._; Deniker; Ratzel; etc.
33 : 23–34: 21. Haddon, 1, pp. 2 and 3, and Deniker, 2, pp. 42 _seq._
While this classification is substantially sound, and sufficient for our
purpose, recent investigations have shown that other factors also
contribute to straightness or kinkiness, such as coarseness of texture,
as opposed to fineness. Probably these will be determined by Mr. Louis
R. Sullivan, of the American Museum of Natural History, who is working
on the subject. It has been found that the Japanese and Eskimo are
exceptions to the rule of “straight hair, round cross section,” for they
show an ellipse. There is also a wide range of variation in the
cross-sections of hair for individuals of any race, who are classified
according to the preponderance of cross-sections of a single type. For a
fine series of plates which are photographs of the magnified hair of
individuals of various races, see _Das Haupthaar und seiner
Bildungsstatte bei den Rassen des Menschen_, Gustave Fritsch. Another
recent paper is the study by Leon Augustus Hausmann of Cornell, “The
Microscopic Structure of the Hair as an Aid in Race Determination.”
35 : 27. Livi, _Antropometria Militare_, and Ripley, pp. 115, 255 and
258.
36. Deniker, 1; Zampa, 1,2; Weisbach, 1, 2, 3; and others given by
Ripley, pp. 411–415.
CHAPTER III. RACE AND HABITAT
37 : 6. Sir G. Archdall Reid, _The Principles of Heredity_, chaps. VII,
VIII, IX.
37 : 17. Ripley discusses them in full in chap. VI.
37 : 20–38 : 2. W. Boyd Dawkins, _Early Man in Britain_, p. 233; Keane,
_Ethnology_, pp. 110 _seq._; Osborn, _Men of the Old Stone Age_, pp.
220, 479–486 _seq._; Keith, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 16.
38 : 10. Ellsworth Huntington, 1, p. 83; Charles E. Woodruff, 1, pp.
85–86; also the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1891, which
contains an article on “Isothermal Zones.”
38 : 17 _seq._ Ellsworth Huntington, 1, pp. 86 _seq._
40 : 27. Ellsworth Huntington, 1, pp. 14, 27.
41 : 25–42. G. Retzius, _On the So-called North European Race of
Mankind_, p. 300; and many other authorities.
43 : 23. Ripley, pp. 352 _seq._ and 470.
44 : 17. G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 61; G. Sergi, 4.
44 : 26. Ripley, pp. 443 and 582–583.
45 : 2. Beddoe, 4, p. 270.
CHAPTER IV. THE COMPETITION OF RACES
47 : 17. Prescott F. Hall, _Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics_.
49 : 15–51. See the _Eugenics Record Office Bulletins_, 10A and 10B, by
Harry H. Laughlin, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Part I is “The Scope
of the Committee’s Work”; Part II, “The Legal, Legislative and
Administrative Aspects of Sterilization.” See also H. H. Hart,
_Sterilization as a Practical Measure_; and Raymond Pearl, _The
Sterilization of Degenerates_; as well as _The Eugenical News_ for
April, May and August, 1918.
52 : 17. Sir Francis Galton, _Hereditary Genius_, pp. 351–359; Darwin,
_The Descent of Man_, p. 218.
53 : 6. Galton, _Hereditary Genius_, pp. 345–346.
55 : 3 _seq._ Sir G. Archdall Reid, 2, p. 182; _The Handbook of the
American Indian_, under _Health and Disease_; Payne, _A History of the
New World Called America_; and elsewhere in early accounts. Also, Paul
Popenoe, _One Phase of Man’s Modern Evolution_, p. 618.
CHAPTER V. RACE, LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY
60 : 18. See the note to p. 18.
62 : 2. Ripley, _passim_; and the notes to pp. 142 : 23, 172 : 22, 187 :
23, 188 : 15, 195 : 18, 213 and 247 of this book.
63 : 13. This absence of round skulls was universally accepted, but
recent studies show an appreciable Alpine element which is increasing.
64 : 2 _seq._ See pp. 201 and 203.
64 : 18. Ripley discusses the Slavs in full in chap. XIII, and gives the
original sources for all of his information.
65 : 1. Ripley, pp. 422–428.
65 : 3. Von Luschan, 1; Ripley, pp. 406–411.
65 : 14. Ripley, pp. 361 _seq._
66 : 4. Blumenbach was the first to divide the races into Caucasian,
Mongolian, Ethiopian, American and Malayan, in his _De Generis Humani
Varietate Nativa_, in 1775.
66 : 8–23. Ossetes. For a full description of these people see
Zaborowski, _Les peuples aryens d’Asie et d’Europe_, pp. 246–272.
Deniker likewise treats of them in _Races of Man_, p. 356. Minns,
_Scythians and Greeks_, p. 37, says: “Klaproth first proved in 1822 that
the Ossetes are the same as the Caucasian Alans, and this is supported
by the testimony of the chroniclers, Russian, Georgian, Greek and Arab.
From Ammianus Marcellinus (XXXI, II, 16–25) we know that at the time of
the Huns’ invasion these Alans pastured their herds over the plains to
the north of the Caucasus, and made raids upon the coast of the Mæotis
and the peninsula of Taman. The Huns passed through their land,
plundering Ermanrich, the king of the Goths.... Ammianus means by Alans
all the nomadic tribes about the Tanais (Don) and gives a description of
their habits, borrowed from the account of the Scythians in Herodotus.
For the first three centuries of our era we find these Alans mentioned
(Pliny, _N. H._, IV, 80; Dionysius Perigetes, 305, 306; Fl. Josephus,
Bell. Jud., VII, VII, 4; Ptolemy, etc.), as neighbors of the Sarmatians
on this side or the other of the Don, living the same life and counting
as one of their tribes. That is, that the Ossetes, Jasy, Alans,
Sarmatians[4] are all of one stock, once nomad, now confined to the
valleys of the central chain of the Caucasus. The Ossetes are tall,
well-made, and inclined to be fair, corresponding to the description of
the Alans in Ammianus (XXXI, II, 21) and their Iranian language answers
to the accounts of the Sarmatians, of whom Pliny says ‘Medorum ut ferunt
soboles’ (_N. H._, VI, 19).”
Footnote 4:
The author agrees with Zaborowski and differs from Minns in his belief
that the Ossetes are of Nordic stock while the Sarmatians were
Alpines.
Chantre found among the Ossetes 30 per cent of blonds. See Chantre, 2.
66 : 16. Alans. See Jordanes, _History of the Goths_, Mierow
translation. Procopius, writing about 550 A. D., says: “At this time the
Alani and the Absagi were Christians and friends of the Romans of old
and lived in the neighborhood of the Caucasus.” In his vol. III, chap.
II, 2–8, we read of the period from 395–425 A. D. “There were many
Gothic nations in earlier times just as also at the present, but the
greatest and most important of all are the Goths, Vandals, Visigoths and
Gepædes. In ancient times, however, they were named Sauromatæ and
Melanchlæni, and there were some too who called these nations Getic. All
these, while they are distinguished from one another by their names, as
has been said, do not differ in anything else at all. For they all have
white bodies and fair hair and are tall and handsome to look upon, and
they use the same laws, and practise a common religion. For they are all
of the Arian faith and have one language called ‘Gothic.’” (Procopius
thinks they all came originally from one tribe, and were distinguished
later by the names of those who led each group of old. They dwelt north
of the Danube and later the Gepædes took possession of the portion south
of the river. In regard to the derivation of the Goths and other tribes
from the Sauromatæ, compare the note on Sarmatians, for p. 143 : 21.) As
to the Goths in the Crimea see Zeuss, _Die Deutschen_, pp. 432 seq.; F.
Kluge, _Geschichte der götischen Sprache_, pp. 515 _seq._ Crim-götisch
existed as a language in southern Russia up to the 16th century.
66 : 23. Scythians. See the note to p. 214 : 10.
66: 24. Indo-European. The earliest known occurrence of this term is in
an article in _The Quarterly Review_ for 1813, written by Doctor Thomas
Young (no. XIX, p. 225).
Indo-Germanic. This term, although said not to have been invented by
Klaproth, was used by him as early as 1823. See Leo Meyer, in _Über den
Ursprung der Namen Indo-Germanen, Semiten und Ugro-finner,
Göttingergelehrte Nachrichten, philologisch-historische Klasse_, 1901,
pp. 454 _seq._
67 : 4. The idea of an Aryan race was first promulgated by Oscar
Schrader in his _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_. That there was an
original Aryan tongue but no Aryan race was the idea of Broca. Pösche
identified the Aryans with the Reihengraber type. Consult also Penka,
_Herkunft der Arier_ and _Origines Ariacæ_.
67 : 12. See Zaborowski, 1, pp. 1–10.
67 : 15. See the notes to p. 70: 22 _seq._
67 : 19. See the notes to p. 242: 5.
68 : 11. See pp. 192–193 and elsewhere, in this book.
CHAPTER VI. RACE AND LANGUAGE
69 : 10. See T. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 185–199. The same thing may have
happened in Britain at Cæsar’s conquest, and still more in the Saxon
conquest.
70 : 4 _seq._ See p. 206 : 13 and note.
70 : 12–71: 6. These paragraphs elicited a very interesting letter from
a British officer in Howrah, Bengal, India, in October, 1919. He says:
“May I offer one or two remarks on points of detail? On p. 70 it is
stated ‘The Hindu to-day speaks a very ancient form of Aryan language
but there remains not one recognizable trace of the blood of the white
conquerors who poured in through the passes of the Northwest,’ and again
at p. 261, ‘Of all the wonderful conquests of the Sacæ there remain as
evidence of their invasions only these Indian and Afghan languages. Dim
traces of their blood, as stated before, have been found in the Pamirs
and in Afghanistan, but in the South their blond traits have vanished,
even from the Punjab. It may be that the stature of some of the Afghan
hill tribes and of the Sikhs, and some of the facial characters of the
latter, are derived from this source, but all blondness of skin, hair
and eye of the original Sacæ have utterly vanished.’
“This hardly agrees with my own observations during two years’ service
in the Punjab and Northwest Frontier Province. I should say that among
the Pathans living in British territory about Peshawar, blond
traits,—fair skin, the color of old ivory, red or brown hair, grey,
green, or blue eyes,—are as common as really black hair is in Scotland;
while among Panjabi Mussulmans living about Jhelum these traits are, if
not common, at least not extremely rare. Judging from the experience of
one squadron of cavalry, I should put the proportion of men with blond
traits at not less than one per cent. The women, whom one does not see,
must be fairer than the men, as elsewhere. I have seen a small Panjabi
Mahommedan girl, from about Dera Ismail Khan with _yellow_ hair. I have
also seen a _Sikh_ with _red_ hair, but that was certainly exceptional.
“These remarks are based on what I have seen myself, though no
statistics are kept and it is possible that I am generalizing from
insufficient data. It would not, however, I think, be too much to say
that ‘Blond traits are not uncommon in Afghanistan, and are even to be
found among Mussulmans in the Northwestern Panjab.’ (Afghans and Indian
Mussulmans of course sometimes dye their beards red, but this artificial
blondness has not been confused with the real thing.)”
The following quotation is from _The Outlook_ for March 10, 1920, which
contains an article entitled “The Present Situation in India,” by
Major-General Thomas D. Pilcher, of the British Army.
“Beside these castes there are tribes, and the Brahmin from the Punjab
has very little indeed in common with the Brahmin from Bengal or Madras.
Many Pathans and Punjabi Mohammedans have blue eyes and are no darker
than a southern European, whereas some of the depressed tribes are as
black as Negroes. Many of the northern peoples are at least as tall as
men of our own race, whereas other tribes do not average five feet.”
70 : 16. Castes. Deniker, 2, p. 403: “About 2,000 castes may be
enumerated at the present day, but year by year new ones are being
called into existence as a certain number disappear.” In his footnote
Deniker says: “The so-called primitive division into four castes:
Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and
merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?),
mentioned in the later texts of the Vedas, is rather an indication of
the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed,
in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth
caste).” He continues: “The essential characteristics of all castes,
persisting amid every change of form, are endogamy within themselves and
the regulation forbidding them to come into contact one with another and
partake of food together.”
See also Zaborowski, _Les peuples aryens_, p. 65. There is, of course,
an enormous number of books which deal with the caste system of India.
71 : 7. Sir G. Archdall Reid, 2, p. 186: “If history teaches any lesson
with clearness, it is this, that conquest, to be permanent, must be
accompanied with extermination; otherwise, in the fulness of time, the
natives expel or absorb the conquerors. The Saxon conquest of England
was permanent; of the Norman conquest there remains scarcely a trace.”
71 : 24. See pp. 217–222 and notes.
72 : 4. See the notes to p. 141 : 4 _seq._
72 : 19. Ripley, pp. 219–220, says: “The race question in Germany came
to the front some years ago under rather peculiar circumstances. Shortly
after the Franco-Prussian War, De Quatrefages promulgated the theory ...
that the dominant people in Germany were not Teutons at all, but were
directly descended from the Finns. Being nothing but Finns, they were to
be classed with the Lapps and other peoples of western Russia.... Coming
at a time of profound national humiliation in France ... the book
created a profound sensation.... A champion of the Germans was not hard
to find. Professor Virchow of Berlin set himself to work to disprove the
theory which thus damned the dominant people of the empire. The
controversy, half political and half scientific, waxed hot at times....
One great benefit flowed indirectly from it all, however. The German
government was induced to authorize the official census of the color of
hair and eyes of the six million school children of the empire.... It
established beyond question the differences in pigmentation between the
North and the South of Germany. At the same time it showed the
similarity in blondness between all the peoples along the Baltic. The
Hohenzollern territory was as Teutonic in this respect as the
Hanoverian.”
73 : 6. Deniker is one of these. See his _Races of Man_, p. 334.
Collignon is another. See the _Bulletin de la Société d’anthropologie_,
Paris, 1883, p. 463; and _L’Anthropologie_, no. 2, for 1890.
73 : 11. See Keith, 3, p. 19; Beddoe, 4, p. 39; and Ripley, section on
Germany.
73 : 19. Beddoe, 4, pp. 39–40; Deniker, 2, p. 339; Ripley, p. 294.
74 : 12. See the note to p. 198 : 22.
CHAPTER VII. THE EUROPEAN RACES IN COLONIES
76 : 16. An old edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ states: “The
pure white population [of Venezuela] is estimated at only one per cent
of the whole, the remainder of the inhabitants being Negroes (originally
slaves, now all free), Indians and mixed races (Mulattoes and Zambos).”
The 11th edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ estimates the
percentage of whites, the creole element (whites of European descent),
at 10 per cent, as in Colombia, and the mixed races at 70 per cent, the
remainder consisting of Africans, Indians and resident foreigners.
76 : 19. Jamaica. _The New International Encyclopedia_, 1915 edition,
gives as follows figures which agree with the 1915 _Statesman’s
Yearbook_:
┌─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┐
│ YEAR │ WHITE │ COLORED │ BLACK │ OTHERS │ TOTAL │
├─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤
│ 1861│ 13,816│ 81,065│ 346,374│ │ 441,255│
│ 1871│ 13,101│ 100,346│ 392,707│ │ 506,154│
│ 1881│ 14,432│ 109,946│ 444,186│ 12,240│ 580,804│
│ 1891│ 14,692│ 121,955│ 488,624│ 14,220│ 639,491│
│ 1911│ 15,605│ 163,201│ 630,181│[5]22,396│ 831,383│
└─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘
Footnote 5:
East Indians, 17,380; Chinese, 2,111; not stated, 2,905.
76 : 21. The 11th edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ gives the
entire population of Mexico as 13,607,259, of which less than one-fifth
(19 per cent) were classed as whites, 38 per cent as Indians, and 43 per
cent as mixed bloods. There were 57,507 foreign residents, including a
few Chinese and Filipinos.
78 : 5. The Argentine Republic. In 1810 the population was approximately
250,000; in 1895, 3,955,110; in 1914, 7,885,237. For a total of
fifty-nine years in which the statistics have been kept, the number of
immigrants from Montevideo is 4,711,013. They were divided by
nationality as follows:
Italians 2,259,933
Spaniards 1,492,848
French 225,049
English 56,448
Austrians 81,186
Swiss 33,326
Germans 62,329
Belgians 23,091
Russians 135,962
Ottomans 121,177
Other nationalities 189,664
For added information on the Argentine, see the _Statistical Book of the
Argentine Republic_, 1915; _Argentine Geography_, published by Urien &
Colombo; and Juan Alsina’s _European Immigration to the Argentine_.
78 : 22. Philippines. The following figures were taken from the _New
International Encyclopedia_ and the _Statesman’s Yearbook_ for 1915. The
size of the population was established in June, 1914.
Total population 8,650,937
Native-born 6,931,548 or 99.2%
Chinese 41,035 or 0.6%
Americans and Europeans 20,000 or 0.3%
The natives are mostly of the Malayan race with the exception of 25,000
Negrito tribesmen.
78 : 24. Dutch East Indies. The figures are taken from the census of
1905.
Total population is approximately 38,000,000
Europeans 80,910
Chinese 563,000
Arabs 29,000
Other Orientals 23,000
78 : 25. British India. The figures are from the census of 1911:
Total population 315,156,396
(Of these 650,502 were not
born in India.)
The remainder are divided according to the languages spoken:
East Asiatics 4,410,000
Tibeto-Chinese 12,970,000
Dravidian 62,720,000
Aryan 232,820,000
European 320,000
81 : 5. See Francis Parkman, _The Old Régime in Canada_, vol. II, pp. 12
and 13.
82 : 10. See Sir Harry Johnston, _The Negro in the New World_, p. 343.
83 : 8. See the _Genealogical Records of the Society of the Colonial
Wars_.
84 : 6. See the notes to p. 38.
84 : 11 _seq._ A letter from Abraham C. Strite, a lawyer of Hagerstown,
Maryland, contains additional information on the so-called Pennsylvania
Dutch. Mr. Strite says: “They are not Palatine Germans, but largely
Swiss who speak a dialect of German. The writer happens to be of this
stock. Its characteristics are round head, black hair, dark brown eyes,
stocky stature, brunet type, all clearly indicating, according to your
analysis, an Alpine origin. This description fairly well averages up the
prevailing Pennsylvania Dutch type of this section although there are
some red heads and some blonds which would indicate a Nordic admixture,
again meeting your argument. There are many other varieties of Teutons
in this section, but I am confining my remarks to the class known as the
Pennsylvania Dutch. I have never made any head measurements among them
but I am of the opinion that the round-headed type vastly predominates.
The ancestors of these people emigrated from southern Europe, mostly
Switzerland, in quite some numbers between the years 1700 and 1775, and
settled in Lancaster County, Pa.; from thence they have spread out over
the adjoining sections of Pennsylvania, down through the Cumberland
valley and into the valley of Virginia, and to-day they form an
important element of the population. They are the organizers in America
of the religious sect known as the Mennonites.
“The early settlers of Germantown who were Mennonites, were of Palatine
stock. Of this there can be no doubt. Later immigration to Lancaster
County, Pennsylvania, which constituted the bulk of the Pennsylvania
Dutch stock will be found, I think, largely to have come from
Switzerland, although not exclusively. Rupp’s _30,000 Names of
Immigrants to America_ gives the names, dates and sailings of this
Mennonite stock. Your conclusions are correct enough for all practical
purposes but it seemed to me that the immigrants from Switzerland and
from the Palatinate might be distinguished.”
Doctor C. P. Noble, of Radnor, Pa., writes concerning the Pennsylvania
Dutch: “I have seen much of them as patients and as I have observed them
they have the medium stature and stocky build of the Alpines, also they
have, usually, broad, round faces which are associated with
brachycephaly and certainly they have always exhibited peasant traits.
Moreover, it is unusual to find a blond among them.”
Doctor Jordan, of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, furnished Doctor
Noble with some data concerning them. That there were some Alpine
elements among them will appear from what follows. Doctor Jordan agreed
that the present day Pennsylvania Germans are almost exclusively brunet,
with stocky bodies of moderate height. Existing portraits of various
leaders among them when they arrived in Pennsylvania showed the same
types. Furthermore, Doctor Jordan’s extensive reading of early documents
relating to them tends to confirm the belief that the present day
descendants represent the original types. Tall blonds are very rare
among them.
Doctor Noble knows some individuals with Nordic traits, but these were
acquired by intermarriage with Anglo-Saxons. Most of these groups came
from southern Germany, from Silesia on the east to the Palatinate on the
west.
The following are Doctor Jordan’s notes:
Moravians. They were located in Pennsylvania, at first in Bethlehem and
later in Nazareth. The land in Nazareth was purchased of Whitfield, the
predestinarian Methodist.
The Moravian immigration was carefully supervised. The church either
owned or chartered the vessels which brought over the immigrants.
Frequently it was definitely arranged as to how many artisans of each
trade should come over so that they would prosper on arrival.
The Moravian immigration was small—about 500 up to 1750. Until about
1840 the Moravian settlements were closed towns—no non-Moravians could
buy property.
Not one quarter of the present Moravians are descendants of the early
settlers. The rest are converts or descendants of converts. A connection
exists between the Moravians, Huss and his Protestant followers, and the
Waldenses. A short résumé of this will be found in the _Encyclopædia
Britannica_—under Huss and Moravians—from the world standpoint.
Moravians migrated from Bohemia to Saxony and were protected by Count
Zinzendorf—a liberal Lutheran—and lived on his estates. He assisted in
their migration to Pennsylvania. Some went to Georgia and later to
Pennsylvania.
Schwenkfelders. These were the followers of Kaspar Schwenkenfeld
(1490–1561). See the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ for a short account. They
formed a sect in Silesia which has persisted. In 1720 a commission of
Jesuits was sent to convert them by force. Most of them fled into Saxony
and were protected by Count Zinzendorf. From thence they migrated to
Holland, England and Pennsylvania. Frederick the Great, when he seized
Silesia, protected those remaining there.
Ursinus College, Collegeville, is Schwenkfelder. The sect is not large
and was located in or around Montgomery County. Their migration to
Saxony and also to Pennsylvania antedated that of the Moravians.
Generally speaking, they have been much more aggressive and vigorous
than the Moravians.
The Dunkards, Mennonites, Amish, and Seventh Day Baptists (Wissahickon
and Ephrata, Pennsylvania), came from south Germany and the Palatinate.
The Harmony Society, small in numbers, the Lutherans and German
Reformed, came largely from south Germany and the Palatinate, but also
from other parts of Germany. The Lutherans and the Reformed were the
large sects in Pennsylvania.
Germans from the Hudson valley migrated to Berks County around Reading.
The Swedes in New Jersey were almost exclusively below Philadelphia—from
Gloucester down the Delaware River. Before the Revolution there were
about 30,000 Germans in Pennsylvania, out of a total estimated
population of 100,000 to 120,000.
84 : 16. Scotch-Irish. See _The Scotch-Irish in America_, by Henry Jones
Ford; and also Sir George Trevelyan on the Irish Protestants in chap.
XI, vol. II, of _George III and Charles Fox_.
87 : 24. In this connection it is interesting to note that an early
Egyptian king said almost the same concerning the negroes of his time.
The quotation is taken from Hall’s _Ancient History of the Near East_,
pp. 161–162, and is a translation of a portion of the manifesto of
Senusert III, of the XIIth dynasty, which he caused to be set up at the
time of the Nubian wars: “Vigor is valiant, but cowardice is vile. He is
a coward who is vanquished on his own frontier, since the negro will
fall prostrate at a word; answer him, and he retreats; if one is
vigorous, he turns his back, retiring even when on the way to attack.
Behold, these people have nothing terrible about them; they are feeble
and insignificant; they have buttocks for hearts. I have seen it, even
I, the majesty; it is no lie....”
88 : 9. Barrett Wendell, _A Literary History of America_, chap. III.
88 : 28. The belief in the approximation of the Anglo-Saxon in America
to the Amerindian is widespread, but is entirely without justification,
scientific or otherwise.
89 : 1. Hall, _Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics_, and
especially his _Immigration_, pp. 107–112.
91 : 1. Hall, 2.
94 : 1. Beddoe, 5, p. 416. For similar conclusions see DeLapouge,
_passim_; G. Retzius, 3; and Roese, _Beiträge zur Europäischen
Rassenkunde_. Fleure and James, pp. 125 and 151–152 make similar
observations.
_PART II_
EUROPEAN RACES IN HISTORY
CHAPTER I. EOLITHIC MAN
97 : 10. Osborn, 1, the tables on pp. 18 and 41.
98 : 15. Galton, pp. 309–310; Woods, 1, chap. XVIII.
99 : 5–10. _A Statistical Study of American Men of Science_, J. McKeen
Cattell, especially _Science_, vol. XXXII, no. 828, pp. 553–555.
99 : 22. The authorities quoted by J. B. Bury in his _History of Greece_
are complete and concise. In chap. I he discusses the Dorian conquest
from p. 57 forward, and the Homeric-Mycenæan period (1600–1100 B. C.)
from p. 20. A very interesting instance of the truth of the picture of
Mycenæan culture as drawn by Homer occurs on p. 50, where it is stated
that much described by the poet, even to small articles, has been
unearthed during archæological investigations. “Although the poets who
composed the Iliad and Odyssey probably did not live before the ninth
century, they derived their matter from older lays.”
99 : 27. Crete. For systems of Cretan writing see Sir Arthur J. Evans,
_Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phœnician Script_, _Further Discoveries of
Cretan and Ægean Script_, _Reports of Excavations at Cnossus_,
_Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos_, and _Scripta Minoa_. That the aboriginal
“Eteocretan” language existed until historic times is attested by the
discoveries of later inscriptions belonging to the fifth and succeeding
centuries B. C., which were written in Greek letters at this time but in
the indigenous, undecipherable tongue. They are described by Comparetti,
_Mon. Ant._, III, pp. 451 _seq._, and by R. S. Conway, 2, 3, especially
pp. 125 _seq._, in vol. VIII. In 1908 another discovery was made by the
Italian Mission at Phæstus, of a clay disk with printed hieroglyphics
which did not belong to the Cretan system of writing. It is supposed to
have come from Asia Minor.
For other discoveries in Crete and other authorities see R. M. Burrowes,
C. H. and H. B. Dawes. On Cretan pottery see Sir Duncan Mackenzie, 2,
and Sir Arthur Evans, 2. Sir Duncan Mackenzie also has a book on the
Cretan palaces. Bury, in his _History of Greece_, pp. 9 _seq._, gives a
brief description of Crete as revealed by archæologists. According to
them, the palaces of Cnossus and Phæstus were erected before 2100 B. C.,
when Cretan civilization was well advanced. See also the note to p.
119 : 1 of this book.
99 : 28. Azilian period. See p. 115 of this book.
100 : 20 _seq._ Osborn, 1, p. 49 _seq._, and the note VII of the
appendix. See also the notes to p. 13 of this book.
100 : 28. Progressive dessication. Ellsworth Huntington, 2.
101 : 5. Arboreal Man. See the work of W. K. Gregory, especially 3, p.
277; and John C. Merriam, pp. 203 and 206–207.
101 : 12. Osborn, 1, note VII, p. 511, of the appendix; and Merriam, pp.
205–208.
101 : 15. J. Pilgrim, _The Correlation of the Siwaliks with Mammal
Horizons of Europe_.
101 : 21. Java and the Pithecanthropus erectus. Dubois, E. Fischer, and
particularly G. Schwalbe. For the land connection of Java with the
mainland see Alfred Russel Wallace’s _Island Life_, and _The Geography
of Mammals_, by W. L. and P. L. Sclater.
101 : 27. Gunz glaciation. See Osborn’s table of Geologic Time, in 1, p.
41. The date given here is that made by Penck.
102 : 1. W. D. Matthew, _Revision of the Lower Eocene Primates_, and W.
K. Gregory, _The Evolution of the Primates_.
102 : 13. Schoetensack, _Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis aus
den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg im Beitrag zur Paläontologie des
Menschen_.
102 : 21. At the beginning of this Eolithic period wood was used for
clubs and probably as levers along with the chance flints. Perhaps it
was employed even earlier, but of course no remains would come down to
us.
CHAPTER II. PALEOLITHIC MAN
For the material in this chapter the authorities, such as Cartailhac,
Boule, Breuil, Obermaier and Rutot are all given in Osborn, 1, together
with useful discussions of the evidence. In special instances additional
sources are inserted here.
105 : 17. Piltdown Man. See Charles Dawson, the discoverer, 1, 2 and 3.
There is a tremendous bibliography on the Piltdown Man.
106 : 1. _The Jaw of the Piltdown Man_, Gerrit S. Miller. From a later
paper by Mr. Miller (2) we quote the following from pp. 43–44:
“The combined characters of the jaw, molars and skull were made the
basis of a genus Eoanthropus, placed in the family Hominidæ.... While
the brain case is human in structure, the jaw and teeth have not yet
been shown to present any character diagnostic of man; the recognized
features in which they resemble human jaws and teeth are merely those
which men and apes possess in common. On the other hand, the symphyseal
region of the jaw, the canine tooth and the molars are unlike those
known to occur in any race of men.... Until the combination of a human
brain case and nasal bones with an ape-like mandible, ape-like lower
molars and an ape-like upper canine has actually been seen in one
animal, the ordinary procedure of both zoology and paleontology would
refer each set of fragments to a member of the family which the
characters indicate. The name Eoanthropus dawsoni has therefore been
restricted to the human elements of the original composite (Family
Hominidæ), and the name Pan vetus has been proposed for the animal
represented by the jaw (Family Pongidæ).”
See also _The Dawn Man of Piltdown, England_, by W. K. Gregory. Ray
Lancaster has made some interesting observations and is the most recent
authority on this subject.
106 : 14. On the Neanderthal Man see Osborn and his authorities.
107 : 21. A note on p. 385 of Rice Holmes’s _Ancient Britain_ is useful
in this connection. “MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy affirm that the
Neanderthal race has left a permanent imprint on the population, and
refer to various skulls of the Neolithic and later periods which
resemble more or less closely that of Neanderthal. Moreover, it is
generally admitted that even at the present day a few individuals here
and there belong to the same type. But it does not follow that these
persons to whom Dr. Beddoe and M. Hamy refer were descended from men who
lived in Britain in the Paleolithic age.”
Taylor, _Origin of the Aryans_, mentions several famous men who had
typical Neanderthal skulls, among them Robert Bruce.
108 : 1 _seq._ Beddoe, 4, pp. 265–266; Ripley, pp. 326–334, but
especially pp. 266, 330–331.
108: 16. Alés Hrdlička, _The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man_,
considers the Neanderthal type extinct, as do Keith, _Antiquity of Man_,
_passim_, and A. C. Haddon. Consult Barnard Davis, _Thesaurus
Craniorum_, especially p. 70, and Beddoe, 2, as well as Osborn, 1, p.
217.
108 : 18. Firbolgs. See the note above to line 1; also Taylor, _Origin
of the Aryans_, p. 78.
109 : 8. Broca, according to Osborn, is responsible for this theory.
109 : 17 _seq._ See pp. 329 _seq._ of Galton’s _Hereditary Genius_.
110 : 8. In Dordogne, France, there are people who look as it is thought
the Cro-Magnons did. These modern people may belong to that type in the
same way that here and there people resembling the Neanderthals are
still found. In Dordogne these Cro-Magnon features are quite common, and
differ markedly from those of other Frenchmen. For studies of this type
see Collignon, 1. For full discussions of the ancient Cro-Magnons see
Keith, 1 and 2, and Osborn, 1.
110 : 11. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, in correspondence, remarks: “There
can be no doubt that the prolific shall inherit the earth or the
proletariat shall inherit the earth, which is etymologically the same
thing. We see this law in action in Russia to-day.... Can we build a
wall high enough around this country, so as to keep out these cheaper
races, or will it be only a feeble dam which will make the flood all the
worse when it breaks? Or should we admit the four million picks and
shovels which many of our capitalists are urging Congress to admit in
order to secure what wealth we can for the moment, leaving it for our
descendants to abandon the country to the blacks, browns and yellows,
and seek an asylum in New Zealand? I am inclined to think that the thing
to do is to make better selection of immigrants, admitting them in
fairly large numbers so long as we can sift out the defective strains.”
111 : 20 _seq._ É. Cartailhac says, in _La France préhistorique_: “The
race of Cro-Magnon is well determined. There is no doubt about their
high stature and Topinard is not the only one who believes that they
were blonds.” See also G. Retzius, 3. But he derives the Nordics from
them. On the other hand, the Dordogne people to-day are dark, and many
anthropologists are inclined to the belief that the Cro-Magnons were
brunets, a theory in which the writer heartily concurs.
112 : 1. L’Abbé H. Breuil, _Les subdivisions du paléolithique supérieur
et leur signification_, pp. 203–205. Other writers such as Nilsson and
Dawkins have also held this theory.
112 : 21. One of the few references to the bare possibility of a
Magdalenian dog occurs in Obermaier’s _El Hombre Fósil_, the footnote on
pp. 221 and 223. From this it appears that certain conclusions are drawn
that if the Alpera paintings are of late Magdalenian age, if certain
nondescript animals in those paintings are intended for dogs and if
those dogs are meant to be in a state of domestication, then there can
be no doubt whatever that the dog was domesticated in Magdalenian times.
But Obermaier does not feel that this furnishes satisfactory proof.
112 : 25–p. 113. Bow and Arrow. Obermaier, 1, chap. V, _The Upper
Paleolithic_, p. 112, says: “The coarse stone implements of the lower
Paleolithic no longer exist, being replaced by an industry of very fine
flints and ... certain lances with points made of bone, horn or ivory,
which were very generally used. The use of the bow is proved by certain
representations in mural pictures (_i. e._, the Archers of Alpera, etc.,
eastern Spain, Magdalenian; Archer of Laussel, France, Aurignacian).”
See the corresponding plates in chap. VII.
On p. 217 of chap. VII, _Quaternary Art_, there is a man depicted in the
pose of an archer. On p. 239 Obermaier says: “Among ... [the paintings
of Alpera] are sketches of more than 70 human figures, ... 13 are shown
in the act of shooting an arrow at other men or animals.”[6] On p. 241
he continues: “The paintings of eastern Spain of Quaternary age also
show archers.” A recent letter from the Abbé Henri Breuil says that the
bow and arrow did not exist in France in Paleolithic times, and he is,
of course, aware of the Laussel figure found by Lalanne and referred to
by Obermaier as proof. Alpera is agreed by Obermaier to be of
Tardenoisian age, consequently of the transition period to the
Neolithic. Beside Alpera, the only other instance of pictured bows and
arrows noted occurs at Calpatá, said to be of Upper Paleolithic age and
Capsian industry.
Footnote 6:
If the Alpera paintings are of this (Magdalenian?) period, then the
bow certainly existed at this time, but there is reason to believe
that the paintings belong to a later epoch.
See Fig. 174, p. 353, of Osborn, 1, giving a large bison drawing in the
cavern of Niaux on the Ariège, showing the supposed spear or arrowheads,
attached to large shafts, which are represented as having pierced its
side. On p. 354 Osborn says: “It is possible, although not probable,
that the bow was introduced at this time and that a less perfect flint
point, fastened to a shaft like an arrowhead, and projected with great
velocity and accuracy, proved to be far more effective than the
spear.... From these drawings and symbols (Fig. 174), it would appear
that barbed weapons of some kind were used in the chase, but no barbed
flints occur at any time in the Paleolithic, nor has any trace been
found of bone barbed arrowheads, or any direct evidence of the existence
of the bow.” On p. 410: “Here [Cavern of Niaux] for the first time are
revealed the early Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for upon
their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear heads with
the shafts still attached; the most positive proof of the use of the
arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden shaft in the feathers
which are rudely represented in three of the drawings.”
113 : 3. Osborn, p. 456: “The flint industry [of the Azilian] continues
the degeneration begun in the Magdalenian and exhibits a new life and
impulse only in the fashioning of extremely small or microlithic tools
and weapons known as ‘Tardenoisian.’” See also pp. 465–475 for a more
complete discussion and their distribution as traced by de Mortillet.
Also Breuil, 2, pp. 2–6, and 3, pp. 165–238, but especially pp. 232–233.
Osborn continues, p. 450: “If it is true ... that Europe at the same
time became more densely forested, the chase may have become more
difficult and the Cro-Magnons may have begun to depend more and more
upon the life of the streams and the art of fishing. It is generally
agreed that the harpoons were chiefly used for fishing, and that many of
the microlithic flints, which now begin to appear more abundantly, may
have been attached to a shaft for the same purpose. We know that similar
microliths were used as arrowpoints in pre-dynastic Egypt.”
The microliths may have been used on darts for bird hunting.
113 : 21. See Osborn, pp. 333 _seq._, and in this book the note to p.
143 : 13 on the Tripolje culture.
115 : 9. Compare what Rice Holmes has to say on pp. 99–100 of his
_Ancient Britain_.
117 : 18. Maglemose. This culture was first found and described by G. F.
L. Sarauw, in a work entitled _En Stenolden Boplads: Maglemose ved
Mullerup_. The same material is given in “Trouvaille fait dans le nord
de l’Europe datant de la période de l’hiatus,” in the _Congrès
préhistorique de France_. A site equivalent to the Maglemose in culture,
but discovered later, is described in “Une trouvaille de l’ancien âge de
la pierre” (Braband), by MM. Thomsen and Jessen. See also Obermaier, 2,
pp. 467–469.
117 : 23. The Abbé Breuil, _Les peintures rupestres d’Espagne_ (with
Serrano Gomez and Cabre Aguilo), IV, “Les Abris del Bosque à Alpéra
(Albacete)” says: “Other peoples known at present only from their
industries, were advancing toward the close of the Upper Paleolithic
along the northern and southern shores of the Baltic and persisted for
an appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes introducing the
early Neolithic-Campignian culture which accumulated in the Kitchen
Middens along the same shores. Like the southern races of the
Azilian-Tardenoisian times these northerly tribes were truly
Pre-Neolithic, ignorant of both agriculture and pottery; they brought
with them no domesticated animals excepting the dog, which is known at
Mugem, at Tourasse and at Oban, in northwestern Scotland.”
CHAPTER III. THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGES
119: 1. See the Osborn tables. As evidence of far earlier dates of the
Neolithic in the east we may quote Sir A. J. Evans, 2, p. 721. He
calculates that the earliest settlement at Knossos in Crete, which was
_Neolithic_, is about 12,000 years old, for he assumes that in the
western court of the palace the average rate of deposit was fairly
continuous. Professor Montelius, in _L’Anthropologie_, t. XVII, p. 137,
argues from the stratigraphy of finds at Susa that the beginning of the
Neolithic Age in the east may be dated about 18,000 B. C.
119: 6. See the note to p. 147.
119: 15. Balkh. Balkh, in Afghanistan, was the capital of Bactria, the
ancient name of the country between the range of the Hindu Kush and the
Oxus, and is now for the most part a mass of ruins, situated on the
right bank of the Balkh River. The antiquity and greatness of the place
are recognized by the native populations who speak of it as the “Mother
of Cities,” and it is certain that at a very early date it was the rival
of Ecbatana, Nineveh, and Babylon.
Bactria was subjugated by Cyrus and from then on formed one of the
satrapies of the Persian Empire. Zaborowski, 1, p. 43, says: “After the
conquests of Alexander there was founded a Greco-Bactrian kingdom ...
which embraced Sogdiana, Bactria and Afghanistan. The Greco-Bactrian
kings struck a quantity of coins. They bore a double legend, the one
Greek, the other still called Bactrian, which is not Zend, nor even the
language really spoken in Bactria. It is a popular dialect derived from
Sanskrit.” Again on p. 185: “Zend has been called, and is still called,
Bactrian or Old Bactrian, it may be because Bactria has been conceived
as the original country or an ancient place of sojourn of the Persians;
it may be because Zoroaster, a Median Magus, had, according to a legend,
fled to the Bactrians where he found protection under Prince Vishtaspa.
Eulogy of this prince is often incorporated in the sayings of
Zoroaster.”
Later a new race appeared, tribes called Scythians by the Greeks,
amongst which the Tochari, identical with the Yuë-Chih of the Chinese,
were the most important. According to Chinese sources, they entered
Sogdiana in 159 B. C.; in 139 they conquered Bactria, and during the
next generation they had made an end to the Greek rule in eastern Iran.
In the middle of the first century B. C. the whole of eastern Iran and
western India belonged to the great “Indo-Scythian” Empire. In the third
century the Kushan dynasty began to decline; about 320 A. D. the Gupta
Empire was founded in India. In the fifth the Ephtalites, or “White
Huns,” subjugated Bactria; then the Turks, about A. D. 560, overran the
country north of the Oxus. In 1220 Jenghis Khan sacked Balkh and
levelled all buildings capable of defence, while Timur repeated this
treatment in the fourteenth century. Notwithstanding this, Marco Polo
could still, in the following century, describe it as “a noble city and
a great.”
See also Raphael Pumpelly, _Explorations in Turkestan_, where 10,000
years is said to be the age of the remains of early civilization. More
modern authorities, however, do not accept these ancient dates.
119: 21. Osborn, 1, p. 479.
120: 1 _seq._ Osborn, 1, pp. 493–495; Ripley, pp. 486–487, and also S.
Reinach, 3, and G. Sergi, 2, pp. 199–220.
120: 28 _seq._ Oman, _England before the Norman Conquest_, pp. 642
_seq._, says: “The position which he [Harold] chose is that where the
road from London to Hastings emerges from the forest, on the ground
named Senlac, where the village of Rattle now stands.... This hill
formed the battleground.... On reaching the lower slopes of the English
position the archers began to let fly their shafts, and not without
effect, for as long as the shooting was at long range, there was little
reply, since Harold had but few bowmen in his ranks, (the Fyrd, it is
said, came to the fight with no defensive weapons but the shield, and
were ill-equipped, with javelins and instruments of husbandry turned to
warlike uses), and the abattis, whatever its length or height, would not
give complete protection to the English. But when the advance reached
closer quarters, it was met with a furious hail of missiles of all
sorts—darts, lances, casting axes, and stone clubs such as William of
Poictiers describes, and the Bayeux Tapestry portrays—rude weapons, more
appropriate to the neolithic age.... Many a moral has been drawn from
this great fight.... Neither desperate courage, nor numbers that must
have been at least equal to those of the invader, could save from defeat
an army which was composed in too great a proportion of untrained
troops, and which was behind the times in its organization.... But the
English stood by the customs of their ancestors, and, a few years
before, Earl Ralph’s attempt to make the thegnhood learn cavalry tactics
(see the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle), had been met by sullen resistance and
had no effect.”
121 : 4. See the note top. 128 : 2.
121 : 15. F. Keller, _The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland and Other Parts
of Europe_; Schenck, _La Suisse préhistorique_, pp. 533–549; G. and A.
de Mortillet, _Le Préhistorique_, part 3, and Munro, _The Lake Dwellings
of Europe_. The lake-dwelling, known as Pont de la Thièle, between the
lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel, according to Grilliéron’s calculations,
is dated 5000 B. C. See Keller, p. 462; Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 29;
Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_, p. 401; and De Mortillet, _Le
Préhistorique_, p. 621.
121 : 17. Schenck, p. 190, says concerning Switzerland: “There were
three [cultural] stages, stone, bronze, and iron.... On the other hand,
from the anthropological point of view, this subdivision can also be
made. In the first stage [Neolithic Lacustrian], we find only
brachycephalic crania; in the second there are an almost equal number of
brachycephalic and dolichocephalic; in the third there is a predominance
of dolichocephalic” (that is, Schenck divides the Neolithic into three
periods according to skulls, and the last runs into the age
transitionary to bronze).
See also G. Hervé, _Les populations lacustres_, p. 140; His and
Rütimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_, pp. 12, 34, etc.; and the note on p. 275
of Rice Holmes’s _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul_. Ripley gives useful and
concise discussions on pp. 120, 471, 488 and 501.
121 : 19. See both Keller and Schenck for the numbers of dwellings.
121 : 22. _There were, of course, the caves and rock shelters used
during a large part of the year, but probably no other regularly
constructed dwellings served as permanent, all-the-year-round places of
abode prior to the lake dwellings, and it is doubtful if these were
inhabited in winter. It is generally believed that the custom of
building pile villages arose from considerations of safety. This
protection would be absent when the lakes were frozen over, and at the
same time the huts would be exposed on all sides, including the floor,
to the wintry blasts sweeping the lakes. They would in this way be
rendered practically uninhabitable during the winter season._
Keller declares that the same type of dwelling is found in the whole
circle of countries which were formerly Celtic. (Introduction, p. 2.)
The Crannoges of Scotland and Ireland continued in use until the age of
iron in those countries. In Switzerland the lake dwellings disappeared
about the first century (p. 7). The population was numerous (p. 432),
large enough to have to depend upon cattle and agriculture (p. 479).
This type of dwelling is found from Ireland to Japan, and even in South
America. Many lake dwellings exist at the present day. The Welsh, Scotch
and Irish Crannoges are related in structure to the European fascine
types (Keller, p. 684 and Introduction). Others are built somewhat
differently, and are, of course, of independent origin. An ancient site
was unearthed at Finsbury, on the outskirts of London not long since,
where there used to be a marsh. The inhabitants of this lake-dwelling
were native outcasts during Romano-British times.
121 : 26. See Schenck, and Keller, p. 6. On p. 140 of Keller we read:
“The Pile Dwellings of eastern Switzerland ceased to exist before the
bronze age or at its beginnings; those of western Switzerland came to
their full development during this period.” On p. 37, describing the
settlement of Mooseedorfsee Keller says: “A very striking circumstance
ought to be mentioned, namely, that even heavy implements, such as stone
chisels, grinding or sharpening stones, etc., were found quite high in
the relic bed, while lighter objects, such as those made out of bone,
were met with much deeper.” It is known that the Mooseedorfsee
settlement is very old. No metal has been found here, but a bone
arrowhead is described by Keller on p. 38. He remarks that the bones of
very large animals were uncommonly numerous. It seems as if the earlier
inhabitants were users of bone rather than of stone implements.
122 : 1. Herodotus, V, 16 describes them. He also is the source of our
information regarding the keeping of cattle, although archæological
finds have proved the location of stables out on the platforms between
the houses. His interesting account is given herewith: “Their manner of
living is the following. Platforms supported upon tall piles stand in
the middle of the lake, which are approached from land by a single
narrow bridge. At the first the piles which bear up the platforms were
fixed in their place by the whole body of the citizens, but since that
time the custom which has prevailed about fixing them is this: they are
brought from a hill called Orbêlus, and every man drives in three for
each wife that he marries. Now the men all have many wives apiece; and
this is the way in which they live. Each has his own hut, wherein he
dwells, upon one of the platforms, and each has also a trap door giving
access to the lake beneath; and their wont is to tie their baby children
by the foot with a string, to save them from rolling into the water.
They feed their horses and their other beasts upon fish, which abound in
the lake to such a degree that a man has only to open his trap door and
to let down a basket by a rope into the water and then to wait a very
short time, when he draws it up quite full of them. The fish are of two
kinds, which they call the paprax and the tilon.”
122 : 3. In the Introduction, p. 2, and elsewhere Keller says regarding
cattle: “Cattle were kept, not on land, as in the Terramara region, but
on the platforms themselves, out in the lakes. Many charred remains of
stables and stable refuse have been taken from the lakes, but only from
certain parts of the sites, between those of the houses.” See also
Schenck, p. 188.
Rice Holmes, pp. 89–90 of _Ancient Britain_, says of that country that
agriculture was limited in the Neolithic, but flourished in the Bronze
Age.
122 : 14. The Terramara Period. Keller, pp. 378 _seq._ As related to
Switzerland, pp. 391, 393. For swamp and river bank sites, pp. 391, 397
_seq._ For bronze in Terramara settlements, p. 386. For the Upper
Robenhausian, see Schenck, p. 190, and Montelius, _La civilisation
primitive en Italie_. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy_, and
Munro, _The Lake Dwellings of Europe_ and _Palæolithic Man and the
Terramara Settlements_ must also be read in this connection. Schwerz,
_Völkerschaften der Schweiz_, gives, for the average cranial indices of
the Lake Dwellers, 79 during the Stone Age, 75.5 in the Copper Age, and
77 in the Bronze Age. Of these last 14 per cent only were
brachycephalic, 20 per cent were extremely long-headed. In the Iron Age
46 per cent were brachycephalic. Consult also Deniker, 2, p. 316.
122 : 21. Ripley, pp. 502–503; Sergi, 2; Robert Munro, 2; Peet, 2.
122 : 27–123: 4. See the note to p. 117 : 18.
123 : 5. On the Kitchen Middens, see especially Madsen, Sophus Müller
and others in _Affaldsdynger fra Stenaldern i Danmark_.
123 : 12. Salomon Reinach, 3 and 5; Deniker, 2, p. 314; and Peake, 2, p.
156, where we find the following: “Over the greater part of Sweden,—all,
in fact, except a strip of coastline on the western side of Scania,—and
all along the shore of the Baltic from the Gulf of Bothnia southwards
and westwards as far as a point midway between the Vistula and the Oder,
there are found abundant remains of a primitive civilization which dates
from the Neolithic Age, and indeed, from early in that age. This
civilization, known as the East Scandinavian or Arctic culture,
extended, perhaps later, over the whole of Norway.”
Consult the notes to pp. 125: 4 _seq._ for western trade.
123 : 20. Sergi, 4; Beddoe, 4, pp. 26, 29; Fleure and James, pp. 122
_seq._
123 : 23. Paleolithic Population. Fleure and James, _Anthropological
Types in Wales_, p. 120. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, p. 380, says
they were confined to the South. No Paleolithic implements were found
north of Lincoln, or at least of the East Riding of Yorkshire.
123 : 26. John Munro, _The Story of the British Race_, p. 45; Rice
Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, p. 68; and Fleure and James, pp. 40, 69–74,
122 _seq._
124 : 4. For the Alpines see pp. 134 _seq._ of this book.
124 : 9. Consult the note to p. 143 on this subject.
124 : 15. On the Nordics see pp. 167 _seq._ and 213 _seq._ On the
Scandinavian blonds see the note to p. 20 : 5.
124 : 20. See the notes to pp. 168 _seq._
125 : 1. G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, especially pp. 146
and 149 _seq._; Breasted, 1, 2 and 3; Keane, _Ethnology_, pp. 72 _seq._;
Sophus Müller, _L’Europe préhistorique_, p. 49; Hall, _Ancient History
of the Near East_, p. 3.
125 : 4. Deniker, 2, pp. 314–315: “The great trade route for amber, and
perhaps tin, between Denmark and the Archipelago is well known at the
present day; it passes through the valley of the Elbe, the Moldau and
the Danube. The commercial relations between the north and the south
explain the similarities which archæologists find between Scandinavian
bronze objects and those of the Ægean district.”
See also E. H. Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_, for trade in the East, via
the Vistula, Dnieper and Danube, pp. 438–446, 458, 459, 465, 493, etc.;
and Déchellette, _Manuel d’Archéologie_, t. I, p. 626, and II, p. 19.
Herodotus IV, 33, gives the trade route from the Hyperboreans to Delos.
Félix Sartiaux, _Troie, La Guerre de Troie_, pp. 162, 181, also
discusses the trade routes for amber.
125 : 7. Amber. Tacitus, _Germania_: “They [the tribes of the Æstii]
ransack the sea also and are the only people who gather in the shallows
and on the shore itself the amber which they call in their tongue
‘glæsum.’ Nor have they, being barbarians, inquired or learned what
substance or process produces it; nay, it lay there long among the rest
of the flotsam and jetsam of the sea, until Roman luxury gave it a name.
To the natives it is useless; it is gathered crude, it is forwarded to
Rome unshaped; they are astonished to be paid for it. Yet you may infer
that it is the exudation of trees: certain creeping and even winged
creatures are continually found embedded; they have been entangled in
its liquid form and as the material hardens, are imprisoned. I should
suppose, therefore, that, just as in the secluded places of the East,
where frankincense and balsam are exuded, so in the islands and lands of
the West, there are groves and glades more than ordinarily luxuriant,”
etc.
Amber, if rubbed, has magnetic qualities and develops electricity. Our
word “electricity” is derived from its Greek name, “electron.” Tacitus
says: “If you try the qualities of amber by setting fire to it, it
kindles like a torch and soon dissolves into something like pitch and
resin.”
125 : 13. Gowland, _Metals in Antiquity_, pp. 236, 252 _seq._
125 : 15 _seq._ Copper. Reisner’s opinion that the pre-dynastic
Egyptians invented the use of copper (_Naga-ed-Dêr_, I, p. 134) which is
followed by Elliot Smith (_Ancient Egyptians_, p. 3), is not the view
held by all scholars. Hall believes that the knowledge of the use of
metal came to the prehistoric southern Egyptians (_Ancient History of
the Near East_, p. 90), toward the end of the pre-dynastic age from the
north. But he counts the Mount Sinai and Cyprus deposits as northern
centres of origin from which a knowledge of the working of the metal
radiated.
The mines of the Sinaitic peninsula were worked for copper at the time
of Seneferu, about 3733 B. C., and probably much earlier (Gowland, p.
245, and elsewhere), “but long before the actual mining operations were
carried on, how long it is impossible to say, the metal must have been
obtained by primitive methods from the surface ore. It is hence not
unreasonable to assume that at least as early as about 5000 B. C. the
metal copper was known and in use in Egypt.” The same writer believes
“that an earlier date than 5000 B. C. should be assigned to the first
use of copper in the Chaldean region.” In this he bases himself on the
discovery of copper figures associated with bricks and tablets bearing
the name of King Ur-Nina (about 4500 B. C.), and the fact that the upper
Tigris region is known to contain rich deposits of the mineral. Jastrow,
Jr., assigns the date of 3000 B. C. to Ur-Nina, which may be more
correct. Gowland dates copper in Cyprus at 2500 B. C., or even 3000,
judging by the finds at Crete dated 2500 B. C. In the Troad he thinks it
was used not later than in Cyprus. For China the date is unknown, but if
we accept 2205, given in the Chinese annals as the time when the nine
bronze caldrons were cast, which are often mentioned in the historical
records, then copper may have been in use as early as 3000, or even
earlier. De Morgan dates copper at 4400 B. C. in Egypt, where it was
found in the supposed tomb of Menes.
See also Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_, pp. 71–72, who gives 3730
for copper-working in Sinai, and its first appearance about 5000 B. C.
Montelius, 1, p. 380, gives copper in Cyprus as about 2500 B. C., hardly
3000; and for Egypt 5000; he regards it as having been known in Babylon
at about the same time. Breasted, _Ancient Times_, assigns the date of
the earliest copper as at least 4000 in Egypt.
125 : 27. Eduard Meyer, 1, p. 41. But _cf._ Reisner, _Naga-ed-Dêr_, I,
p. 126, note 3. Also Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 28.
126 : 1. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 8: “Most serious scholars who concern
themselves with the problems of the ancient history of Egypt and
Babylonia have now abandoned these inflated estimates of the lengths of
the historical periods in the two empires; and it is now generally
admitted that Meyer’s estimate of 3400±100 B. C. is a close
approximation to the date of the union of Upper and Lower Egypt and that
the blending of Semitic and Sumerian cultures in Babylonia took place
shortly after the time of this event in the Nile valley.” See also Hall,
_Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 3.
126 : 7. Bronze. Rice Holmes, 1, p. 125: “The oldest piece of bronze
that has yet been dated was found at Medûm, in Egypt, and is supposed to
have been cast about 3700 B. C. But the metal may have been worked even
earlier in other lands; for a bronze statuette and a bronze vase, which
were made twenty-five centuries before our era have been obtained from
Mesopotamia and the craft must have passed through many stages before
such objects could have been produced. Yet it would be rash to infer
that either the Babylonians or the Egyptians invented bronze for neither
in Egypt nor in Babylonia is there any tin. The old theory that it was a
result of Phœnician commerce with Britain has long been abandoned and
British bronze implements are so different from those of Norway and
Sweden, Denmark and Hungary, that it cannot have been derived from any
of these countries. German influence was felt at a comparatively late
period, but from first to last British bronze culture was closely
connected with that of Gaul and through Gaul with that of Italy.”
126 : 9. Gowland, p. 243: “It has been frequently stated that the alloy
used by the men of the Bronze Age generally consists of copper and tin
in the proportions of 9 to 1. I have hence compared the analyses which
have been published with the following results:
EARLY WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS. 57 ANALYSES
In 25 the tin ranges from about 8 to 11 per cent.
„ 6 „ „ „ „ „ 11 „ 13 „ „
„ 26 „ „ „ „ „ 3 „ 8 „ „
LATER PALSTAVES AND SOCKETED AXES. 15 ANALYSES
In 13 the tin ranges from about 4.3 to 13.1 per cent.
„ 2 „ „ was about 18.3 per cent.
SPEAR AND LANCE HEADS
In 5 the tin ranges from about 11.3 to 15.7 per cent.
STILL LATER. SWORDS. 33 ANALYSES
In 14 the tin ranges from about 8 to 11 per cent.
„ 12 „ „ „ „ „ 12 „ 18 „ „
„ 7 „ „ is less than 9 per cent.
“It is obvious, therefore, that these statements do not accurately
represent the facts. And if we consider the different uses to which the
implements or weapons were put, it is evident that no single alloy could
be equally suitable for all.... It is worthy of note that these
proportions (_i. e._, different hardnesses for different implements)
appear to have been frequently attained, and for this the men of the
later Bronze Age are deserving of great credit as metallurgists and
workers in metal.”
On the percentages of tin with copper for bronze see also Montelius, 1,
pp. 448 _seq._
126 : 12. Schenck, p. 241, describes a copper axe exactly like those of
polished stone, and another of bronze, of very primitive pattern,
showing that these were copied from the earlier stone models.
Some authorities think that iron, in Egypt at least, came in about the
same time as bronze, or even earlier. Certain peoples missed altogether
one or another of these stages, as the absence of remains indicates. For
instance, the central Africans had, as far as is known, no bronze age,
but passed directly from the use of stone to that of iron. (See Rice
Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, p. 123.) See the notes to p. 129 on the value
of iron. Occasional implements of any material better than that
ordinarily in use, which had been introduced by trade or acquired by
fighting, were very highly prized. Any books on primitive peoples
contain references to the value of such “foreign tools.”
126 : 24. Diodorus Siculus, V. Consult _Crania Britannica_, by Davis and
Thurnam, the chapter on the “Historical Ethnology of Britain,” for
evidence that the Phœnicians did have intercourse with Britain. For a
full discussion of this disputed question see pp. 483–514 in Rice
Holmes’s _Ancient Britain_. Herodotus and other early writers allude to
the fleets of the Phœnicians, and of course the voyage of Pythias about
the last half of the fourth century B. C. was undertaken to discover the
source of the Phœnician tin. See Holmes’s _Britain_, pp. 217–226;
D’Arbois de Jubainville, _Les premiers habitants de l’Europe_, vol. I,
chap. V; Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, pp. 158, 402–403; and
G. Elliot Smith, _Ancient Mariners_, on the Phœnicians.
On pp. 251–252 of _Ancient Britain_, Rice Holmes makes the suggestion
that the export of tin from Britain may have died down by Roman times.
127 : 9 _seq._ G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 178, and map 3. Deniker, 2, p.
315, says: “It is generally admitted that the ancient Bronze Age
corresponds with the ‘Ægean Civilization’ which flourished among the
peoples inhabiting, between the thirtieth and twentieth centuries B. C.,
Switzerland, the north of Italy, the basin of the Danube, the Balkan
peninsula, a part of Anatolia, and lastly, Cyprus. It gave rise, between
1700 and 1100 B. C., to the ‘Mycenæan Civilization,’ of which the
favorite ornamental design is the spiral.”
Myers, in _Ancient History_, pp. 134–135, states that in Crete the metal
development began as early, at least, as 3000 B. C., and was at its
height in the island about 1600 or 1500 B. C. Articles of Cretan
handiwork found in Egypt point to intercourse with that country as early
as the sixth dynasty, which he makes about 2500 B. C. See also G. Elliot
Smith, 1, pp. 147, 179–180, and the authorities quoted on bronze.
127 : 26–128 : 1 _seq._ G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 178–180. Rice Holmes, 1,
p. 123, gives in a footnote the sixth dynasty as about 3200 B. C. (_cf._
above), when Elliot Smith says the movement first began (_ibid._, pp.
169, 171). They do not agree on the date of this dynasty. See also Rice
Holmes (_ibid._, p. 125), and Breasted, 3, p. 108. Montelius assigns
2100 B. C. for the small copper daggers of northern Italy.
128 : 2. The Eneolithic period. G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 20 _seq._, 37
and 163 _seq._ Professor Orsi is responsible for the introduction of
this term. See T. E. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy_, and G.
Sergi, _Italia_, pp. 240 _seq._, on the Eneolithic period in Italy.
128 : 13. Oscar Montelius, _The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen
Times_, and _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens von den ältesten Zeiten_; Sophus
Müller, _Nordische Alterthumskunde_. The latter gives 1200 B. C. See
also Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 64, 127, 424–454; Beddoe, 4, p. 15; Haddon, 3,
p. 41. According to Gjerset, in his _History of the Norwegian People_,
the Bronze Age in Norway began about 1500 B. C., the Iron Age at 500 B.
C. Lord Avebury, pp. 71–72; Read, _Guide to the Antiquities of the
Bronze Age_; and Deniker, 2, p. 315, give 1800 B. C. for Britain, and
for northern Europe Avebury assigns 2500 B. C. 1800 is the generally
accepted date for the beginning of the Bronze Age in Britain.
128 : 16. Alpines in Ireland. Beddoe, 4, p. 15; Fleure and James, pp.
128–129, 135, 139; Rice Holmes, 1, p. 432; Ripley, pp. 302–303;
Abercromby, pp. 111 _seq._; Crawford, pp. 184 _seq._ But Fleure and
James say, p. 138, that other Alpines without brow ridges are to be
found at the present time in considerable numbers on the east coast of
Ireland. Ripley’s strong assertion that no Alpines have remained in the
British Isles has been proved by more recent study to require
modification.
128 : 17. See in this connection Fleure and James, p. 127.
128 : 26. _Cf._ Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 20–21, 163, 181; Peet, 2; Reisner,
_Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr_; and Rice Holmes, 1, p. 65
_seq._
129 : 2–8. The megaliths were not erected by Alpines, for there are
practically none in central Europe, according to Keane, _Ethnology_, pp.
135–136, and Dr. Robert Munro, in a discussion published in the _Jour.
Roy. Anth. Inst._, 1889–1890, p. 65. On the other hand, Peet, 1, pp. 39,
64, says they are being discovered in the interior—a few in Germany. He
does not mention bronze among the finds in the megaliths of France, but
there was a little gold. Bronze was, however, found in Spain. Consult
Fleure and James, pp. 128 _seq._; Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 8–9; and, for an
exhaustive archæological study, Déchellette, _Manuel d’archéologie_,
vol. I, chap. III, especially paragraph v, pp. 393 _seq._, for dolmens
in Brittany. Concerning the contents of these we may quote the
following:
“Polished hatchets, often enough of rare stone, beads from necklaces,
and pendants of Callais or of divers materials, implements of flint,
knives, arrow points which are wing-shaped, scrapers, nodules, grinding
stones, pottery, vases, grains of baked earth, some rare jewels of gold,
collars and bracelets, such is, in general, the composition of the
contents of the neolithic dolmens of Brittany, contents different, as we
shall see, from those of the sepulchres of the Bronze Age in the same
region. These vast Armorican crypts belong certainly to the end of the
Neolithic period, in spite of the absence of copper, the habitual
forerunner of bronze objects. The smallness of the crypt, the size of
the tumulus, the mixture of construction in huge blocks and in walls
seem to indicate, as M. Cartailhac has observed, a more recent age than
that of ordinary dolmens. In the pure Bronze Age the monolithic supports
are replaced by the walls of unmortared stones.
“Moreover, we shall see that there have been found in certain covered
alleys in Brittany, pottery of a very characteristic type called
calciform vases, pottery belonging in the south of France and southern
Europe with the first objects of copper and bronze. Jewels of gold
confirm, on the other hand, these chronological determinations.” On p.
397: “The dolmen sepulchres of the Bronze Age in Brittany, and notably
in Finisterre, are distinguished more often by the type of their
construction from those of the Stone Age.”
“The dolmens of Normandy and Isle de France contain some stone objects,
fragments of vases, and numerous debris of human skeletons.” The end of
the pure Neolithic is the date of the megaliths in Armorica, as we read
on p. 407. The first metals, imported from the south, penetrated into
northern Gaul a little later than in the southern provinces. That is why
certain typical objects of the end of the pure Neolithic in Armorica,
such as Callais and the calciform vases, are associated with the first
objects of copper or bronze in the funerary crypts of Provence and
Portugal.
G. Elliot Smith and W. H. R. Rivers claim that there is a close
connection throughout the eastern hemisphere between the distribution of
megalithic monuments and either ocean or fresh-water pearls, but this
appears to the author to be far-fetched. Two very recent articles
dealing with megaliths are “Anthropology and Our Older Histories,” by
Fleure and Winstanley, and “The Menhirs of Madagascar,” by A. L. Lewis.
129 : 8. Rice Holmes, _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul_, p. 9.
129 : 12. Earliest iron in the north. See the notes to pp. 131 : 1 and
131 : 9 on the La Tène period. Also Montelius, 2, and Sophus Müller, 2,
pp. 145 and 165 _seq._
129 : 13. Mound burials among the Vikings. Montelius, 2.
129 : 15. Iron in Egypt. Some authorities think that iron in Egypt came
in about the same time as bronze, or even earlier. A piece of worked
iron was found in the Great Pyramid, to which a date of about 3500 B. C.
has been assigned. But, according to the archæological investigations of
Professor Flinders Petrie, iron came into general use only about 800 B.
C.
Myres, in _The Dawn of History_, is quoted from p. 60 for the following
neat summary, although any of the authorities on Egypt, such as Petrie,
Maspero, Hall, Breasted, Elliot Smith, Reisner, Meyer, etc., should be
consulted as original investigators: “The presence of iron, rare though
it is, as far back as the first dynasty, puts Egypt into a position
which is unique among metal-using lands; for, apart from these rare, but
quite indisputable finds, Egypt remains for thousands of years a
bronze-using, and for long, a merely copper-using, country.... In Egypt
iron was known as a rarity, worn as a charm and an ornament, and even
used, when it could be gotten ready made, as an implement; and it does
not seem to have been worked in the country, and probably its source was
unknown to the Egyptians. In historic times they still called it the
‘metal of heaven’ as if they obtained it from meteorites; and it looks
at present as though their earliest knowledge of it was from the south;
for central Africa seems to have had no bronze age but direct and
ancient transition from stone to iron weapons. Yet when they conquered
Syria in the sixteenth century, they found it in regular use and
received it in tribute. At home, however, they had no real introduction
to an ‘Age of Iron’ until they met an Assyrian army in 668 B. C. and
began to be exploited by Greeks from over sea.” In this connection see
also Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, pp. 613–614. The same author,
pp. 154 _seq._, discusses the value of iron in these early times.
Deniker, p. 315 of his _Races of Man_, says Italy had iron as early as
1200 B. C.
Montelius assigns 1100 for iron in Etruria.
129 : 19. Hallstatt iron culture. See Baron von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld
von Hallstatt_; Dr. Moritz Hoernes, _Die Hallstattperiode_; Bertrand and
Salomon Reinach, _Les Celts dans les vallées du Pô et du Danube_; and
Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, pp. 407–480 and 594 _seq._ There is
a brief summary by Ridgeway which it will serve to quote: “Everywhere
else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate but at
Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for ornament,
then for edging cutting implements, then replacing fully the old bronze
types and finally taking new forms of its own. There can be no doubt
that the use of iron first developed in the Hallstatt area and that
thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, the Ægean, Egypt and
Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At Noreia, which gave its
name to Noricum, less than forty miles from Hallstatt, were the most
famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced the Noric swords so
prized and dreaded by the Romans. (See Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, XXXIV, 145;
Horace, _Epod._, 17 : 71.) This iron needed no tempering and the Celts
had found it ready smelted by nature just as the Eskimos had learned of
themselves to use telluric iron embedded in basalt.... The Hallstatt
culture is that of the Homeric Achæans (see Ridgeway, _Early Age of
Greece_, pp. 407 _seq._), but as the brooch (along with iron, cremation
of the dead, the round shield and the geometric ornament), passed down
into Greece from central Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower
town at Mycenæ, 1350 B. C., they must have been invented long before
that date in central Europe. But as they are found here in the late
bronze and early iron age, the early iron culture of Hallstatt must have
originated long before 1350 B. C., a conclusion in accordance with the
absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.”
Keller, p. 160, describes an iron sword modelled after the same pattern
as those of bronze; Schenck, p. 341, mentions a copper axe exactly like
those of stone, and another of bronze of very primitive pattern. These
and numerous other examples show the gradual growth of each age.
The generally accepted date for Hallstatt is about 900 or 1000 B. C.
Even Rice Holmes approves of this. (See 2, p. 9.) But if we believe that
iron spread from Hallstatt, and it was in Etruria at 1200–1100 B. C.,
and in Greece, in the form of swords like those of Hallstatt, at 1400 B.
C. (according to Ridgeway), together with pins and various other objects
which originated in the Tyrol, it is certainly very conservative to
place the appearance of iron in Austria at 1500 B. C. Iron weapons were
found in the remains of Troy from the war of 1184 B. C. See Ridgeway,
_op. cit._, and Lartiaux, p. 179.
We may quote from Hoernes as follows regarding the dates: “The temporal
limits of the Hallstatt period are uncertain, according to the districts
which one includes and the phenomena which one considers. It is now
known that the Hallstatt relics for the most part belong to the first
half of the last millennium B. C. But while some assign these relics as
from the time of perhaps 1200 to perhaps 500, others are satisfied with
the period from 900 to 400, or bring them even farther forward. It is
certain that one must differentiate in these questions between the west
and the east of the Hallstatt culture areas; in the one the particular
Hallstatt forms would come nearer to the close than in the other. One or
perhaps more centuries lie between the first appearance of the La Tène
forms in Western Germany and in the eastern Alps. Also the beginning
varies according to the locality and the criteria which one takes for a
guide, that is to say, according to whether the phenomena of the time
about 1000 B. C. are considered as belonging still in the pure Bronze
Age, to a transition period, or indeed to the first Iron Age.”
129 : 26. Ridgeway, speaking of the Achæans, says: “They brought with
them iron which they used for their long swords and cutting
implements.... The culture of the Homeric Achæans” (these are dated
about 1000 B. C., about the time of the Dorians, according to Bury, p.
57) “corresponds to a large extent with that of the early Iron Age of
the Upper Danube (Hallstatt) and to the early Iron Age of Upper Italy
(Villanova).”
Myres, _Dawn of History_, p. 175, says that there was a gradual
introduction of iron, first for tools and then for weapons. It had been
known as “precious metal” in the Ægean since the late Minoan third
period, or even the late Minoan second period, which is usually dated
with the XVIIIth Egyptian dynasty as about 1500–1350. Most other
writers, however, including Bury, p. 57, Myers, _Anc. Hist._, p. 136,
and Deniker, _Races of Man_, p. 315, ascribe the general use of iron to
a much later invasion, namely that of the Dorians, about 1100 B. C.
129 : 29. Iron swords of the Nordics. Ridgeway, 1, pp. 407 _seq._:
“Their chief weapon was a long iron sword; with trenchant strokes
delivered by these long swords the Celts had dealt destruction to their
foes on many a field. They used not the thrust, as did the Greeks and
Romans of the classical period. This is put beyond doubt by Polybius
(II, 30) who in his account of the great defeat suffered by the combined
tribes of Transalpine Gæsatæ, Insubres, Boii and Taurisci, when they
invaded Italy in 225 B. C., tells us that the Romans had the advantage
in arms ‘for the Gallic sword can only deliver a cut but cannot thrust.’
Again in his account of the great victory gained over the Insubres by
the Romans in 223 B. C., the same historian tells us that the defeat of
the Celts was due to the fact that their long iron swords easily bent,
and could only give one downward cut with any effect, but that after
this the edges got so turned and the blades so bent, that unless they
had time to straighten them out with the foot against the ground, they
could not deliver a second blow.
“‘When the Celts had rendered their swords useless by the first blows
delivered on the spears the Romans closed with them and rendered them
quite helpless by preventing them from raising their hands to strike
with their swords, which is their peculiar and only stroke, because
their blade has no point. The Romans, on the contrary, having excellent
points to their swords, used them not to cut but to thrust; and by thus
repeatedly smiting the breasts and faces of the enemy, they eventually
killed the greater number of them.’ (II, 33 and III.)”
Further evidence in support of our contention that iron was in use much
earlier than is generally admitted, comes from an unexpected quarter. J.
N. Svoronos, in a recent book on ancient Greek coinage, entitled
_L’Hellénism primitif de la Macédoine, prouvé par la numismatique_, p.
171, remarks: “In the first place, indeed, it is forgotten that some of
this information, that which is derived from people of ‘mythical’ times,
can be referred not only to the invention of the first money struck in
precious metal (gold, electrum, or silver), but even to obelisks of
iron, or to cast plinths in the form of copper axes, which, of a
determined weight, and legally guaranteed by the state, constituted,
already before the XVth century, as we positively know at the present
time, the first legal money.”
130 : 2. Keary, _The Vikings in Western Christendom_, chap. XIII;
Steenstrup, _Normannerne_.
130 : 4. “Furor Normanorum.” On account of the suffering inflicted by
the Vikings and other northern raiders in Europe, a special prayer, _A
furore Normanorum libera nos_ was inserted in some of the litanies of
the West.
130 : 5. Rome was sacked by Alaric in 410 A. D., and during the forty
years following the German tribes seized the greater part of the Roman
provinces and established in them what are known as the Barbarian
Kingdoms. Consult Villari, _The Barbarian Invasions of Italy_.
130 : 8 _seq._ See chap. XIII, pp. 242 _seq._, of this book.
130 : 13 _seq._ Ripley, pp. 125–126. The discovery of the Alpine type
was the work of Von Baer.
130 : 24. The Iron Age in western Europe. Deniker, 2, p. 315, says: “So
also, according to Montelius, the introduction of iron dates only from
the fifth or third century B. C. in Sweden, while Italy was acquainted
with this metal as far back as the twelfth century B. C. The
civilization of the ‘iron age,’ distributed over two periods, according
to the excavations made in the stations of Hallstatt (Austria) and La
Tène (Switzerland), must have been imported from central Europe into
Greece through Illyria. The importation corresponds perhaps with the
Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus.... The Hallstattian civilization
flourished chiefly in Carinthia, southern Germany, Switzerland, Bohemia,
Silesia, Bosnia, the southeast of France and southern Italy (the
pre-Etruscan age of Montelius). The period which followed, called the
second, or iron age or the La Tène period, was prolonged until the first
century B. C. in France, Bohemia and England. In Scandinavian countries
the _first iron age_ lasted until the sixth century, and the _second
iron age_ until the tenth century A. D.” Referring to the La Tène period
in a footnote, Deniker says: “This term, first used in Germany, is
accepted by almost all men of science. The La Tène period corresponds
pretty nearly with the ‘Âge Marmien’ of French archæologists and the
‘Late Celtic’ of English archæologists. _Cf._ M. Hoernes, _Urgeschichte
d. Mensch._, chapters VIII and IX.”
Rice Holmes, 1, p. 231, remarks: “Iron in Britain is hardly older than
500 B. C. (_i. e._ the earliest products of the British iron age were
traded in. See p. 229). In Gaul the Hallstatt period is believed to have
lasted from about 800 to about 400 B. C.” On p. 126: “It is certain that
in the southeastern districts iron tools began to be used not later than
the fourth century B. C.”
See also Sir John Evans, _Ancient Bronze Implements_, pp. 470–472.
Consult especially Déchellette, _Manuel d’archéologie_, t. II, pp. 152
_seq._, on iron in western Gaul during the La Tène period.
130 : 28. La Tène Period. M. Wavre and P. Vouga, _Extrait du Musée
neuchatelois_, p. 7; V. Gross, _La Tène, un oppidum helvète_; E. Vouga,
_Les Helvètes à La Tène_; and F. Keller, _The Lake Dwellings of
Switzerland_.
131 : 3. Montelius suggests this date. Lord Avebury, in _Prehistoric
Times_, even goes so far as to suggest 1000 B. C.
131 : 5. Rice Holmes, 2, the footnote to p. 9; Déchellette, _Manuel
d’archéologie_, t. II, p. 552.
131 : 9. La Tène culture and the Nordic Cymry. This is also in Britain
termed the “Late Celtic period.” See Rice Holmes, 2, p. 318. For the
expansion of the Celtic empire and La Tène see Jean Bruhnes, p. 779. G.
Dottin, in his _Manuel celtique_, devotes a whole chapter to the Celtic
empire.
Cymry. See the note to p. 174 : 22 of this book. As to the Nordic
characters of these people, see Rice Holmes, 1, P. 234.
131 : 12. Nordic Gauls and Goidels as users of bronze. Rice Holmes, 1,
pp. 126, 229, and elsewhere.
131 : 15. Haddon, _Wanderings of People_, p. 49.
131 : 19. S. Feist, _Europa im Lichte der Vorgeschichte_, p. 9, etc.
131 : 23. Tacitus, _Germania_.
131 : 26. Tacitus, _Germania_, 4: “Personally I associate myself with
the opinion of those who hold that in the peoples of Germany there has
been given to the world a race untainted by intermarriage with other
races, a peculiar people and pure, like no one but themselves; whence it
comes that their physique, in spite of their vast numbers, is
identical;—fierce blue eyes, red hair, tall frames,” etc.
See Beddoe, 4, pp. 81–82; Fleure and James, pp. 122, 126, 151–152; and
Ripley, _passim_, for remarks on the increasing brunetness of Britain
and other parts of Europe which were formerly more blond.
The recent article by Parsons entitled “Anthropological Observations on
German Prisoners of War,” contains an interesting reference, on p. 26,
to the resurgence of Alpine types in central Europe.
CHAPTER IV. THE ALPINE RACE
134 : 1. There seem to have been at least three distinct types of
Alpines, one with a broad head and developed occiput typical of western
Europe, a second with a flat occiput and a high crown, represented by
such peoples as the Armenoids of Asia Minor, and a third, of which
little notice has been taken, except by such men as Zaborowski (2) and
Fleure and James, pp. 137 _seq._ This third type is encountered here and
there in nests which “stretch at least from southern Italy to Ireland,
by way of the Straits of Gibraltar and across France by the dolmen
line.” Fleure and James may be quoted for the following discussion.
“Questions naturally arise as to the homologies of this type, and its
distribution beyond the line here mentioned. If we had the type in
Britain, by itself, we should be inclined to connect it with the general
population of Central Europe, the dark, broad-headed Alpine type. We
should, however, retain a little hesitation about this, as our type is
sometimes of extraordinary strength of build and, while often fairly
short, it is occasionally outstandingly tall; moreover, the hair is
frequently quite black, and this is not on the whole an Alpine
character. But, when we note the coastal distribution of this type, our
hesitation is much increased, for the Alpine type has spread typically
along the mountain flanks and its characteristic rarity in Britain is
evidence of how little it has followed the sea.
“We cannot but wonder also whether what Deniker calls the
Atlanto-Mediterranean type is not a result of averaging these dark
broad-heads with the true Mediterranean type.
“Seeking further distributional evidence, we find that the dark
broad-heads are highly characteristic of Dalmatia and may be an
old-established stock, but it would appear that this region is famous
for the height of the heads there, and our type is not specially
high-headed. Broad-head brunets do, however, occur farther east in Asia
Minor, the Ægean, and Crete, for example. Many are certainly
hypsicephalic, but in others it seems that the brow and head are
moderate and the forehead rather rectangular, as in our type....
“It is interesting that there should be evidence of our dark broad-heads
beyond the Irish end of the line now discussed, the line of intercourse
which Déchellette thinks must be older than the Bronze Age. The chief
evidences for the type beyond Ireland are:
“1. Ripley (p. 309) shows that a dark, broad-headed element is present
in Shetland, West Caithness, and East Sutherland. This is sometimes
called the Old Black Breed.
“2. Arbo finds the coast and external openings of the more southerly
Norwegian fjords have a broad-headed population, whereas the inner ends
of the fjords and the interior are more dolichocephalic. The broad-heads
stretch from Trondhjemsfjord southward, and from their exclusively
coastwise distribution he supposes them to have come across from the
British Isles.
“The population is darker than the rest of Norway and its area of
distribution, as Dr. Stuart Mackintosh has kindly pointed out to us, is,
like that of the same type in the British Isles, characterized by a
pelagic climate.”
Von Luschan has fully discussed the Armenoid type in his _Early
Inhabitants of Western Asia_, and with E. Petersen, in _Reisen in
Lykien, Milyas, und Kibyratis_. A special study was made by Chantre in
his _Recherches anthropologiques dans l’Asie occidentale_.
The first type, then, the western European, has a short, thick stature,
round head, and rather light pigmentation; the second, Armenoid, a
rather tall stature, square, high head, flat occiput, and dark
pigmentation. The third, the Old Black Breed, is rather small and dark.
In addition to these we have a fourth type, which has been called the
Bronze Age race, or, better, the Beaker Maker type (Borreby). This has
been discussed by Greenwell and Rolleston, Beddoe, and Keith, especially
as to their possible survivors at the present day; by Abercromby, in
_Bronze Age Pottery_; by Crawford, _The Distribution of Early Bronze Age
Settlements in Britain_; and by Peake, in a discussion of the last work
in the same number of the _Geographical Journal_. Fleure and James
describe it also. See the note to p. 138 : 1 of this book.
Further anthropological studies may simplify the problem somewhat, but
the author is now inclined to believe that the above-mentioned third
brachycephalic type, the “Old Black Breed,” represents the survivors of
the earliest waves of the round-head invasion—in Britain antedating the
arrival of the Neolithic Mediterraneans, while the first type mentioned
above represents the descendants of the last great Alpine expansion.
This type in southern Germany has been so thoroughly Nordicized in
pigmentation that these blond South Germans are sometimes discussed as
though they were a distinct Alpine subspecies. The type is scantily
represented in England, and when found may be partly attributed to
ecclesiastics and other retainers brought over by the Normans.
The second of the above types, the Armenoids, are virtually absent from
Europe, and seem to be characteristic of eastern Anatolia and the
immediately adjacent regions.
The author regards the fourth, Borreby or Beaker Maker type of tall,
round heads as distinct from the three preceding types. The distribution
of their remains would indicate they entered Britain from the northeast.
We have no clew as to their origin. A similar type is found in the
so-called Dinaric race of Deniker (which Fleure and James mention in
connection with the third type but hesitate to class with it), which
extends from the Tyrol along the mountainous east coast of the Adriatic
into Albania. Further study of the Tripolje culture (see note to p.
143 : 15) and the mixture of population north of the Carpathians, where
the early Nordics and early Alpines came in contact, may throw light on
this question, as well as upon the problem of the acquisition of Aryan
languages by the Alpines.
All these four round skulled types seem to have been of West Asiatic
origin, but their relationship to each other and to the true Mongols of
central Asia is as yet undetermined. One thing is certain, that the
Alpine Slavs north and east of the Carpathians, and, to a less degree,
the inhabitants of Hungary and Bulgaria, have in their midst a very
considerable Mongoloid element, which has entered Europe since the
beginning of our era.
134 : 12 _seq._ For further characters of the Alpines see Ripley, pp.
123–128, 416 _seq._, and p. 139 of this book.
135 : 1. Haddon, _Races of Man_, pp. 15–16; Deniker, _Races of Man_, pp.
325–326.
135 : 14 _seq._ Zaborowski, _Les peuples aryens_, p. 110.
135 : 17. See the authorities given in Ripley; for the Würtembergers,
pp. 233–234; for Bavaria and Austria, p. 228; for Switzerland, pp.
282–286; and for the Tyrolese, p. 102.
135 : 22. Beddoe, 4, chap. VI, is particularly good on the physical
anthropology of the Swiss, while His and Rütimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_,
are classic authorities.
135 : 23. _The Historical Geography of Europe_, by Freeman; and Beddoe,
4, pp. 75 _seq._
135 : 25 _seq._ Beddoe, 4, p. 81, says: “As Switzerland, especially its
central region, was for ages the great recruiting ground of mercenary
soldiers, it is probable that the tall, blond, long-headed element would
emigrate at a more rapid rate than the brown, short-headed one. In this
way may also be accounted for the apparent decline in the stature of the
modern Swiss, who certainly do not, as a rule, now justify the
descriptions given of their huge physical development in earlier days,
the days of halberds, morgensterns and two-handed swords.” These
mercenaries were Teutonic, but their Celtic predecessors were addicted
to the same habit as G. Dottin has shown on p. 257 of his _Manuel
Celtique_: “When the Celts could not battle on their own account or
against their neighbors, they offered their services for the price of
silver to foreign kings. There is hardly a country that was not overrun
with Celtic mercenaries, nor struggles in which they had not taken part.
As far back as 368 B. C. an army sent by Denys, the Ancient, to Corinth
to aid the Spartiates, was in part formed of Celtic foot soldiers.”
“Pas d’argent, pas de Suisses,” as the old saying has it.
See also Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, chap. LV, where
are described the Teutonic Varangians in Constantinople, who became the
body-guard of the Greek Emperor.
136 : 5. Osborn, 1, pp. 458 and 479 _seq._ See p. 116 of this book.
136 : 7. G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 179; Haddon, 3; Peake, 2, pp. 160–163;
Deniker, 2, p. 313; Zaborowski, 1, pp. 172 _seq._; Hervé, 1, IV, p. 393,
and V, p. 18; and the authorities quoted in Osborn.
136 : 14. Russian brachycephaly. See Ripley, pp. 358 _seq._, and the
authorities quoted.
136 : 16. See p. 143 : 13 of this book, and notes.
136 : 19–26. Brachycephalic colonies in Scandinavia. See p. 211 : 6 and
notes.
136 : 29. Ripley, p. 472.
137 : 2. See the notes to p. 128 : 13.
137 : 8. See pp. 138 : 1, and 163 : 26 of this book.
137 : 21. See the notes to p. 128 : 16.
137 : 29 _seq._ Beddoe, 4, pp. 231–232.
138 : 1 _seq._ Beddoe, 4, pp. 15, 17, 231–233; Davis and Thurnam; Keane,
1, p. 150; Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 194, 441; Ripley, pp. 308–309. Holmes
suggests that the Beaker Makers may have come from Denmark. Compare this
theory with that expressed by Fleure and James, pp. 128 _seq._ and 135;
and by Abercromby, Crawford and Peake as given there. The Beaker Makers
are quite fully discussed on pp. 86–88, 117, 128 _seq._, and 135–137, in
the article by Fleure and James. See also Greenwell, _British Barrows_,
pp. 627–718, and J. P. Harrison, _On the Survival of Certain Racial
Features in the Population of the British Isles_. Fleure and James
describe the type as follows on p. 136: “With the beakers have long been
associated the broad-headed, strong-browed type, long known to
archæologists as the Bronze Age race, but better called the ‘Beaker
Makers,’ or Borreby type, for we now think that these people reached
Britain without a knowledge of bronze.... The general description of
them is that they must have been taller than the Neolithic British,
averaging 5 feet 7 inches, rather strongly built, with long forearms and
inclined to roughness of feature. The head was broad (skull index over
80, often 82 or more) and the supraciliary arches strong, but very
distinctly separated in most cases by a median depression, and thus
strongly contrasted with the continuous supraciliary ridges of _e. g._,
Neanderthal man ... Keith ... thinks it [the type] was usually brown to
fair in colouring at all periods, and this seems to be a very general
opinion.”
138 : 3. Beddoe, 4, p. 16: “On the whole, however, we cannot be far
wrong in describing the British skulls of the bronze period as
distinctly brachycephalic; and this seems to have been the case in
Scotland as well as in England (see D. Wilson, _Archæological and
Prehistoric Annals_, pp. 168–171). Whencesoever they came, the men of
the British bronze race were richly endowed, physically. They were, as a
rule, tall and stalwart, their brains were large and their features, if
somewhat harsh and coarse, must have been manly and even commanding. The
chieftain of Gristhorpe, whose remains are in the Museum of York, must
have looked a true king of men with his athletic frame, his broad
forehead, beetling brows, strong jaws and aquiline profile.”
138 : 14. Rice Holmes, 1, p. 425.
138 : 17. Dinaric Race. Deniker, 1, pp. 113–133; also 2, p. 333. For
allusions to this and descriptions see Ripley, pp. 350, 412, 597,
601–602.
138 : 18. Remains of Alpines. Fleure and James, pp. 117, no. 3, and pp.
137–142.
138 : 22. See the notes to p. 122 : 3. Also Jean Bruhnes in _Le
Correspondant_ for September, 1917, p. 774.
139 : 3. See p. 121 : 16.
139 : 6 _seq._ Sergi, _Africa_, p. 65; Studer and Bannwarth, Crania
_Helvetica Antiqua_, pp. 13 _seq._; His and Rütimeyer, _Crania
Helvetica_, p. 41.
139 : 16. See p. 144 of this book.
139 : 22 _seq._ See p. 130.
140 : 1 _seq._ See DeLapouge, _passim_; Ripley, p. 352; Johannes Ranke,
Der Mensch, vol. II, pp. 296 _seq._; part II of Topinard’s
_L’anthropologie générale_, and the note to p. 131 : 26.
140 : 4 _seq._ Alpines in the Cantabrian Alps. See Ripley, p. 272, and
Oloriz, _Distribución geográfica del Indice cephalica_.
140 : 9. Basques and the Basque language. See the notes to p. 234 : 24
_seq._
140 : 15. Aquitanian. See p. 248 : 14. Ligurian. See the notes to p.
235 : 17.
140 : 17. Round skulls on North African coast. See pp. 127–128.
140 : 22 _seq._ See the authorities quoted in Ripley, chap. VII. For the
Walloons see Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 323–325, 334; Deniker, 2, p. 335;
D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, pp. 87–95; G. Kurth, _La frontière
linguistique en Belgique_; L. Funel, _Les parlers populaires du
département des Alpes-Maritimes_, pp. 298–303.
The dialects or patois spoken to-day in France all fall under one of
these two languages. They can be classified as follows:
LANGUE D’OC
PATOIS SPOKEN IN THE DEPARTMENTS OF
Languedocian Gard, Hérault, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude,
Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn,
Aveyron, Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne.
Provençal Drôme, Vaucluse, Bouches-du-Rhône, Hautes- and
Basses-Alpes, Var.
Dauphinois Isère.
Lyonnais Rhône, Ain, Saône-et-Loire.
Auvergnat Allier, Loire, Haute-Loire, Ardèche, Lozère,
Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal.
Limousin Corrèze, Haute-Vienne, Creuse, Indre, Cher,
Vienne, Dordogne, Charente,
Charente-Inférieure, Indre-et-Loire.
Gascon Gironde, Landes, Hautes-Pyrénées,
Basses-Pyrénées, Gers.
LANGUE D’OÏL
Norman Normandie, Bretagne, Perche, Maine, Anjou,
Poitou, Saintonge.
Picard (modern French) Picardie, Île-de-France, Artois, Flandre,
Hainault, Basse Maine, Thiérache, Rethelois.
Burgundian Nivernais, Berry, Orléanais, lower Bourbonnais,
part of Ile-de-France, Champagne, Lorraine,
Franche-Comté.
140 : 28 _seq._ For the distribution of the Alpines see Ripley, p. 157.
141 : 6. Austria and the Slavs. See Ripley’s authorities mentioned on
pp. 352 _seq._
141 : 9. See p. 143 of this book.
141 : 13. See the notes to chap. IX.
141 : 23–142: 4. Introduction of the Slavs into eastern Germany. See
Jordanes, _History of the Goths_, V, 34, 35, and XXIII, 119; Freeman,
_Historical Geography of Europe_, pp. 113 _seq._
141 : 25. Wends, _Antes and Sclaveni_. See the notes to p. 143 : 13
_seq._
142 : 4. Haddon, 3, p. 43.
142 : 9. Ripley, p. 355 and the authorities quoted. The word Slave
originally signified _illustrious_ or _renowned_ in Slavic language, but
in Europe was a word of disdain for the backward Slavs. See T. Peisker,
_The Expansion of the Slavs_, Hist., vol. II, p. 421, n. 2.
142 : 13. See pp. 143–144 of this book.
142 : 23. Russian populations. Ripley, based on Anutschin, Taranetzki,
Niederle, Zakrewski, Talko-Hyrncewicz, Olechnowicz, Matiezka, Kharuzin,
Retzius, Bonsdorff, etc. Consult his chap. XIII, especially pp. 343–346
and 352. Olechnowicz and Talko-Hyrncewicz both remark on the
dolichocephaly and blondness of the upper classes of Poland.
143 : 1. Keane, 2, pp. 345–346; Beddoe, 1, p. 35; Freeman, 1, pp. 107,
113–116, 155–158.
143 : 3. Avars. See the authorities just given; also Eginhard, _The Life
of Charlemagne_; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, chaps.
XLII, XLV and XLVI.
143 : 4. Hungarians. That the Hungarians as such were known earlier than
this date appears from a passage in Jordanes, written about 550 A. D.
See the _History of the Goths_, V, 37, where he says: “Farther away and
above the sea of Pontus are the abodes of the Bulgares, well known from
the disaster our neglect has brought upon us. From this region, the
Huns, like a fruitful root of bravest races, sprouted into two hordes of
people. Some of these are called Altziagiri, others, Sabiri; and they
have different dwelling places. The Altziagiri are near Cherson, where
the avaricious traders bring in the goods of Asia. In summer they range
the plains, their broad domains, wherever the pasturage for their cattle
invites them, and betake themselves in winter beyond the sea of Pontus.
Now the Hunuguri are known to us from the fact that they trade in marten
skins. But they have been cowed by their bolder neighbors.” Also on the
Hunuguri see Zeuss, p. 712.
143 : 5 _seq._ The invasion of the Avars and the Magyars. See Freeman,
1, pp. 107, 113, 115–116; Beddoe, 1, p. 35; and Ripley, p. 432.
143 : 13 _seq._ Haddon, 3, chap. III, _Europe_, especially p. 40; and A.
Lefèvre, _Germains et Slavs_, p. 156. Minns, in an article on the Slavs,
says: “Pliny (N. H., IV, 97) is the first to give the Slavs a name which
can leave us in no doubt. He speaks of the Venedi (_cf._ Tacitus,
_Germania_, 46, Veneti); Ptolemy (_Geog._, III, 5, 7, 8) calls them
Venedæ and puts them along the Vistula and by the Venedic Gulf, by which
he seems to mean the Gulf of Danzig; he also speaks of the Venedic
mountains to the south of the sources of the Vistula, that is, probably
the northern Carpathians. The name Venedæ is clearly Wend, the name that
the Germans have always applied to the Slavs. Its meaning is unknown. It
has been the cause of much confusion because of the Armorican Veneti,
the Paphlagonian Enetæ, and above all the Enetæ-Venetæ at the head of
the Adriatic.... Other names in Ptolemy which almost certainly denote
Slavic tribes are the Veltæ on the Baltic. The name Slav first occurs in
Pseudo-Cæsarius (Dialogues, II, 110; Migne, P. G., XXXVIII, 985, early
6th century), but the earliest definite account of them under that name
is given by Jordanes (Getica [_History of the Goths_], V, 34, 35), about
550 A. D.: ‘Within these rivers lies Dacia, encircled by the Alps as by
a crown. Near their left ridge, which inclines toward the north, and
beginning at the source of the Vistula, the populous race of the Venethi
dwell, occupying a great expanse of land. Though their names are now
dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called
Sclaveni and Antes. The abode of the Sclaveni extends from the city of
Noviodunum and the lake called Mursianus, to the Dnâster, and northward
as far as the Vistula. They have swamps and forests for their cities.
The Antes, who are the bravest of these peoples dwelling in the curve of
the sea of Pontus, spread from the Dnâster to the Dnâper, rivers that
are many days’ journey apart.’” See also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 272 _seq._
The name _Wends_, as has been said, was used by the Germans to designate
the Slavs. It is now used for the Germanized Polaks, and especially for
the Lusatian Wends or Sorbs. It is first found in English used by
Alfred. Canon I. Taylor, in _Words and Places_, p. 42, says: “The
Sclavonians call themselves either _Slowjane_, ‘the intelligible men,’
or else _Srb_ which means ‘kinsmen,’ while the Germans call them
_Wends_.”
Haddon, 3, p. 47, says: “The Slavs, who belong to the Alpine race, seem
to have had their area of characterization in Poland and the country
between the Carpathians and the Dnieper; they may be identified with the
Venedi.”
In the author’s opinion these people have, so far as is known, nothing
whatever to do with the tribe of Veneti at the head of the Adriatic, nor
with the Veneti in western Europe in what is now Brittany. Of the former
Ripley, p. 258, says that they have been generally accepted as of
Illyrian derivation and cites D’Arbois de Jubainville, Von Duhn,
Pigorini, Sergi, Pullé, Moschen and Tedeschi as authorities.
The Veneti in Italy are tall, broad-headed and some are blond, having
mixed with the Teutons. They possessed some eastern habits, such as
their marriage customs, as set forth in Herodotus. They were
flourishing, wealthy and peaceful. Later they were driven to what is now
Venice.
The Veneti in Gaul were a powerful maritime people, who carried on a sea
trade with Britain. Strangely, perhaps, the ancient name of northern
Wales was Venedotia. The name Veneto, however, has nothing to do with
that of Vandal. For some theories as to the relationships of some of
these Veneti, see Zaborowski, 3.
143 : 15. Gallicia and the Tripolje Culture. _Cf._ pp. 113–114. Gallicia
is not far from the known location of the Brünn-Prêdmost race, which was
_dolichocephalic with a long face_. This early appearance of a
dolichocephalic race at the point where the dolichocephalic Nordics
later came in contact with the Alpines is very significant.
The locality is in the neighborhood of the Tripolje area in southern
Russia, for which see Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_, pp. 130–142, and
Peake, 2, p. 164.
Minns says: “The first finds of Neolithic settlements in Russia were
made near the village of Tripolje, on the Dnêpr, forty miles below Kiev,
and this name has since been extended to the culture of a large area in
southern Russia. The remains consist of so-called ‘areas’ with buildings
which had wattled, clay-covered walls which were fired when dry to give
them greater hardness. Pottery is present in great abundance and variety
of forms. These bear painted decorations which are very artistic. There
are a few figurines. The buildings were not dwellings but probably
chapels. The homes were probably pit dwellings. Bodies of the dead were
incinerated and deposited in urns.
“The theory has been abandoned that this was an autochthonous
development, typical of the Indo-Europeans [Nordics] before they
differentiated (_cf._ Chvojka, the first discoverer). Although similar
to Ægean art this was earlier (see Von Stern, _Prehistoric Greek Culture
in the South of Russia_). It came suddenly to an end and had no
successor in that region. The people were agriculturalists long before
the Scythians, but the next people who lived there were thorough nomads.
Niederle (_Slav. Ant._, I) dates them 2000 B. C. The Tripolje people
either moved south or were overwhelmed by new comers.” As Peake says, 2,
pp. 164–165, here was a very likely point of contact between the Nordic
and Alpine stocks, a mixture which, in the opinion of the author, may
ultimately throw some light on the origin of the Dinaric and Beaker
Maker types. Through this region both Alpines and Nordics must have
passed many times in their wanderings. Here perhaps the Alpines became
partly Nordicized, especially as to their language.
143 : 21. Sarmatians. There has been considerable confusion over these
people, owing to the various ways in which the name has been spelled by
early and later writers, and to the fact that they dwelt in the region
where both Alpines and Nordics must have existed side by side. The name
Sarmatians has been applied at one time to Nordics, at another to
Alpines or even Mongolians, depending on the dates when they were
discussed and the bias of various writers. We have no generic name for
the Alpine peoples who must have been in this region in early times,
except that of Sarmatians or Scythians. As the Scythians are apparently
strongly Nordic in character, the name Sarmatians seemed more fitting to
apply to the Alpine tribes who were certainly there. Not all authorities
are agreed as to their affiliations, however, as has been said.
Jordanes declares that the Sarmatians and the Sauromatæ were the same
people. Stephanus Byzantius states that the Syrmatæ were identical with
the Sauromatæ. They are first mentioned by Polybius as being in Europe
in 179 B. C. (XXV, II; XXVI, VI, 12). But in Asia we hear of them as
early as 325 B. C., according to Minns, p. 38, who says that they
gradually shifted westward, until in 50 A. D. they were in the Danube
valley. Jordanes later speaks of the Carpathian mountains as the
Sarmatian range. Mierow, in the notes to his translation of Jordanes,
makes the Sarmatians a great Slavic people dwelling from the Vistula to
the Don, in what is now Poland and Russia. (See also Hodgkin, _Italy_,
vol. I, part I, p. 71.) According to Jordanes, the Sarmatians were
beyond Dacia (the ancient Gothic land) and to the north (XII, 74). It is
with these statements in mind that the author has designated them as
Alpines.
Minns describes the Sarmatians as nomads of the Caspian steppes who wore
armor like the Hiung-nu. About 325 B. C. there was a decline of the
Scyths and they appear. During the second and third centuries A. D. was
the time when they spread over the vast regions from Hungary to the
Caspian. Minns, however, is firm in the belief that they were Iranians
[Nordics], like the Alans, Ossetes, Jasy, etc. In the second half of the
fourth century B. C. they were still east of the Don or just crossing;
for the next century and a half we have very scanty knowledge of what
was happening in the steppes. Procopius, III, II, also makes them Goths.
(See the note to p. 66 : 16.) Feist, 5, p. 391, quotes Tacitus as to
their being horse-loving nomads of south Russia. See also D’Arbois de
Jubainville, 4, t. I, and Gibbon, chaps. XVIII, XXV, etc., for further
discussions.
144 : 11 _seq._ See the authorities quoted, in Ripley, pp. 361–362. The
Bashkirs, however, are partly Finn, partly Tatar as well.
144 : 26–145: 1. Ripley, pp. 416 _seq._ and 434.
145 : 3. Ripley, p. 434.
145 : 7. Freeman, 1, pp. 113–115; Haddon, 3, p. 45.
145 : 10. Ripley, p. 421. These are the Volga Finns. Old Bulgaria,
according to Pruner-Bey, 2, t. I, pp. 399–433, P. F. Kanitz and others,
seems to have been between the Ural mountains and the Volga. The old
Bulgarians were a Finnic tribe (just which is a matter of much dispute).
They crossed the Danube toward the end of the seventh century. See
Freeman, 1, pp. 17, 155.
145 : 11 _seq._ Ripley, p. 426, based on Bassanovič, p. 30.
145 : 16. Ripley, p. 421.
145 : 19. Of the numerous tribes who, since the Christian Era, have
entered Europe and Anatolia from western Asia some were undoubtedly pure
Mongoloids, like the Huns of Attila, or the hordes of Genghis Khan.
Others were probably under Mongoloid leaders, and included a large
proportion of West Asiatic Alpines (_i. e._, Turcomans), while still
others may have been substantially Alpines. The Mongols in their sweep
into Europe would naturally gather up and carry with them many of the
tribes of western Asia, or perhaps more often would drive the latter
ahead of them.
146 : 3 _seq._ Ripley, p. 139; Taylor, 1, p. 119; Peake, 2, p. 162.
146 : 8. Ripley, p. 136. These primitive nests occur also in Norway.
146 : 12. See the note to p. 131 : 26.
146 : 19–147 : 6. See pp. 122 and 138 of this book.
147 : 7 _seq._ Accad and Sumer. Prince, and Zaborowski (after de Sarzec)
give the earliest date of Accad as about 3800 B. C., but Prince thinks
this date too old by 700–1000 years. See also Zaborowski, 1, pp.
118–125. H. R. Hall, in _The Ancient History of the Near East_, reviews
the entire work in this field in his first chapter. According to him,
dates in Babylonia can be traced as far back as those of Egypt, without
coming to a time when there was no writing or metal, while Egyptian
records begin in a Neolithic culture. The earliest dates so far
established are in the fourth millennium B. C., but already a high
degree of civilization had been reached there or elsewhere by people who
brought it to Babylonia. Hall, p. 176, says: “The most ancient remains
that we find in the city mounds are Sumerian. The site of the ancient
Shurripak, at Fârah in Southern Babylonia, has lately been excavated.
The culture revealed by this excavation is Sumerian, and metal-using,
even at the lowest levels. The Sumerians apparently knew the use of
copper at the beginning of their occupation of Babylonia, and no doubt
brought this knowledge with them.” See chap. V of Hall’s book, and the
two great works of King, the _Chronicles Concerning the Early Babylonian
Kings_, and _The History of Sumer and Akkad_, as well as Rogers’s
_History of Babylonia and Assyria_. In his preface to the first
mentioned of his two works King states that the new researches are
resulting in a tendency to reduce the dates of these ancient empires
very considerably, especially for the dynasties. Thus for Su-abu, the
founder of the first dynasty, a date not earlier than 2100 B. C. is now
given, and for Hammurabi one not earlier than the twentieth century B.
C. Accad is by many authors, including Breasted, considered to have been
Semitic from the beginning, and to have been established about 2800 B.
C. But Zaborowski claims that it was not originally Semitic, but
Semitized at a very early date. He makes both city-kingdoms originally
Turanian [by which he means Alpine and pre-Aryan] with an agglutinative
language related to the Altaic. See also Zaborowski, 2. He dates the
cuneiform inscriptions between 3700 and 4000 B. C., after de Sarzec and
de Morgan. Hall draws attention to the remarkable resemblance of the
Sumerians to the Dravidians, and is inclined to believe that they may
have come from India. Both G. Elliot Smith and Breasted claim the
Babylonians derived their culture from Egypt, but the weight of evidence
is gradually accumulating against them. See Hall, chap. V. The relations
of the two regions and Egyptian dates are treated in Reisner’s _Early
Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr_; and Eduard Meyer, _Geschichte des
Altertums_, should also be consulted. Against these Egyptologists are
most of the later writers, such as Hall and King and many others. The
location of Babylonia is a fact distinctly in favor of its earlier
beginnings. There is no denying the very remote origin of Egyptian
culture, which in its isolation for so many centuries had ample time to
develop its own peculiar features and to become sufficiently strong to
later extend a very wide influence. There is an interesting study of the
fauna of Egypt by Lortet and Gaillard, which proves that much of it was
originally African, not Asiatic, as those who wish to prove the opposite
theory, that Egyptian culture was derived from the east in very remote
times, have endeavored to establish. There is no doubt that the
Egyptians were sufficiently plastic and adaptable in the earlier
centuries of their development, wherever they may have come from, to
make use of what the continent of Africa contributed in the way of
resources. (See also Gaillard, _Les Tatonnements des Égyptiens_, etc.,
and H. H. Johnston, _On North African Animals_.) To claim that the
civilization of Sumer was derived directly from Elam, which in turn
obtained its earliest culture from Egypt, is, in the opinion of the
author, to reverse the truth. Some authorities believe that Elam was the
origin from which came the civilization found by Pumpelly in Turkestan,
and believed by him to have been not earlier than the end of the third
millennium B. C. (For a further reference to this see the note to p.
119 : 15 of this book, on Balkh.)
See Hall as to the relationship of the Accadians and Sumerians with
Elam. Zaborowski says they were all of the same Alpine stock, that is,
the very early Sumerians and Accadians and Elamites. See 2, p. 411. For
Susa, Elam and Media, see _Les peuples Aryens_, pp. 125–138, and Hall,
chap. V. For the Persians, Zaborowski, 1, pp. 134 _seq._ Ripley, pp.
417, 449–450, discusses some of the eastern tribes, among them the
Tadjiks, whom general opinion makes round skulled. These, according to
Zaborowski, are the living prototypes of the Susians, Elamites and
Medes. Many writers consider the Medes to have been Nordics and related
to the Persians. The author, however, follows Zaborowski in classing
them as the early brachycephalic population of Elam or its highlands or
plateau, which was conquered by the Persians. On the Medes and Media see
the notes to p. 254 : 13.
CHAPTER V. THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
148 : 1. The Mediterranean Race. Sergi, 4; Ripley; and Elliot Smith, 1.
148 : 14. Deniker, 2, pp. 408 _seq._; Ripley, pp. 450–451.
148 : 15. See the notes to pp. 257–261.
148 : 18. Dravidians. Bishop R. Caldwell, _Comparative Grammar of the
Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages_; G. A. Grierson,
_Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. IV, _Munda and Dravidian Languages_;
Friedrich Müller, _Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die
Erde in den Jahren_ 1857–1859, etc., pp. 73 _seq._; _Grundriss der
Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. III, pp. 106 _seq._ See also Haddon, 3, p. 18.
148 : 22 _seq._ Deniker, 2, p. 397; Haddon, 1, 3, but Haddon has pointed
out that the Andamanese are not racially of the same stock as the Sakai,
Veddahs, etc.
149 : 6. Haddon, 3, and Sergi, 4, p. 158; Ripley; Fleure and James;
Peake; etc.
149 : 12. Peake, 2, p. 158.
149 : 21. On this point, Ripley, pp. 465 _seq._, quotes Von Dueben,
Retzius, Arbo, Montelius, Barth, Zograf, Lebon, Olechnowicz, etc.
150 : 8. See the notes to p. 149.
150 : 12. See the notes to p. 257.
150 : 21. Beddoe, 4, and 3, pp. 384 _seq._, and Ripley, pp. 326, 328
_seq._
150 : 24 seq. See the notes to p. 149.
150 : 29–151 : 3. A. Retzius, 1, 2; G. Retzius, 1, 2; Peake, 2, p. 158.
Taylor, _Origin of the Aryans_, p. 101, says the Iberian type is not
found in northern Europe east of Namur. In the British Isles, however,
it extends to Caithness.
151 : 3 _seq._ See the notes to p. 149; Ripley, pp. 461–465; Sergi, 4,
p. 252; Osborn, 1, p. 458.
151 : 18. Sir Harry Johnston, _passim_; G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 18, 30,
31, and chap. V.
151 : 22 _seq._ G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 30. For a contrary opinion see
Sergi, 4.
152 : 3. W. L. and P. L. Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_, pp. 177
_seq._; Flower and Lydekker, _Mammals, Living and Extinct_, pp. 96–97.
152 : 6. Elliot Smith, 1, chap. IV and elsewhere; Sergi, 4, chap. III.
152 : 12. Negroes seem to have been unknown in Egypt and Nubia in
pre-dynastic days and only appear in small numbers in the third and
fourth dynasties, in the South. The great ruins on the Zambezi at
Zimbabwe were probably the work of the Mediterranean race and are to be
dated about 1000 B. C. In other words, all northeast Africa, including
Nubia, the northern Sudan, the ancient Kingdom of Meroë at the junction
of the Blue and White Niles, Abyssinia and the adjoining coast were
originally part of the domain of the Mediterranean race.
In the recent kingdom of the Mahdi, the predominant element was not
Negro but Arab more or less mixed.
152 : 16. Sir Harry Johnston, _passim_; Ripley, pp. 387, 390; Hall,
_Ancient History of the Near East_.
152 : 27. Sardinia. See Ripley and Von Luschan. A recent article by V.
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, entitled “A Sketch of the Anthropology of Italy,” in
the _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland_, is well worth consideration. On pp. 91–92 the author gives a
short sketch of the Sardinians and his authorities are to be found in a
footnote on p. 91.
153 : 4. Albanians. See the notes to p. 163 : 19.
153 : 6 _seq._ Fleure and James, pp. 122 _seq._, 149; Beddoe, 4, pp.
25–26; Davis and Thurnam, especially p. 212; Boyd Dawkins, _Early Man in
Britain_.
153 : 10. Scotland. See the notes to pp. 150 : 10 and 204 : 5.
153 : 14 _seq._ See the notes to p. 229 : 5–12.
153 : 24 _seq._ The Mediterranean Race in Rome. Montelius, _La
Civilisation primitive en Italie_; Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in
Italy_; Munro, _Palæolithic Man and the Terramara Settlements_;
Modestov, _Introduction à l’histoire romain_; Frank, _Roman
Imperialism_. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, in _A Sketch of the Anthropology of
Italy_, p. 101, says of the composition of the population of Rome: “The
three fundamental European races, _H. mediterraneus_, _H. alpinus_, and
_H. nordicus_, had their representatives among the ancient Romans,
although the skeletal remains of the Mediterraneans and the Northerners
are difficult to distinguish from each other. It is also possible that
the Northerners belonged to the aristocrats who preferred to burn their
dead. In the calm tenacity and quiet growth of the Roman people perhaps
the descendants of _H. nordicus_ represented the turbulent restlessness
of violent and bold individuals which, even in Roman history, one is
able to discern from time to time.”
In this connection it is interesting to note what Charles W. Gould has
said on p. 117, in _America, a Family Matter_, concerning Sulla. He
describes him as follows: “Even during the terror Sulla found time for
enjoyment. Tawny hair, piercing blue eyes, fair complexion readily
suffused with color as emotion and red blood surged within, Norseman
that he was, he presided over constant and splendid entertainments,
taking more pleasure in a witty actor than in the degenerate men and
women of the old nobility who elbowed their way in.” Also see the notes
to p. 215 : 21.
154 : 5. Quarrels between the Patricians and the Plebs. See Tenney
Frank, _Roman Imperialism_, pp. 5 _seq._, for a discussion of the
mixture of races, “only we cannot agree that a social state can
accomplish race amalgamation. The two races are still there.” Boni,
_Notizie degli Scavi_, vol. III p. 401, believes that the Patricians
were the descendants of the immigrant Aryans, while the Plebeians were
the offspring of the aboriginal Non-Aryan stock. Compare this with the
statements of early writers concerning the conditions in Gaul,
especially as summed up by Dottin in his _Manuel Celtique_.
Frank says, concerning the quarrels, in chap. II, _op. cit._: “Roman
tradition preserved in the first book of Livy presents a very
circumstantial account of the several battles by which Rome supposedly
razed the Latin cities one after another.... Needless to say, if the
Latin tribe had lived in such civil discord as the legend assumes, it
would quickly have succumbed to the inroads of the mountain tribes.”
Thus probably the quarrels between Latin and Etruscan have been
overrated. See again, p. 14, for the oriental origin of some intruding
people. He says, in a note at the end of the chapter: “Ridgeway, in _Who
were the Romans_, 1908, has ably, though not convincingly developed the
view that the Patricians were Sabine conquerors. Cuno, _Vorgeschichte
Roms_, I, 14, held that they were Etruscans. Fustel de Coulanges, in his
well-known work, _La cité antique_, proposed the view that a religious
caste system alone could explain the division. Eduard Meyer, the article
on the Plebs in _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, and Botsford,
_Roman Assemblies_, p. 16, have presented various arguments in favor of
the economic theory. See Binder, _Die Plebs_, 1909, for a summary of
many other discussions.”
Breasted, _Ancient Times_, pp. 495 _seq._, and Sir Harry Johnston,
_Views and Reviews_, p. 97, are two who have touched upon these
questions.
On Etruria see the note to p. 157 : 14.
154 : 11. An allusion to the short stature of the Roman legions of Cæsar
in Gaul may be found in Rice Holmes, 2, p. 81. D’Arbois de Jubainville,
_Les Celts en Espagne_, XIV, p. 369, says in describing a combat between
P. Cornelius Scipio and a Gallic warrior: “Scipio was of very small
stature, the Celtiberian warrior with the high stature which in all
times in the tales of the Roman historians characterizes the Celtic
race; and the beginning of the struggle gave him the advantage.” Taylor,
_Origin of the Aryans_, p. 76, says: “The stature of the Celts struck
the Romans with astonishment. Cæsar speaks of their _mirifica corpora_
and contrasts the short stature of the Romans with the _magnitudo
corporum_ of the Gauls. Strabo, also, speaking of the Coritavi, a
British tribe in Lincolnshire, after mentioning their yellow hair, says:
‘To show how tall they are, I saw myself some of their young men at Rome
and they were taller by six inches than anyone else in the city.’” See
also Elton, _Origins_, p. 240.
154 : 18 _seq._ Nordic Aristocracy in Rome. Tenney Frank, _Race Mixture
in the Roman Empire_. But he also makes Gauls and Germans on the same
level as other conquered people, as legionaries, etc. See also
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, p. 101.
155 : 5 _seq._ G. Elliot Smith, 1; Peet, 2, pp. 164 _seq._ Fleure and
James use the terms Neolithic and Mediterranean interchangeably. Recent
study is giving a somewhat different interpretation to the significance
of the megaliths. See the article by H. J. Fleure and L. Winstanley in
the 1918 _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland_. On the megaliths see also the note to p. 129 : 2
_seq._
155 : 22 _seq._ See the notes to p. 233 _seq._
155 : 27–156 : 4. See the notes to p. 192.
156 1 4. See the notes to p. 244 : 6.
156 : 8. Sergi, 4, p. 70.
156 : 10. Gauls. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 1, XIV, p. 364, says:
“Hannibal left Spain for Italy in 218, but he left there a Carthaginian
army in the ranks of which marched auxiliaries furnished by the Celtic
peoples of Spain; Roman troops came to combat this army and four years
after the departure of Hannibal, (_i. e._ in 214), they gave many
battles to the Carthaginian generals where the Celts were vanquished. In
the booty there were found abundant Gallic trappings, especially a great
number of collars and bracelets of gold; among the dead of the
Carthaginian army left upon the plain were two petty Gallic kings,
Moencapitus and Vismarus. Livy, who tells us these things, says
distinctly that the trappings were Gallic (Gallica) and that the kings
were Gallic. See Livy, I, XXIV, c. 42.”
156 : 13. See the note to p. 192.
156 : 16. Feist, 5, p. 365, is one of the authors who notes the fact
that classic writers spoke of light and dark types in Spain.
156 : 18. This of course means racial evidence. See Mommsen, _History of
the Roman Provinces_, I, chap. II, and Burke, _History of Spain_, p. 2.
156 : 25–157 : 3. On the history of the Albigenses the most important
authority is C. Schmidt, _Histoire de la secte des Cathares ou
Albigeois_, Paris, 1849. The Albigenses were deeply indebted to the
Arabic culture of Saracenic Spain, which was the medium through which
much of the ancient Greek science and learning was preserved to modern
times.
157 : 4. Ripley, pp. 260 _seq._ For an exhaustive résumé of the subject
see Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 277–287. Also consult the notes to p. 235 : 17
of this book.
157 : 6. See p. 122 for the predominance of the Mediterraneans.
157 : 10. Umbrians and Oscans. It is fair to assume that some people
brought the Aryan languages into Italy from the north, and this
introduction is credited to the Umbrians and Oscans. (See Helbig, _Die
Italiker in der Poebene_, pp. 29–41; Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_;
Conway, _Early Italic Dialects_.) The Umbrians and Oscans were closely
allied in regard to their language, whatever may have been their ethnic
affinities. In a remoter degree they were connected with the Latins.
From the time and starting-point of their migrations, as well as from
their type of culture, it would appear that they were cognate with the
early Nordic invaders of Greece. Whether they were wholly Nordic, or
were thoroughly Nordicized Alpines, or merely Alpines with Nordic
leaders is not of particular moment in this connection, but if they were
the carriers of Aryan language and culture they were Nordicized in a
degree comparable to the genuine Nordics who invaded Greece.
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, in one of the latest papers on Italy, as well as many
earlier authorities, regards the Umbrians as Alpines, but he says they
were not all round skulled. “The Osci, the Sabines, the Samnites, and
other Sabellic peoples were Aryans or Aryanized, although they inhumated
their dead instead of burning them. It is possible that the founders of
Rome consisted of both families, as we find both rites in ancient Rome”
(p. 100).
157 : 14. Etruscans. The author is familiar with the persistent theory
that the Etruscans came from Asia Minor by sea, but he nevertheless
regards them as indigenous inhabitants of Italy, that is, the Pre-Aryan,
Pre-Nordic Mediterraneans, who, as part of a large and extended group,
were spread over a great part of the shores of the Mediterranean, and
were at that time the Italian exponents of the prevailing Ægean culture.
During the second millennium in which this culture flourished, they were
much influenced by Crete, although they developed their civilization
along special lines. The Etruscan language, excluding the borrowed
elements from later Italic dialects, is apparently in no sense Aryan.
_Cf._ Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, pp. 53–54.
157 : 16. The date 800 is given by Feist, 5, p. 370.
157 : 18. Livy, V, 33 _seq._, is the authority for the date of the sixth
century. See also Polybius, 1, II, c. XVII, § 1. Myers, _Ancient
History_, makes the settlement of the Gauls in Italy about the fifth
century B. C. Most authorities follow Livy.
157 : 21. To show how approximate the authorities are on this date, Rice
Holmes, 2, p. 1, and Myers, _Ancient History_, make it 390, while
Breasted gives 382.
157 : 23. Livy, V, 35–49, treats of the taking of Rome by the Gauls. The
name Brennus means raven; it is from the Celtic _bran_, raven, crow.
157 : 26. There is a considerable Frankish element there also, among the
aristocracy.
158 : 1 _seq._ An interesting discussion of this event is given by
Salomon Reinach, 2. The invasion was resisted first at Thermopylæ and
later at Delphi. On p. 81 Reinach says: “In the detailed recital which
Pausanius has left us of the invasion of the Galatic bands in Greece,
dealing with the glorious part which the Athenians played in the defence
of the Pass of Thermopylæ. But, when the defile had been forced, the
Athenians departed and Pausanius makes no more mention of them in
relating the defence of Delphi, where only the Phocians, four hundred
Locrians and two hundred Ætolians figured. It is only after the defeat
of the Gauls that the Athenians, according to Pausanius, came back,
together with the Bœotians, to harass the barbarians in their
retreat....” On p. 83 he says: “The barbarians are incontestably the
Galatians.” See also by the same author, _The Gauls in Antique Art_. G.
Dottin, pp. 461–462 gives us the following: “Hannibal, traversing
southern Gaul, found on his passage only Gauls. On the other hand, Livy
mentions the arrival of Gauls in Provence at the same time as their
first descent into Italy, and Justinius places the wars of the Greeks of
Marseilles against the Gauls and Ligurians before the taking of Rome by
the Gauls. The invasion of the Belgæ is placed then in the third
century. It is doubtless contemporaneous with the Celtic invasion of
Greece which was perhaps caused by it.” See also the notes to p. 174 :
21 of this book. According to Myers, _Ancient History_, where the
account of these events is briefly given on pp. 269–270, the year was
278 B. C. Breasted, 1, p. 449, gives 280 B. C.
As late as the fourth century of our era, Celtic forms of speech
prevailed among the Galatians of Asia Minor. According to Jerome
(Fraser’s _Golden Bough_, II, p. 126, footnote), the language spoken
then in Anatolia was very similar to the dialect of the Treveri, a
Celtic tribe on the Moselle, of whose name Treves is the perpetuator.
“It was to these people that St. Paul addressed one of his epistles.”
It is interesting to note that at the present time the finest soldiers
of the Turkish army are recruited in the district of Angora which
includes the territory of ancient Galatia.
158 : 13. Procopius, IV, 13, says that a number of Moors and their wives
took refuge in Sicily and also in Sardinia where they established
colonies. The recent article by Giuffrida-Ruggeri sums up the data for
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. See also Gibbon, _passim_, and Ripley, pp.
115–116.
158 : 16. G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 94 _seq._, and the notes to pp. 127 :
26 and 128.
158 : 21. Pelasgians. Sergi, 4, followed by many anthropologists,
describes as Pelasgian one branch of the Mediterranean or Eurafrican
race of mankind and one group of skull types within that race. Ripley,
pp. 407, 448, considers them Mediterraneans in all probability, as this
is the oldest layer of population in these regions. So also do Myres,
_Dawn of History_, p. 171, and most of the other authorities. In his
_History of the Pelasgian Theory_, Myres sums up all that was written up
to that time. Homer and other early writers make them the ancient
inhabitants of Greece, who were subdued by the Hellenes. It is generally
agreed that a people resembling in its prevailing skull forms the
Mediterranean race of north Africa was settled in the Ægean area from a
remote Neolithic antiquity. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, devotes a
chapter or more to them, and declares on p. 110: “In fact the Pelasgians
and the Hellenes are of different origin; the first are one of the races
which preceded the Indo-Europeans in Europe, the others are
Indo-European.”
Another recent writer who deals with this puzzling problem is Sartiaux,
in his _Troie_, pp. 140–143. Finally, Sir William Ridgeway says: “The
Achæans found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as
Pelasgians who continued down to classical times the main element in the
population, even in the states under Achæan, and later, under Dorian
rule. In some cases the Pelasgians formed a serf class, _e. g._ in
Penestæ, in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and the Gymnesii at Argos;
whilst they practically composed the whole population of Arcadia and
Attica which never came under either Achæan or Dorian rule. This people
had dwelt in the Ægean from the Stone Age, and though still in the
Bronze Age at the Achæan conquest, had made great advances in the useful
and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark hair and
eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centers were at
Cnossus, Crete, in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each being ruled by
ancient lines of kings. In Argolis, Prœtus built Tiryns but later under
Perseus, Mycenæ took the lead until the Achæan conquest. All the ancient
dynasties traced their descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the
Achæan conquest was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands.”
As to the Pelasgian being a Non-Aryan tongue, the ancient script at
Crete has not yet been deciphered. Since the ancient Cretans were
presumably Pelasgians, it is safe to identify them with this Non-Aryan
language, although Conway, 2, pp. 141–142, is inclined to believe that
it is related to the Aryan family. See also Sweet, _The History of
Language_, p. 103.
158 : 22. Nordic Achæans. Ridgeway, 1, p. 683, says: “We found that a
fair-haired race greater in stature than the melanochroous Ægean people
had there [in Greece and the Ægean] been domiciled for long ages, and
that fresh bodies of tall, fair-haired people from the shores of the
northern ocean continually through the ages had kept pressing down into
the southern peninsulas. From this it followed that the Achæans of Homer
were one of these bodies of Celts [_i. e._, Nordics], who had made their
way down into Greece and had become the masters of the indigenous race.
“This conclusion we further tested by an examination of the distribution
of the round shield, the practise of cremation, the use of the brooch
and buckle, and finally the diffusion of iron in Europe, North Africa
and western Asia. Our inductions showed that all four had made their way
into Greece and the Ægean from Central Europe. Accordingly as they all
appeared in Greece along with the Homeric Achæans, we inferred that the
latter had brought them with them from central Europe.” Elsewhere, in
the same book, Ridgeway identifies the Homeric age with the Achæan and
Post-Mycenæan, the Mycenæan with the Pre-Achæan and Pelasgian.
Bury, _The History of Greece_, p. 44, says: “The Achæans were a people
of blond complexion, of Indo-European speech. Among the later Greeks,
there were two marked types, distinguished by light and dark hair. The
blond complexion was rarer and more prized. This is illustrated by the
fact that women and fops used sometimes to dye their hair yellow or red,
the κομης ξανθίσματα mentioned in the Danæ of Euripedes.”
159 : 4–5. Date of the siege of Troy. Hall, _Ancient History of the Near
East_, p. 69, and many other authorities accept the Parian Chronicle,
which makes it 1194–1184 B. C. For the whole question of the Trojan War
see Félix Sartiaux, _Troie, La Guerre de Troie_.
159 : 6 _seq._ See the notes to p. 225 : 11.
159 : 10 _seq._ Bury, _History of Greece_, p. 44; DeLapouge, _Les
sélections sociales_. Beddoe noted in his _Anthropological History of
Europe_ that almost all of Homer’s heroes were blond or chestnut-haired
as well as large and tall. There are many passages in the Iliad which
refer to the blondness and size of the more important personages.
159 : 19 _seq._ Bury, _History of Greece_, pp. 57, 59, describes the
Greek tribes which moved down before the Dorians, conquering the
Achæans—the Thessalians, Bœotians, etc. But see Peake, 2, for
Thessalians. Also D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. II, p. 297, and Myers,
_Anc. Hist._, pp. 127, 136 _seq._
159 : 23. Dorians. See the authorities quoted above; also Ridgeway, Von
Luschan, Deniker, 2, pp. 320–321, and Hawes.
160 : 1. C. H. Hawes, p. 258 of the _Annal of the British School at
Athens_, vol. XVI, “Some Dorian Descendants,” says the Dorians were
Alpines, and this view is shared by many others, among them Von Luschan.
See also Myres, _The Dawn of History_, pp. 173 _seq._ and 213. While
this may be partially true even of the bulk of the population, all the
tribes to the north of the Mediterranean fringe carried a large Nordic
element, which practically always assumed the leadership.
160 : 17. For the character of the Dorians, see Bury, p. 62.
161 : 20. The philosopher Xenophanes, a contemporary of both Philip and
his son, in discussing man’s notion of God, insists that each race
represents the Great Supreme under its own shape: the Negro with a flat
nose and black face, the Thracian with blue eyes and a ruddy complexion.
161 : 27. Loss of Nordic blood among the Persians. See the note to p.
254 : 11.
162 : 8. Barbarous Macedonia. Bury, _The History of Greece_, pp.
681–731.
162 : 14. Alexander the Great. Descriptions of Alexander are found in
Plutarch, who quotes the memoirs of Aristoxenus, a contemporary of
Alexander, regarding the agreeable odor exhaled from his skin; Plutarch
also says, without giving his authority, who was probably the same, that
Alexander was “fair and of a light color, passing to ruddiness in his
face and upon his breast.” An authority for the statement of blue and
black eyes is Quintus Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian of the first
century A. D., in _Historiarum Alexandri Magni, Libri Decem_. This was
written three and one-half centuries after the death of Alexander. The
quotation, from North’s translation of Plutarch, reads: “But when
Appeles painted Alexander holding lightning in his hand he did not shew
his fresh color, but made him somewhat blacke and swarter than his face
in deede was; for naturally he had a very fayre white colour, mingled
also with red which chiefly appeared in his face and in his brest.”
In Gabon’s _Inquiries into the Human Faculty_, original English edition,
frontispiece, is a composite photograph of Alexander the Great from six
different medals selected by the curator in the British Museum. The
curly hair and Greek profile are significant features. The sarcophagus
of Alexander in the Constantinople Museum called the Sidonian, throws
some light on this point, although there is some uncertainty among
archæologists as to whether or not it is Alexander’s sarcophagus.
162 : 19. See Von Luschan, _The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia_, the
section on Greece.
163 : 7. _Græculus_, -_a_, -_um_. According to the Latin dictionaries,
the diminutive adjective, understood mostly in a depreciating,
contemptuous sense—a paltry Greek.
163 : 10. Physical types in early Greece. Ripley, pp. 407–408, quotes
Nicolucci, Zaborowski, Virchow, DeLapouge and Sergi. _Cf._ Peake, 2, pp.
158–159, also Ripley, p. 411.
163 : 14. Physical types of modern Greeks. See the authorities given on
p. 409 of Ripley’s book, and Von Luschan, pp. 221 _seq._ Von Luschan and
most other observers say that the modern Greeks, at least in Asia Minor,
are a very mixed people. See his curve for head form.
163 : 16. Von Luschan, p. 239: “As in ancient Greece a great number of
individuals seem to have been fair, with blue eyes, I took great care to
state whether this were the case with the modern ‘Greeks’ in Asia. I
have notes for 580 adults, males and females. In this number there were
8 with blue and 29 with gray or greenish eyes; all the rest had brown
eyes. There was not one case of really light colored hair, but in nearly
all the cases of lighter eyes the hair also was less dark than with the
other Greeks.” See Ripley for European Greeks.
163 : 19. Albanians. Deniker, 2, pp. 333–334; Von Luschan, p. 224;
Ripley, p. 410. Most Albanians are tall and dark. C. H. Hawes, _Some
Dorian Descendants_, p. 258 _seq._, says that the percentage of light
eyes over light hair is nearly ten times as great, _i. e._, there is 3
per cent of light hair to 30–38 per cent light eyes among Albanians and
selected Greeks and Cretans. Also Glück, _Zur Physischen Anthropologie
der Albanesen_, pp. 375–376, and the note to p. 25 : 25 of this book.
Hall gives some interesting data on p. 522 of his _Ancient History of
the Near East_.
163 : 26. See the note to p. 138 : 1 _seq._
164 : 4 _seq._ Dinaric type identified with the Spartans. See C. H.
Hawes, _op. cit._, pp. 250 _seq._, where he discusses the Spartans and
the Dinaric type, and Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, pp. 74
and 572.
164 : 12. On p. 57 of his _History of Greece_ Bury inclines to the
belief that the Dorians came through Epirus, and attributes the cause of
their invasion to the pressure of the Illyrians, to whom the Dorians
were probably related. It is known that the Illyrians were round-headed.
Finally they left the regions of the Corinthian Gulf, and sailed around
the Peloponnesus to southeast Greece, where they settled, leaving only a
few Dorians behind, who gave their name to the country they occupied,
but ever afterward were of no consequence in Greek history. Some bands
went to Crete, others on other islands and some to Asia Minor.
164 : 15. Character of the Spartans. See Bury, _History of Greece_, pp.
62, 120, 130–135.
164 : 22. See p. 153 of this book.
165 : 6 _seq._ _Cf._ the note to p. 119 : 1 and that to p. 223 : 1.
165 : 10. G. Elliot Smith, _Ancient Mariners_.
165 : 14. See the note to p. 242 : 5 on languages.
166 : 3. Gibbon, chap. XLVIII.
CHAPTER VI. THE NORDIC RACE
167 : 1 _seq._ _Cf._ Peake, 2, p. 162, and numerous other authorities.
Peake’s summary is brief, clear and up to date.
167 : 13 _seq._ R. G. Latham was the first to propound the theory of the
European origin of the Indo-Europeans. He says that there is “a tacit
assumption that as the east is the probable quarter in which either the
human species or the greater part of our civilization originated,
everything came from it. But surely in this there is a confusion between
the primary diffusion of mankind over the world at large and those
secondary movements by which, according to even the ordinary hypothesis,
the Lithuanians, etc., came from Asia into Europe.”
167 : 17. See _The So-Called North European Race of Mankind_, by G.
Retzius. Linnæus and DeLapouge were the first to use this term, _homo
Europæus_. See Ripley, pp. 103 and 121.
168 : 13. See the notes to pp. 31 : 16 and 224 : 19.
168 : 19 _seq._ Ripley, chap. IX, p. 205, based on Arbo, Hultkranz and
others. G. Retzius, in the article mentioned above, pp. 303–306, and
also _Crania Suecica_; L. Wilser; K. Penka; O. Schrader, 2 and 3; Feist,
5; Mathæus Much; Hirt, 1; and Peake, 2, pp. 162–163, are other
authorities. There are many more.
169 : 1 _seq._ G. Retzius, 3, p. 303. See also 1, for the racial
homogeneity of Sweden.
169 : 9. Osborn, 1, pp. 457–458, and authorities given.
169 : 14. Gerard de Geer, _A Geochronology of the Last 12,000 Years_.
169 : 20 _seq._ See the note to p. 117 : 18.
170 : 3 _seq._ Cuno, _Forschungen im Gebiete der alten Völkerkunde_;
Pösche, _Der Arier_.
170 : 10 _seq._ Peake, 2; Woodruff, 1, 2; and Myres, 1, p. 15. See also
the notes to pp. 168 : 19 and Chap. IX of this book.
170 : 21. See the notes to pp. 213 _seq._
170 : 29–171 : 12. See Osborn’s map, 1, p. 189.
171 : 12. _Cf._ Ellsworth Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_.
171 : 25. Peake, 2, and Montelius, _Sweden in Heathen Times_, and most
of the authors already given on the subject of the Nordics.
172 : 1–25. Ripley, pp. 346–348, and pp. 352 _seq._, together with the
authorities quoted. Also Feist, 5, and Zaborowski, 1, pp. 274–278. Marco
Polo, about 1298, in chap. XLVI, of his travels, says that the Russian
men were extremely well favored, tall and with fair complexions. The
women were also fair and of a good size, with light hair which they were
accustomed to wear long.
173 : 9. See Bury, _History of Greece_, pp. 111–112, and the notes to
Chap. XIV of this hook.
173 : 11. Saka or Sacæ. See the notes to p. 259 : 21.
173 : 11. Cimmerians. For an interesting summary see Zaborowski, 1, pp.
137–138. For a lengthy discussion of them and of their migrations, and
of their possible affiliations with the Cimbri, see Ridgeway, 1, pp.
387–397. According to the best Assyriologists the Cimmerians are the
same people who, known as the Gimiri or Gimirrai, according to cuneiform
inscriptions, were in Armenia in the eighth century B. C. See Hall,
_Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 495. Bury, _History of Greece_,
also touches on their raids in Asia Minor. Minns, p. 115, believes them
to have been Scythians. G. Dottin, p. 23 and elsewhere, speaking of the
Cimmerians and Cimbri, says: “The latter are without doubt Germans,
therefore the Cimmerians who are the same people are not ancestors of
the Celts.” The Cimmerians were first spoken of by Homer (Odyssey, XI,
12–19) who describes them as living in perpetual darkness in the far
North. Herodotus (IV, 11–13) in his account of Scythia, regards them as
the early inhabitants of south Russia, after whom the Bosphorus
Cimmerius and other places were named, and who were driven by the Scyths
along the Caucasus into Asia Minor, where they maintained themselves for
a century. The Cimmerii are often mentioned in connection with the
Thracian Treres who made their raids across the Hellespont, and possibly
some of them took this route, having been cut off by the Scyths as the
Alani were by the Huns. Certain it is that in the middle of the seventh
century B. C., Asia Minor was ravaged by northern nomads (Herodotus, IV,
12), one body of whom is called in Assyrian sources Gimirrai and is
represented as coming through the Caucasus. They were Aryan-speaking, to
judge by the few proper names preserved. To the north of the Euxine
their main body was merged finally with the Scyths. Later writers have
often confused them with the Cimbri of Jutland. There is no relation
between the Cimbri and the Cymbry or Cymry, a word derived from the
Welsh Combrox and used by them to denote their own people. See note to
p. 174 : 26
173 : 14. Medes. See the notes to p. 254 : 13.
173 : 14. Achæans and Phrygians. See Peake, 2, who dates them at 2000 B.
C. Bury says, pp. 5 and 44 _seq._: “after the middle of the second
millennium B. C., but there were previous and long-forgotten invasions.”
Consult also Ridgeway, 1, and the notes to pp. 158–161 and 225 : 11 of
this book.
173 : 16. See the note to p. 157 : 10.
173 : 18. The Nordics cross the Rhine into Gaul. Rice Holmes, 2, pp.
11–12, gives the seventh century B. C. as the date when tall fair Celts
first crossed the Rhine westward, “but it is unlikely that they were
homogeneous.... Physically they resembled the tall fair Germans whom
Cæsar and Tacitus describe, but they differed from them in character and
customs as well as in speech.” See also p. 336, at the bottom, where he
remarks: “Early in the Hallstatt period a tall dolichocephalic race
appeared in the Jura and the Doubs, who may have been the advanced guard
of the Celts.” 1000 B. C. for the appearance of the Celts on the Rhine
is a very moderate estimate of the date at which these Nordics appear in
western Europe, as that would be nearly four centuries after the
appearance of the Achæans in Greece and fully two centuries after the
appearance of Nordics who spoke Aryan in Italy. The Hallstatt culture
(see p. 129) with which the invasion of these Nordics is generally
associated had been in full development for four or five centuries
before the date here given for the crossing of the Rhine. 700 B. C.,
given by many authorities, seems to the author too late by several
centuries.
173 : 18 _seq._ G. Dottin, _Manuel Celtique_, pp. 453 _seq._, says: “If
the Celts originated in Gaul, it is likely that their language would
have left in our nomenclature more traces than we find, and above all,
that the Celtic denominations would be applied as well to mountains and
water courses as to inhabited places.... According to D’Arbois de
Jubainville, these names were Ligurian. Thus the Celts would have named
only fortresses, and the names properly geographic would be due to the
populations which preceded them.... These constituted for the most part
the plebs, reduced almost to the state of slavery, which the Celtic
aristocracy of Druids and Equites dominated.... On the other hand, if
one derives the Celts from central Europe, one explains better both the
presence in central Europe of numerous place names, proving the
establishment of dwellings of the Celts, and their invasions into
southeastern Europe, more difficult to conceive if they had had to
traverse the German forests. The migration of a people to a more fertile
country is natural enough; the departure of the Celts from a fertile
country like Gaul to a less fertile country like Germany would be very
unlikely.” And it must be remembered that Tacitus wondered why anyone
should want to live in Germany, with its disagreeable climate, trackless
forests and endless swamps.
Dottin adds the interesting bit of information, on p. 197, that the
Gauls, mixed with the Illyrians (Alpines) were the farmers of old Gaul.
The real Gauls were warriors and hunters.
173 : 22. Teutons. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 546 _seq._
173 : 26 _seq._ Deniker, 2, p. 321; Oman, _England Before the Norman
Conquest_, pp. 13 _seq._ For Celts and Teutons consult also G. de
Mortillet, _La formation de la nation française_, pp. 114 _seq._
174 : 1. Goidels. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 229, 409–410, and 2, pp. 319–320,
says not earlier than the sixth or seventh centuries B. C., but
Montelius and others give 800. G. Dottin, pp. 457–460, and D’Arbois de
Jubainville, 4, t. I, pp. 342–343, contend that there is no historical
record of it. The date depends upon whether the word κασσίτερος, which
designates “tin” in the Iliad, is a Celtic word. See also Oman, 2, pp.
13–14, and Rhys and Jones, _The Welsh People_, pp. 1, 2.
174 : 7. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 308 _seq._ and 325 _seq._; Dottin, pp. 1
and 2, and his Conclusion. Also numerous other writers, especially
D’Arbois de Jubainville, in various volumes of the _Revue Celtique_.
174 : 10. Nordicized Alpines. Dottin, p. 237: “Cæsar tells us that the
Plebs of Gaul was in a state bordering on slavery. It did not dare by
itself to do anything and was never consulted.” _Cf._ note to p. 173 :
20.
174 : 11 Gauls in the Crimea. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, p. 387,
quotes Strabo (309 and 507) and the long Protogenes inscription from
Olbia (_Corp. Inscr. Græc._, II, no. 2058).
174 : 15. Migration of Nordics from Germany. It occurred about the
eighth century B. C., according to many authors, among them G. Dottin,
pp. 241, 457–458. “Cæsar, Livy, Justinius, summing up Pompeius Trogus,
Appian and Plutarch, without doubt following a common source, even think
that excess population is the cause of the Gallic migrations. It is one
of the reasons to which Cæsar attributes the emigration of the Helvetii.
Cisalpine Gaul nourished an immense population.”
174 : 21. Cymry move westward. See Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 319–321; Oman, 2,
pp. 13 _seq._ and especially p. 16; Deniker, 2, pp. 320–322; Dottin, pp.
460 _seq._ Both Rhys and Jones, in the _Welsh People_, and G. Dottin,
suggest that this movement was only part of one great migration which
dispersed the Nordics from a central home. Their appearance in Greece as
Galatians at about the same time may be ascribed to this migration. See
the notes to p. 158 : 1 _seq._
Oman and many other authorities think the movement occurred some time
before 325 B. C.
174 : 21 _seq._ Cymry and Belgæ. The Cymry or Belgæ were “P Celtic” in
speech. They first appeared in history about 300 B. C., equipped with a
culture of the second iron period called La Tène. The classic authors
were apparently uncertain as to whether or not they were Germans (or
Teutons), but they appear to have been largely composed of this element,
and to have arrived previously from Scandinavia and to have adopted the
Celtic tongue. These Belgæ drove out the earlier “Q Celts” or Goidels,
and the pressure they exerted caused many of the later migrations of the
Goidels or Gauls.
The groups of tribes which in Cæsar’s time occupied the part of France
to the north and east of the Seine were known as Belgæ, while the same
people who had crossed to the north of the channel were called Brythons.
To avoid designating these groups separately the author has called all
these tribes Cymry, although the term can properly be applied only to
the “_P_ Celts” of Wales, who adopted this designation for themselves
about the sixth century A. D., according to Rhys and Jones, p. 26, where
we read: “The singular is Cymro, the plural Cymry. The word Cymro, is
derived from the earlier Cumbrox or Combrox, which is parallel to the
Gaulish Allobrox (plural Allobroges) a name applied by the Gauls to
certain Ligurians whose country they conquered.... As the word is to be
traced to Cumbra-land (Cumberland), its use must have extended to the
Brythons” (see Rice Holmes, 2, p. 15, where he says the Brythons spread
the La Tène culture). “But as the name Cymry seems to have been unknown,
not only in Brittany, but also in Cornwall, it may be conjectured that
it cannot have acquired anything like national significance for any
length of time before the battle of Deorham in the year 577, when the
West Saxons permanently severed the Celts west of the Severn from their
kinsmen (of Gloucester, Somerset, etc., as now known).
“Thus it is probable that the national significance of the term Cymro
may date from the sixth century and is to be regarded as the exponent of
the amalgamation of the Goidelic and Brythonic populations under high
pressure from without by the Saxons and Angles.” Therefore it is a
purely Welsh term, properly speaking. Broca, in the _Mémoires
d’anthropologie_, I, 871, p. 395, is responsible for the word as applied
to the invaders of Gaul who spoke Celtic. He called them Kimris. See
also his remarks in the _Bulletin de la société d’Anthropologie_, XI,
1861, pp. 308–309, and the article by L. Wilser in _L’Anthropologie_,
XIV, 1903, pp. 496–497.
175 : 12 _seq._ See the notes to p. 32 : 8; also Rice Holmes, 2, p. 337;
Fleure and James, pp. 118 _seq._ Taylor, 1, p. 109, says that there is a
superficial resemblance between the Teutons and Celts, but a radical
difference in skulls, the Teutonic being more dolichocephalic. Both are
tall, large-limbed and fair. The Teuton is distinguished by a pink and
white skin, the Celt is more florid and inclined to freckle. The Teuton
eye is blue, that of the Celt gray, green, or grayish blue.
175 : 21 _seq._ Rice Holmes, 2, p. 326 _seq._, gives a summary of the
descriptions of various classic authors. Salomon Reinach, 2, pp. 80
_seq._, discusses Pausanias’ detailed recital of the event. For the
original see Pausanias, X, 22. _Cf._ also the note to p. 158 : 1.
176 : 15–177 : 27. The series of notes which were collected by the
author on the wanderings of these Germanic tribes proved so lengthy, and
the relationships of the peoples under discussion so intricate, that
they grew beyond all reasonable proportions as notes, and carried the
subject far afield. Hence it has seemed best to omit them in this
connection and to embody them in another work.
Perhaps it will therefore be sufficient to say here that the results of
the research have made it clear that all of these tribes were related by
blood and by language, and came originally from Scandinavia and the
neighborhood of the Baltic Sea. For some unknown reason, such as
pressure of population, they began, one after another, a southward
movement in the centuries immediately before the Christian Era, which
brought them within the knowledge of the Mediterranean world. Their
wanderings were very extensive and covered Europe from southern Russia
and the Crimea to Spain, and even to Africa. Many of these tribes broke
up into smaller groups under distinct names, or united with others to
form large confederacies. Not only did some of them clash with each
other almost to the point of extermination in their efforts to obtain
lands, but in attempting to avoid the Huns came into contact with the
Romans, and broke through the frontier of the Empire at various points.
From the Romans they gained many of the ideas which were later
incorporated by them in the various European nations which they founded.
The result of their conquests was to establish a Nordic nobility and
upper class in practically every country of Europe,—a condition which
has remained to the present day.
177 : 12. Varangians. See the note on the Varangians, to p. 189 : 24.
177 : 18. See Jordanes, _History of the Goths_.
177 : 27. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, pp. 92–93; Taylor, _Words and
Places_, p. 45; and G. Dottin, _Manuel Celtique_, p. 28. This word came
from _Volcæ_, the name of a Celtic tribe of the upper Rhine. Their name,
to the neighboring Teutons, came to designate a foreigner. The Volcæ
were separated into two branches, the Arecomici, established between the
Rhone and the Garonne, and the Tectosages, in the region of the upper
Garonne. The term Volcæ has become among the Germans _Walah_, then
_Walch_, from which is derived _Welsch_, which designates the people of
Romance language, such as the Italians and French. Among the
Anglo-Saxons it has become _Wealh_, from which the derivation _Welsh_,
which designates the Gauls, and nowadays their former compatriots who
migrated to England and settled in Wales.
CHAPTER VII. TEUTONIC EUROPE
179 : 10. Mikklegard. “The Great City.” This was the name given to
Byzantium by the Goths.
180 : 2–11. Procopius, _Vandalic War_; Gibbon, chaps. XXXI-XXXVIII;
Freeman, _Historical Geography of Europe_.
181 : 14. Gibbon, chaps. XXXVII and XXXVIII.
182 : 1. Eginhard, _The Life of Charlemagne_.
183 : 24. _The Political History of England_, vol. V, by H. A. L.
Fisher, p. 205: “While the sovereigns of Europe were collecting tithes
from their clergy for the Holy War, and papal collectors were selling
indulgences to the scandal of some scrupulous minds, the empire became
vacant by the death of Maximilian on January 19, 1519. For a few months
diplomacy was busy with the choice of a successor. The king of France
(Francis I) poured money into Germany, and was supported in his
candidature by the pope; the king of England (Henry VIII) sent Pace to
counteract French designs with the electors; but the issue was never
really in doubt. Germany would not tolerate a French ruler; and on June
28, 1519, Charles of Spain was elected king of the Romans.”
184 : 8. Depopulation. (Thirty Years’ War.) _Cambridge Modern History_,
vol. IV, p. 418, says that Germany was particularly afflicted. The data
are unreliable, but the population of the empire was probably reduced by
two-thirds, or from 16,000,000 to less than 6,000,000. Bavaria,
Franconia and Swabia suffered most. W. Menzel says: “Germany is reckoned
by some to have lost one-half, by others, two-thirds, of her entire
population during the Thirty Years’ War. In Saxony 900,000 men had
fallen within ten years; in Bohemia the number of inhabitants at the
demise of Frederick II, before the last deplorable inroads made by
Barier and Torstenson, had sunk to one-fourth. Augsburg, instead of
80,000 had 18,000 inhabitants. Every province, every town throughout the
Empire had suffered at an equal ratio, with the exception of Tyrol....
The working class had almost totally disappeared. In Franconia the
misery and depopulation had reached such an extent that the Franconian
estates, with the assent of the ecclesiastical princes, abolished in
1650 the celibacy of the Catholic clergy and permitted each man to have
two wives.... The nobility were compelled by necessity to enter the
services of the princes, the citizens were impoverished and powerless,
the peasantry had been utterly demoralized by military rule and reduced
to servitude.” It has been said that the city of Berlin contained but
300 citizens; the Palatinate of the Rhine but 200 farmers. In character,
intelligence and in morality, the German people were set back two
hundred years. There are, in addition to the authorities quoted here,
numerous others who make the same observations, in fact, this
depopulation is one of the outstanding results of the Thirty Years’ War.
See also Anton Gindely, _History of the Thirty Years’ War_, p. 398.
184 : 22 _seq._ The _British Medical Journal_ for April 8, 1916; and
Parsons, _Anthropological Observations on German Prisoners of War_.
185 : 6. See the note to p. 196 : 27.
CHAPTER VIII. THE EXPANSION OF THE NORDICS
188 : 5. Beddoe, 4; Ripley, chap. VI.
188 : 11. _British Medical Journal_ for April 8, 1916.
188 : 15. Ripley, pp. 221 and 469, and the authorities quoted.
188 : 24–189 : 6. P. Kretschmer; and, on the history of High and Low
German, see Herman Paul, _Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie_; _The
Encyclopædia Britannica_, under German Language, gives a good summary.
189 : 7. Ripley, p. 256.
189 : 12. Villari, _The Barbarian Invasions of Italy_; Thos. Hodgkin,
_Italy and Her Invaders_.
189 : 15. Brenner Pass. See Rice Holmes, _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul_, p.
37; Ripley, p. 290; and most histories of the incursions of the
barbarians into Italy.
189 : 24. Varangians. Most of the early historians of Russia and Germany
and the monk Nestor, who was the earliest annalist of the Russians,
agree in deriving the Varangians or Varegnes from Scandinavia. They
probably were more of the same people whom we find as Varini on the
continental shores of the North Sea. The names of the first founders of
the Russian monarchy are Scandinavian or Northman. Their language,
according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, differed essentially from the
Sclavonian. The author of the annals of St. Bertin, who first names the
Russians (Rhos) in the year 939 of his annals, assigns them Sweden for
their country. Luitprand calls them the same as the Normans. The Finns,
Laplanders and Esthonians speak of the Swedes to the present day as
Roots, Rootsi, Ruorzi, Rootslane or Rudersman, meaning rowers. See
Schlözer, in his _Nestor_, p. 60; and _Malte Brun_, p. 378, as well as
_Kluchevsky_, vol. I, pp. 56–76 and 92. The Varangians, according to
Gibbon, formed the body-guard of the Greek Emperor at Byzantium. These
were the Russian Varangians, who made their way to that city by the
eastern routes. Canon Isaac Taylor, in _Words and Places_, p. 110,
remarks that “for centuries the Varangian Guard upheld the tottering
throne of the Byzantine emperors.” This Varangian Guard was very largely
reinforced by Saxons fleeing from the Norman Conquest of England. The
name Varangi is undoubtedly identical with _Frank_, and is the term used
in the Levant to designate Christians of the western rite, from the days
of the Crusades down to the present time. _Cf._ Ferangistan—_land of the
Franks_, or, as it is now interpreted, “Europe,” especially western
Europe. E. B. Soane, To _Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise_, uses
the phrase _á la ferangi_ as describing anything imported from western
Europe.
190 : 1. Deniker, 2, pp. 333–334; Ripley.
190 : 9. Deniker, the same.
190 : 13. Ripley, pp. 281–283.
190 : 15. Ripley, pp. 343 _seq._
190 : 19. See the notes to pp. 131 : 26, 140 : 1 _seq._ and 196 : 18.
190 : 26. See p. 140 of this book.
192 : 1 _seq._ D’Arbois de Jubainville, 1, t. XIV, pp. 357–395; Feist,
5, p. 365. Col. W. R. Livermore, in correspondence, says that
practically all students on the Celtiberian question agree upon the
point where the Celts entered Spain, namely, that designated by de
Jubainville. They passed along the Atlantic coast, across the Pyrenees,
where the railroad from Paris to Madrid now crosses, about 500 B. C.,
between the time of Avienus, ± 525 and Herodotus, ± 443. In the time of
Avienus the Ligurians had both ends of the Pyrenees from Ampurias to
Bayonne, and controlled the sources of the Batis. In the time of
Herodotus, the Gauls had the country up to the Curretes. See also
Müllenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, II, p. 238, and Deniker, 2, p.
321. D’Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._, especially pp. 363–364, says:
“The name Celtiberian was adopted at the time of Hannibal, who entered
Spain, married a Celt, and thus won the assistance of the Celts in his
march on Rome.... The name Celtiberian is the generic term for
designating the Celts established in the center of Spain, but the word
is sometimes taken in a less extended sense to designate only one part
of this important group.”
192 : 8. Sergi, 4, p. 70. See also p. 156 of this book.
192 : 14. See the note to p. 156, or Ridgeway, _The Early Age of
Greece_, p. 375.
192 : 18. Ridgeway, _op. cit._, p. 375. This may refer to the veins
showing blue through the fair Nordic skin.
192 : 18. Ridgeway, _op. cit._, p. 375. Here he says: “The Visigoths
became the master race, and from them the Spanish Grandees, among whom
fair hair is a common feature, derive their _sangre azul_. After a
glorious struggle against the Saracens, which served to keep alive their
martial ardor and thus brace up the ancient vigor of the race, from the
16th century onward the Visigothic wave seems to have exhausted its
initial energy, and the aboriginal stratum has more and more come to the
surface and has thus left Spain sapless and supine.”
102 : 22. Taylor, 2, pp. 308–309, says: “From the name of the same
nation,—the Goths of Spain,—are derived curiously enough, two names, one
implying extreme honor, the other extreme contempt. The Spanish noble,
who boasts that the _sangre azul_ of the Goths runs in his veins with no
admixture, calls himself an _hidalgo_, that is, a son of the Goth, as
his proudest title.” A footnote to this reads: “The old etymology _Hijo
d’algo_, son of someone, has been universally given up in favor of _hi’
d’al Go_, son of the Goth. (More correctly _hi’ del Go’_.) See a paper
‘On Oc and Oyl’ translated by Bishop Thirlwall, for the _Philological
Museum_, vol. II, p. 337.” Taylor goes on to say, however, that the
version _hi’ d’ algo_, son of someone, is still given as the origin of
this word in R. Barcia’s _Primer Diccionaria Géneral Étimologico de la
Lengua Español_.
Concerning some other derivations Taylor continues: “Of Gothic blood
scarcely less pure than that of the Spanish Hidalgos, are the Cagots of
Southern France, a race of outcast pariahs, who in every village live
apart, executing every vile or disgraceful kind of toil, and with whom
the poorest peasant refuses to associate. These Cagots are the
descendants of those Spanish Goths, who, on the invasion of the Moors,
fled to Aquitaine, where they were protected by Charles Martel. But the
reproach of Arianism clung to them, and religious bigotry branded them
with the name _câ gots_ or ‘Gothic Dogs.’ a name which still clings to
them, and keeps them apart from their fellow-men.”
Elsewhere we find the following: “The fierce and intolerant Arianism of
the Visigothic conquerors of Spain has given us another word. The word
Visigoth has become Bigot, and thus on the imperishable tablets of
language the Catholics have handed down to perpetual infamy the name and
nation of their persecutors.”
193 : 14 _seq._ _Cf._ DeLapouge, _L’Aryen_, p. 343, where he says that
the exodus of the Conquistadores was fatal to Spain.
193 : 17. Rice Holmes, 2; and the note to p. 69 of this book.
194 : 1. See the note to p. 173.
194 : 8. Ridgeway, 1, p. 372, says: “We know from Strabo and other
writers that the Aquitani were distinctly Iberian.” Consult also Rice
Holmes, 2, p. 12, where he quotes Cæsar.
194 : 14 _seq._ Ridgeway, _op. cit._, pp. 372 and 395; Ripley, chap.
VII, pp. 137 _seq._
194 : 19 _seq._ Rice Holmes, 2, under Belgæ, pp. 5, 12, 257, 259,
304–305, 308–309, 311, 315, 318–325; and _Ancient Britain_, p. 445. The
modern composition of the French population has been investigated by
Edmond Bayle and Dr. Leon MacAuliffe, who find that there is decided
race mixture, with chestnut pigmentation of hair and eyes predominating.
Blond traits were found to be almost confined to the north and east,
while brunet characters prevail in the south. Pure black hair is
exceedingly rare.
195 : 14. Vanderkindere, _Recherches sur l’Ethnologie de la Belgique_,
pp. 569–574; Rice Holmes, 2, p. 323; Beddoe, 4, pp. 21 _seq._ and 72.
195 : 18. Ridgeway, 1, p. 373; Ripley, p. 127; Rice Holmes, 2; and
Feist, 5, p. 14.
195 : 25 _seq._ Franks of the lower Rhine. Eginhard, in his _Life of
Charlemagne_, p. 7, states the following: “There were two great
divisions or tribes of the Franks, the Salians, deriving their name
probably from the river Isala, the Yssel, who dwelt on the lower Rhine,
and the Ripuarians, probably from _Ripa_, a bank, who dwelt about the
banks of the middle Rhine. The latter were by far the most numerous, and
spread over a greater extent of country; but to the Salians belongs the
glory of founding the great Frankish kingdom under the royal line of the
Merwings” (Merovingians).
196 : 2 _seq._ Ripley, p. 157; DeLapouge, _passim_.
196 : 7 _seq._ Oman, 2, pp. 499 _seq._; Beddoe, 4, p. 94 and chap. VII;
Fleure and James, pp. 121, 129; Taylor, 2, p. 129; Ripley, pp. 151–153,
316–317.
196 : 18 _seq._ DeLapouge, _passim_; Ripley, pp. 150–155.
197 : 3. See David Starr Jordan, _War and the Breed_, pp. 61 seq. This
stature has somewhat recovered in recent years. It is now, in Corrèze,
only 2 cm. below the average for the whole of France. See Grillière, pp.
392 _seq._ W. R. Inge, _Outspoken Essays_, pp. 41–42: “The notion that
frequent war is a healthy tonic for a nation is scarcely tenable. Its
dysgenic effect, by eliminating the strongest and healthiest of the
population while leaving the weaklings at home to be the fathers of the
next generation, is no new discovery. It has been supported by a
succession of men, such as Tenon, Dufau, Foissac, DeLapouge and Richet
in France; Tiedemann and Seeck in Germany; Guerrini in Italy; Kellogg
and Starr Jordan in America. The case is indeed overwhelming. The lives
destroyed in war are nearly all males, thus disturbing the sex
equilibrium of the population. They are in the prime of life, at the age
of greatest fecundity; and they are picked from a list out of which from
20 to 30 per cent have been rejected for physical unfitness. It seems to
be proved that the children born in France during the Napoleonic wars
were poor and undersized, 30 millimeters below the normal height.”
197 : 11. DeLapouge, _passim_; Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 306 _seq._
197 : 29–198: 10. R. Collignon, _Anthropologie de la France_, pp. 3
_seq._; DeLapouge, _Les Sélections sociales_; Ripley, pp. 87–89; Inge,
p. 41; Jordan, _passim_.
198 : 22. Conscript Armies. Two interesting letters bearing on the
racial differences composing conscript and volunteer armies in the
recent World War may here be quoted.
The first, from Mr. T. Rice Holmes, relates to the English army of
Kitchener in 1915. “Perhaps it may interest you to know that in 1915
when recruits belonging to Kitchener’s army were training near
Rochampton, I noticed that almost every man was fair,—not, of course,
with the pronounced fairness of the men of the north of Scotland, who
are descended from Scandinavians, but with such fairness as is to be
seen in England. These men, as you know, were volunteers.”
The second, from DeLapouge, concerns our American army in France. “I
have been able to verify for myself your observations on the American
army. The first to arrive were all volunteers, all dolicho-blonds; but
the draft afterwards brought in inferior elements. At St. Nazaire, at
Tours, and at Poictiers, I have been able to examine American soldiers
by the tens of thousands and I have been able to formulate for myself a
very definite conception of the types.”
199 : 9. H. Belloc, _The Old Road_; Peake, _Memorials of Old
Leicestershire_, pp. 34–41; Fleure and James, p. 127.
199 : 23. See the notes to pp. 174 : 21 and 247 : 3 of this book.
199 : 29–200 : 11. See p. 131 of this book; also Rice Holmes, 1, pp.
231–236, 434, 455–456; and 2, p. 15.
200 : 10. _Cf._ Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 446, 449 and the note on 451; also
Oman, 2, p. 16.
200 : 12. Inferred from Rice Holmes, 1, p. 232; also Beddoe, 4, p. 31.
200 : 18. Oman, 2, pp. 174–175 and chap. III _seq._, treats specially of
these times. See also Beddoe, 4, pp. 36, 37 and chap. V.
200 : 24. Oman, 2, pp. 215–219.
201 : 1. Villari, vol I, or Hodgkin.
201 : 6 _seq._ Oman, 2; Ripley, pp. 154, 156; Beddoe, 4, p. 94; Fleure
and James, pp. 121, 129; Taylor, 2.
201 : 11 _seq._ Beddoe, 4, chap. VII and the notes to p. 196 : 7 of this
book.
201 : 18 _seq._ See pp. 63, 64.
201 : 23 _seq._ See the notes to p. 247. Decline of the Nordic type in
England. Beddoe, H.; Fleure and James; Peake and Horton, _A Saxon
Graveyard at East Shefford, Berks_, p. 103.
202 : 4. Beddoe, 4, p. 148.
202 : 13. Beddoe, 4, p. 92 and also chap. XII.
202 : 17. Ripley, under Ireland.
202 : 23 _seq._ See the notes to p. 108 : 1.
203 : 5 _seq._ The intellectual inferiority of the Irish. If there is
any indication of the intellectual rating of various foreign countries
to be derived from the draft examinations of our foreign-born, grouped
according to place of nativity, a paper by Major Bingham of Washington,
in regard to “The Relation of Intelligence Ratings to Nativity” may be
quoted. The total number of foreign-born examined, which formed the
basis of this report, was 12,407, while the total number of native-born
whites was 93,973. Only countries were considered which were represented
by more than 100 men in the examinations. The tests were divided into
those for literates and those for illiterates, so that even men not
speaking English could be graded. In these examinations the Irish made a
surprisingly poor showing, falling far below the English and Scotch, who
stood very high, as well as below the Germans, Austrians, French
Canadians, Danes, Dutch, Belgians, Swedes and Norwegians, being about on
a par with the Russians, Poles and Italians. Therefore, if these tests
are any criterion of intellectual ability, the Irish are noticeably
inferior.
203 : 18. See p. 123 of this book.
203 : 24. Beddoe, 4, p. 139 and chap. XIV.
204 : 1. See the note to p. 150 : 21.
204 : 5. There is an amusing discussion in Rice Holmes, 1, on the
Pictish question. See pp. 409–424. Rice Holmes contends that the Picts
were not pure remnants of the Pre-Celtic inhabitants, but a mixture of
these with Celts. The term Picts has been very widely accepted as a
designation for those Pre-Celtic inhabitants, who were certainly there.
No other name has been given for them and it is in this sense that it is
used here, and that Rice Holmes himself is obliged to use it on p. 456.
It will be useful to the reader to peruse pp. 13–16 of Rhys and Jones,
_The Welsh People_. Appendix B, of that volume (pp. 617 _seq._), written
by Sir J. Morris Jones, entitled “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,”
shows the Anaryan survivals in Welsh and Irish to be remarkably similar
to ancient Egyptian, which, with the Berber of intermediate situation,
belongs to the great Hamitic family of languages and was the tongue of
the primitive Mediterraneans. For Beddoe’s opinion see 4, p. 36. On p.
247 he says, speaking of the Highland people: “Every here and there a
decidedly Iberian physiognomy appears, which makes one think Professor
Rhys right in supposing that the Picts were in part, at least, of that
stock.” See Hector McLean, 1, p. 170, where he suggests that the Picts
were originally the Pictones from the south bank of the Loire in Gaul.
The name Pixie, met with so frequently in Irish legends, and relating to
little people similar to dwarfs, may have some connection with these shy
little Mediterraneans whom the Nordics found on their arrival and who
were forced back by them into inaccessible districts.
204 : 19. See the article on “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” just
mentioned, and Beddoe, 4, p. 46, quoting Elton, p. 167. For other
Non-Aryan remnants, especially in names, see Hector McLean, 1, _passim_.
205 : 3. See Fleure and James, pp. 62, 73, 119–128, and especially pp.
125 and 151.
205 : 10. The same, pp. 38–39, 75 and elsewhere.
205 : 16. This is intimated by Rhys and Jones, in _The Welsh People_, p.
33.
205 : 20 _seq._ The same, chap. I, especially p. 35 and pp. 502 _seq._;
Fleure and James, p. 143.
206 : 3. Fleure and James, pp. 38, 75, 119, 152. These gentlemen say, on
p. 38, that they believe that certain types, without any intervening
social or linguistic barrier for centuries, have apparently persisted
side by side in very marked fashion in certain parts of Wales.
A letter from Mr. Baring Gould confirms this: “In Wales there are two
types, the dark Siluric and the light Norman. Here in the west of
England we have the same two types. In this neighborhood one village is
fair, the next dark and sallow. It is the same in Cornwall; in certain
villages the type is dark and sallow, in others fair. There is no
comparison between the capabilities moral and physical between the two
types. The dark is tricky, unreliable and goes under, and the fair type
predominates in trade, in business, in farming and in every department.”
Beddoe, Fleure and James, and also Hector McLean remark on the various
moral and mental capabilities of the different physical types.
206 : 13. Beddoe, 4, chap. VIII.
206 : 16 _seq._ Taylor, 2, p. 129; Keary, pp. 486 _seq._ On the Normans
see Beddoe, chaps. VIII, IX and X.
207 : 2. Beddoe, the same.
207 : 11. Gibbon, chap. LVI; Taylor, 2, p. 133.
207 : 15. Beddoe, chap. VIII.
208 : 8. Beddoe, 4, p. 95. The breadth of skull “of the Norman
aristocracy may probably have been smaller, but the ecclesiastics of
Norman or French nationality, who abounded in England for centuries
after the conquest and who, in many cases, rose from the subjugated
Celtic [Alpine] layer of population, have left us a good many broad and
round skulls. Thus the crania of three bishops of Durham ... yield an
index of 85.6, while those of eight Anglican canons dating from before
the conquest yield one of 74.9. So far, however, as the actual conquest
and armed occupation of England was concerned, the aristocracy and
military caste, who were largely of Scandinavian type, came over in much
larger proportion than the more Belgic or Celtic lower ranks, insomuch
that it has been said that more of the Norman _noblesse_ came over to
England than were left behind.”
During the Middle Ages the church was a very democratic institution, and
it was only through its offices that the lower ranks succeeded in
working their way up. This was partly because the older peoples
possessed the Roman learning, and because the northern invaders were
more addicted to martial than to priestly pursuits. The conquered people
had no chance to rise in political, aristocratic or military circles,
and contented themselves with the church. At the present time, in many
Catholic countries, notably Ireland, the priests are derived from the
lowest stratum of the population, as may be clearly recognized in their
portraits.
208 : 14. Beddoe, _passim_.
208 : 20. Beddoe, 4, p. 270; G. Retzius, 3; Ripley; Fleure and James, p.
152; Alphonse de Candolle, _Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis
deux siècles_, p. 576; Peake and Horton, p. 103; and the note to p.
201 : 23 of this book.
208 : 26. Beddoe, 4, p. 148.
210 : 5. _Cf._ Beddoe, p. 94.
210 : 20. Ripley, pp. 228, 283, 345.
210 : 24. Holland and Flanders. Ripley, pp. 157 and 293 _seq._
210 : 25. Flemings and Franks. See Sir Harry Johnston, _Views and
Reviews_, p. 101.
211 : 6. The authorities quoted in Ripley, p. 207. See also Fleure and
James, p. 140; Zaborowski, 2; and C. O. Arbo, _Yner_, p. 25.
211 : 26. Ripley, pp. 363–365; Feist, 5; and Dr. Westerlund as quoted in
“The Finns,” by Van Cleef.
212 : 1. Ripley, p. 341.
212 : 4. See the note to p. 242 : 16.
CHAPTER IX. THE NORDIC FATHERLAND
213 : 1–23. _Cf._ O. Schrader, 2 and 3; Mathæus Much; Hirt, 1, 2;
Zaborowski, 1, pp. 109–110; Peake, 2, pp. 163–167; Feist, 1, p. 14;
Taylor, 1; Ripley, p. 127; Ridgeway, 1, p. 373 and the notes to pp.
239 : 16 _seq._, and 253 : 19 of this book. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4,
t. I, pp. ix and 214, gives the date when the Indo-Europeans were united
as 2500 B. C. Feist, 5, believes the Nordics were still in their
homeland between 2500 and 2000 B. C. This was the transition period from
Stone to Bronze in north-middle and eastern Europe. Breasted, _Ancient
Times_, says: “It has recently been scientifically demonstrated on the
basis, chiefly, of the Amarna tablets and other cuneiform evidence, that
the Aryans had by 2000 or 1800 B. C. begun to leave a home on the east
or southeast of the Caspian, where they divided into two branches, one
going southeast into India, the other southwest into Babylon.” “The
first occurrence of Indo-European names is in the Tell-el-Amarna
(Egyptian) correspondence,” says Myres, _Dawn of History_, p. 153,
“which gives so vivid a picture of Syrian affairs in the years
immediately after 1400. They represent chieftains scattered up and down
Syria and Palestine, and they include the name of Tushratta, king of the
large district of Mitanni beyond Euphrates.... But this is a minor
matter; nothing is commoner in the history of migratory peoples than to
find a very small leaven of energetic intruders ruling and organizing
large native populations without either learning their subjects’
language or improving their own until considerably later, if at all. The
Norman princes, for example, bear Teutonic names, Robert, William,
Henry; but it is Norman French in which they govern Normandy and
correspond with the king of France. All these Indo-European names
(mentioned in the tablets), belong to the Iranian group of languages,
which is later found widely spread over the whole plateau of Persia.”
214 : 1 _seq._ See pp. 158–159 of this book.
214 : 7 _seq._ Herodotus, IV, 17, 18, 33, 53, 65, 74, etc., for notes on
the Scythians. Wheat was cultivated in the southern part of Scythia.
Corn was an article of trade, and the loom was used. See also
Zaborowski, 1; Ripley; Feist, 5.
214 : 10. Scythians. According to Zaborowski, 1, the Scythians were the
earliest known Nordic nomads of Scythia, or southern Russia, from whom
no doubt came the Achæans, Cimmerians, etc., and later the Persian
conquerors, the leaders of the Kassites and Mitanni, etc. The Sacæ were
an eastern branch of the Scythians (and likewise the Massagetæ), who
threw off branches into India. Possibly the Wu-Suns and the Epthalites,
or White Huns, were eastern offshoots. Owing to the fact that Scythia
has been swept time and again by various hordes moving east and west,
and has served no doubt as a meeting-ground for Alpines, Nordics and
Mongols, these may all, at some period or another, have been called
Scythians because they inhabited this little-known territory. But the
indications are strongly in favor of the original Scythians being
Nordics. It is in this sense that the name is here applied. Minns,
_Scythians and Greeks_, and D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, are two
other authorities who have discussed the Scythians at length.
214 : 11. Cimmerians. See the note to p. 173. On the Persians, see the
notes to p. 254. For the Sacæ, the note to p. 259 : 21; for the
Massagetæ, the same; for the Kassites, that to p. 239 : 13. These last
are Non-Aryan, according to some authors, including Prince, but Hall,
_The Ancient History of the Near East_, says they are undeniably Aryans.
For the Mitanni see the note to p. 239 : 16.
214 : 26–215 : 3. See p. 161 of this book.
215 : 15. See p. 160 of this book.
215 : 25. Dante Alighieri. It is interesting to know that the name
Aligheri is Gothic, a corruption of Aldiger. It belongs to such German
names as those which include the word “_ger_,” spear, as in Gerhard,
Gertrude, etc. This name came into the family through Dante’s
grandmother on the father’s side, a Goth from Ferrara, whose name was
Aldigero. With regard to the origin of his grandfather and mother, the
attempt to connect him with Roman families is known to be a pure fiction
on the part of the Italian biographers, who thought it more glorious to
be a Roman than anything else; but his descent from pure Germanic
parentage is practically proved, since the grandfather was a warrior,
knighted by the emperor Conrad, and Dante himself declares that he
belonged to the petty nobility. Even to the beginning of the fifteenth
century many Italians are described in old documents as Alemanni,
Langobardi, etc., _ex alamanorum genere_, _legibus vivens
Langobardorum_, etc. Though the majority of them had adopted Roman law,
whereby the documentary evidence of their descent usually disappeared,
they were thoroughly Germanic in blood, especially those to whom Rome
owes much. See Franz Xaver Kraus, Dante, pp. 21–25, and Savigny,
_Geschichte des römischen Rechte im Mittelalter_, I, chap. III.
216 : 1. See the notes to p. 254 : 13–15.
216 : 4. Nordic Sacæ. See the notes to p. 259 : 21.
216 : 9. See the notes to pp. 70 and 242 : 5.
216 : 12. Gibbon, especially vols. III and IV, which contain numerous
references, and the note to p. 135 : 25.
216 : 17. Tenney Frank, _Race Mixture in the Roman Empire_, pp. 704
_seq._
217 : 3. Plutarch’s _Life of Pompey the Great_, and his _Life of Cæsar_;
also Ferrero, _The Greatness and Decline of Rome_, vol. II, “Cæsar,”
chap. VII.
217 : 12. Decline of the Romans and the Punic Wars. Livy, I, XXI _seq._,
and Appian, _De rebus hispaniensibus_, and _De bello Annibalico_. Also
Pliny, I, and Polybius, I. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 1, section entitled
“Les Celtibères pendant la seconde guerre punique,” pp. 44 _seq._, says
that Hannibal’s success in Rome was due to the aid of the Celts and the
Celtiberians. Hannibal gained much of his army from the Celts of Spain,
Gaul, and Cis-Alpine Gaul, as he marched toward Rome.
217 : 16. Social and Servile Wars. Plutarch’s _Lives_ of Fabius Maximus
and of Sylla.
217 : 26. See the note to p. 51 : 18.
218 : 16. Tenney Frank, 1 and 2; Dill, 2, book II, chaps. II and III;
and 1, book II, chap. I; Myers, _Ancient History_, pp. 498–499, 523–525.
Bury, in _A History of the Later Roman Empire_, vol. I, chap. III, makes
slavery, oppressive taxation, the importation of barbarians and
Christianity the four chief causes of the weakness and failure of the
Empire.
Gibbon, vol I, at the end of chap. X, says, in speaking of the
extinction of the old Roman families, that only the Calpurnian gens long
survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. See the last three or four pages of
the chapter. Also Frederick Adams Woods, _The Influence of Monarchs_, p.
295.
219 : 11–220 : 19. Frank, 1, p. 705.
220 : 21. See p. 216 of this book.
221 : 25. Gibbon; Lecky, _The History of European Morals_; and the note
to p. 218 : 16.
CHAPTER X. THE NORDIC RACE OUTSIDE OF EUROPE
223 : 2. Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, pp. 380 _seq._;
Myers, _Ancient History_, p. 33, footnote. Also consult Von Luschan,
_The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia_, p. 230.
223 : 5. DeLapouge, L’Aryen, pp. 200 _seq._
223 : 5. Tamahu. Authorities above; Sergi, 4, pp. 59 _seq._; Beddoe, 4,
p. 14, for the question of their race.
223 : 12. Broca, 1; Collignon, 5 and 7; Sergi, 1; and Ripley, p. 279.
There are numerous articles on the blond Berbers and references to their
relation to the Vandals. Ripley, based on Broca, gives the essential
information. Gibbon, chap. XXXIII, is an important reference.
Blond Moors. Procopius says, IV, 13, describing the fighting with the
Moors in Mauretania beyond Mt. Aurasium, which is thirteen days’ journey
west of Carthage: “I have heard Ortaias say that beyond these nations of
Moors, beyond Aurasium, which he ruled” [apparently south] “there was no
habitation of men, but desert land to a great distance, and that beyond
this desert there are men, not black-skinned like the Moors, but very
white in body and fair-haired.”
Mr. J. B. Thornhill relates that about fifteen years ago he was in
Morocco (presumably near Tangier) and while there he saw several purely
blond Berbers from the Riff mountains. A young girl, especially, was an
almost pure Swedish blond. The coloring, however, was pale and whitish
rather than pink; the eyes were blue and the hair wavy and very blond.
223 : 21. For the Philistines, Anakim and Achæans see Ridgeway, 1, pp.
618 _seq._ Sir William Ridgeway places the appearance of the Philistines
as nearly synchronous with that of the Achæans, and states that their
weapons and armor were similar to those of the Achæans, but different
from those of the other nations of the early world. _Cf._ also Hall,
_Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 72, especially footnote 1, where
he says: “The Philistines were specially receptive of Hellenic culture
and eager to claim relationship with the Greeks, and disassociate
themselves from the Semites. Their coin types shew this, see p. 399, n.”
He regards them as Cretans.
223 : 22–23. Sons of Anak. Numbers, XIII, 33: “And there we saw the
giants, the sons of Anak, which came of the giants; and we were in our
own sight as grasshoppers and so we were in their sight.” Deuteronomy,
I, 28: “Whither shall we go up? Our brethren have discouraged our heart,
saying, ‘The people is greater and taller than we; the cities are great
and walled up to heaven; and moreover we have seen the sons of the
Anakim there.’”
Fairness of David. I Samuel, XVI, 11, 12: “And Samuel said unto Jesse,
Are here all thy children? And he said, There remaineth the youngest,
and behold, he keepeth the sheep. And Samuel said unto Jesse, Send and
fetch him; for we shall not sit down till he come hither. And he sent,
and brought him in. Now he was ruddy, and withal of a beautiful
countenance, and goodly to look to....” Chap. XVII, 41,42: “And the
Philistine came on and drew near unto David, and when the Philistine
looked about, and saw David, he disdained him; for he was but a youth,
and ruddy and of a fair countenance.” In the Hebrew, the phrase _Of a
Beautiful Countenance_ means fair of eyes.
The presence of Nordics in Syria among the Amorites is indicated by the
tall stature, long-headedness and fair skin with which they are depicted
on the Egyptian monuments. In some instances their eyes are blue. See p.
59 of Albert T. Clay’s _The Empire of the Amorites_, also Sayce, and
Hall.
224 : 3. Wu-Suns and Hiung-Nu. Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_, p. 121.
DeLapouge, _L’Aryen_, mentions the existence of a number of central
Asiatic tribes in addition to the Wu-Suns, who were Nordic. See also J.
Klaproth, _Tableaux historiques de l’Asie_. Zaborowski, _Les peuples
aryens_, p. 286, says: “The Hiung-Nu hurled themselves upon the Illi,
and upon another blond people the Wu-Suns, whose importance was such
that the Chinese, who have made them known to us, sought their alliance
against the Huns. The Chinese knew then, in Turkestan, only the Wu-Suns,
the Sse, or Sacæ, and the Ta-hia (our Tadjiks).”
“The Yuë-Tchi, repulsed by the Wu-Suns in 130 B. C., hurled themselves
upon Bactria” (see the notes to p. 119 : 13). “The Sacæ were then
masters of it and their dispossession resulted in pressing them in part
into India where they founded a kingdom and also in part into the
Pro-Pamirian valleys, especially that of the Oxus. The Yuë-Tchi ruled
over central Asia until 425 A. D. They were dispossessed in their turn
by the Hoas, or Ephtalite Huns” (White Huns).
The remainder of the chapter, pp. 287–291 is concerned with Turkestan,
the Wu-Suns, Huns, Kirghizes, etc.
224 : 13. Deniker, 2, pp. 59 and 371, says the Ainus are dolichocephalic
and have in addition other Nordic traits. See also Haddon, 1, pp. 8,
15–16, 49–50, Ratzel and others. The Ainus are, according to Darwin,
_Descent of Man_, p. 852, the hairiest people in the world.
224 : 19. See the notes to pp. 31: 16–32 : 4.
224 : 28. Deniker, 2, pp. 59 and 371; Haddon, 1, pp. 8, 15.
225 : 11. Phrygians. Bury, _History of Greece_, pp. 46–48, says: “But
about this very time (1287 B. C.) the Hittite power was declining and
northwestern Asia Minor as far as the valley of the Sangarius, was
wrested from their rule by swarms of new invaders from Europe. These
were the Phrygians to whose race the Dardanians belonged and who were so
closely akin to the Thracians that we may speak of the Phrygo-Thracian
division of the Indo-European family.” On p. 44 we read: “The dynasty
from which the Homeric kings, Agamemnon and Menelaus sprang, was founded
according to Greek tradition, early in the 13th century (B. C.) by
Pelops, a Phrygian. Agamemnon and Menelaus represent the Achæan
stock.... The meaning of this Phrygian relationship is not clear.” But
if we follow the extent of the Achæan invasions and the relation of the
art and language of archaic Phrygia to archaic Greece, the difficulty
seems solved. See Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 475. The
_Encyclopædia Britannica_ (Phrygia) says: “According to unvarying Greek
tradition the Phrygians were most closely akin to certain tribes of
Macedonia and Thrace; and their near relationship to the Hellenic stock
is proved by all that is known of their language and art, and is
accepted by almost every modern authority.... The inference has been
generally drawn that the Phrygians belonged to a stock widespread in the
countries which lie around the Ægean Sea. There is, however, no
conclusive evidence whether this stock came from the east, over Armenia,
or was European in origin and crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor;
but modern opinion inclines decidedly to the latter view”; and we may
add that the recently demonstrated linguistic affiliations strengthen
this assumption. See also Ridgeway, 1, pp. 396 and elsewhere; Peake, 2,
p. 172; Feist, 5, p. 407; Félix Sartiaux, _Troie, la guerre de Troie_;
and O. Schrader, Jevons translation, p. 430.
225 : 15. Cimmerians. See the note to p. 173 : 11.
225 : 17. Gauls and Galatians. See the note to p. 158 : 1.
225 : 19. Von Luschan, p. 243, says: “All western Asia was originally
inhabited by a homogeneous, melanochroic race, with extreme
hypsi-brachycephaly and with a ‘Hittite’ nose. About 4000 B. C. began a
Semitic invasion from the southeast, probably from Arabia, by people
looking like modern Bedawy. 2000 years later commenced a second
invasion, this time from the northwest by xanthochrous and long-headed
tribes like the modern Kurds, and perhaps connected with the historic
Harri, Amorites, Tamahu and Galatians.
“The modern ‘Turks,’ Greeks and Jews are all three equally composed of
these three elements, the Hititte, the Semitic, and the xanthochrous
Nordic. Not so the Armenians and Persians. They, and still more, the
Druses, Maronites, and the smaller sectarian groups of Syria and Asia
Minor, represent the old Hittite element, and are little, or not at all,
influenced by the somatic characters of alien invaders.”
Von Luschan means by Persians, the round-headed Medic element, which has
always been in the majority and which has, at the present day,
practically submerged the once powerful, dominant Nordic class, which he
says is still seen not rarely in some old noble families.
225 : 20. Until rather recently nothing much was known about the wild
Kurdish tribes living in southeast Anatolia, and what reports there
were, were frequently conflicting. There are two kinds of Kurds, dark
and light. More data has gradually accumulated, however, and it seems
that the true Kurds are tall, blond people, who resemble very much the
inhabitants of northern Europe.
Ratzel, _History of Mankind_, says, quoting Polak: “The Kurds are, in
color of skin, hair and eyes, so little different to the northern,
especially the Teutonic breed, that they might easily be taken for
Germans. There is nothing to contradict this racial affinity in the
reputation for honor and courage, which in spite of their rapacious
tendencies, the Kurds enjoy wherever it has been found possible to
compel them to labor or to the trade of arms. In Persia the Shah
entrusts the security of his person to Kurdish officers rather than to
any others. Their loyalty to their hereditary Wali, which neither Turks
nor Persians have been able to shake, is also noted with praise. The
Kurd prefers to wander with his herds and in the winter lives in caves
like Xenophon’s Carduchi.... The Kurds are a highly mixed race of a type
chiefly Iranian, which has been compared with the Afghan but is not
homogeneous. The eastern Kurds must have received a larger infusion of
Turkish blood than the western. ‘Husbandmen by necessity, fighters by
inclination.’ says Moltke, ‘the Arab is more of a thief, the Kurd more
of a warrior.’ They are a vigorous, violent race, running wild in tribal
feuds and vendettas.... Their women hold a freer position than those of
the Turks and Persians.” The quotation is from vol. III, p. 537.
Von Luschan, _op. cit._, p. 229, describes them thus: “[They] have long
heads and generally blue eyes and fair hair. They are probably descended
from the Kardouchoi and Gordyæans of old historians. They live southeast
of the Armenian mountains. The western Kurds are dolichocephalic and
more than half of them are fair. The eastern Kurds are little known but
are apparently darker and more round-headed.”
Soane, in _To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise_, gives a very full
description of them, confirming the above. There are so many tribes
differing from one another, that only the briefest summary may be given.
It is found on pp. 398 _seq._ “Judged as specimens of the human form,
there is probably no higher standard extant that that of the Kurds. The
northerner is a tall, thin man (obesity is absolutely unknown among the
Kurds). The nose is long, thin and often a little hooked, the mouth
small, the face oval and long. The men usually grow a long moustache,
and invariably shave the beard. The eyes are piercing and fierce. Among
them are many of yellow hair and bright blue eyes; and the Kurdish
infant of this type, were he placed among a crowd of English children,
would be indistinguishable from them, for he has a white skin. In the
south the face is a little broader sometimes, and the frame heavier. Of
forty men of the southern tribes taken at random, there were nine under
six feet, though among some tribes the average height is five feet nine.
The stride is long and slow, and the endurance of hardship great. They
hold themselves as only mountain men can do, proudly and erect.... Many
and many a man have I seen among them who might have stood for the
picture of a Norseman. Yellow, flowing hair, a long drooping moustache,
blue eyes, and a fair skin—one of the most convincing proofs, if
physiognomy be a criterion (were their language not a further proof),
that the Anglo-Saxon and Kurd are one and the same stock.” For a list of
Kurdish tribes and their numbers and affiliations see Mark Sykes, vol.
XXXVIII of the _Jour. of the Roy. Anth. Soc. of Great Britain and
Ireland_, and Von Luschan, _op. cit._
From all this evidence by men who have travelled among them it would
appear that the Kurds are descendants of some ancient Nordic invaders
who have found refuge in the mountain regions north of Mesopotamia.
_Cf._ the note to p. 239 : 16.
CHAPTER XI. RACIAL APTITUDES
226 : 7. Conklin, in _Heredity and Environment_, p. 207, says:
“Psychological characters appear to be inherited in the same way that
anatomical and physiological traits are; indeed, all that has been said
regarding the correlation of morphological and physiological characters
applies also to psychological ones. No one doubts that particular
instincts, aptitudes and capacities are inherited among both animals and
men, nor that different races and species differ hereditarily in
psychological characteristics. The general tendency of recent work on
heredity is unmistakable, whether it concerns man or lower animals. The
entire organism, consisting of structures and functions, body and mind,
develops out of the germ, and the organization of the germ determines
all the possibilities of development of the mind no less than of the
body, though the actual realization of any possibility is dependent also
upon environmental stimuli.”
_Cf._ Haeckel, _The Riddle of the Universe_, _passim_.
226 : 17. Deniker, 2, pp. 76, 97–104.
227 : 1. _Cf._ their busts with other Greek statues.
227 : 15. This does not refer to the peculiar nests of round heads
alluded to by Fleure and James, and Zaborowski, but to the Alpines
proper.
227 : 20. DeLapouge, _Les Sélections sociales_.
228 : 18. See Tacitus, _Germania_.
229 : 6. It may be interesting in this connection to quote Fleure and
James, pp. 118–119, who, after giving illustrations of Mediterranean
types, say of them: “Types 1(a) to 1(c) contribute considerable numbers
to the ministries of the various churches, possibly in part from
inherent and racial leanings, but partly also because these are the
people of the Moorlands. The idealism of such people usually expresses
itself in music, poetry, literature and religion, rather than in
architecture, painting and plastic arts generally. They rarely have a
sufficiency of material resources for the latter activities. These types
also contribute a number of men to the medical profession, for somewhat
similar reasons, no doubt.
“The successful commercial men, who have given the Welsh their
extraordinarily prominent place in British trade (shipping firms, for
example), usually belong to types 2 or 4” [Nordic and Nordic-Alpine,
Beaker Maker], “rather than to 1, as also do the great majority of Welsh
members of Parliament, though there are exceptions of the first
importance.
“The Nordic type is marked by ingenuity and enterprise in striking out
new lines. Type 2(c)” [Beaker Maker] “in Wales is remarkable for
governmental ability of the administrative kind as well as for
independence of thought and critical power.”
The following remarks are taken from Beddoe, 4, p. 142: “In opposition
to the current opinion it would seem that the Welsh rise most in
commerce, the Scotch coming after them and the Irish nowhere. The people
of Welsh descent and name hold their own fairly in science; the Scotch
do more, the Irish less. But when one looks to the attainment of
military or political distinction, the case is altered. Here the
Scotchmen, and especially the Highlanders bear away the palm; the Irish
retrieve their position and the Welsh are little heard of.”
See also p. 10 of Beddoe’s _Races of Britain_, and Hector McLean in vol.
IV, pp. 218 _seq._ of the _Anthropological Review_ and elsewhere. The
following quotation from Hall’s _Ancient History of the Near East_ is
interesting:
“Knowing what we do of the psychological peculiarities of the different
races of mankind, it is perhaps not an illegitimate speculation to
wonder whence the Greeks inherited this sense of proportion in their
whole mental outlook. The feeling of Hellenes for art in general was
surely inherited from their forebears on the Ægean, not the
Indo-European side.[7] The feeling for naturalistic art, for truth of
representation, may have come from the Ægeans, but the equally
characteristic love of the crude and bizarre was not inherited: the
sense of proportion inhibited it. In fact, we may ascribe this sense to
the Aryan element in the Hellenic brain, to which must also be
attributed the Greek political sense, the idea of the rights of the folk
and of the individual in it.[8] The Mediterranean possessed the artistic
sense without the sense of proportion: the Aryan had little artistic
sense but had the sense of proportion and justice, and with it the
political sense. The result of the fusion of the two races we see in the
true canon of taste and beauty in all things that had become the ideal
of the Greeks,[9] and was through them to become the ideal of mankind.”
Footnote 7:
“We have only to look around and seek, vainly, for any self-developed
artistic feeling among the pure Indo-Europeans. The Kassites had none
and blighted that of Babylonia for centuries: the Persians had none
and merely adopted that of Assyria: the Goths and Vandals had none:
the Celts and Teutons have throughout the centuries derived theirs
from the Mediterranean region.”
Footnote 8:
The predominance of the Aryan element in Greek political ideas is
obvious. It is not probable that the old Ægean had any more definite
political ideas than had his relative the Egyptian.
Footnote 9:
“In matters of political and ordinary justice between man and man they
fell short of their ideal often enough, but they had the reasonable
ideal: the barbarians had none. The Egyptians were an imaginative
race, but their imagination was untrammelled by the sense of
proportion: their only thinker with reasonable and logical ideas,
Akhenaten, soon became as mad a fanatic as any unreasonable Nitrian
monk or Arab Mahdi. Ordinarily speaking, Egyptian and Semitic ideals
were purely religious, and so, to the Greek mind, beyond the domain of
reason. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Phœnicians cannot be said ever
to have possessed any ideals of any kind.”
229 : 22. Fleure and James, p. 146, say: “In the folk tales, it is true,
the people are called fairies but colouring is mentioned only in one
case—that is of a trader from the sea who is said to be fair; _i. e._,
fair hair is treated as something worthy of special mention. The fairy
children (changelings) are always described in such a way as to suggest
that they were dark, and that they were the children of the Upland-folk
of our hypothesis—_i. e._, mostly of Mediterranean race. In the romances
the princes and princesses are said to be fair, as though that were
exceptional. Our friend, Mr. J. H. Shaxby, draws our attention to the
probability that the word fair in ‘fair’ or ‘fair-folk’ does not refer
to physical traits, but is an adulatory term such as men so generally
use in describing beings about whom their superstitions gather.”
230 : 5. Pope Gregory, about 578 A. D.
230 : 9. For evidence as to the blond characters of Christ and the
indications of His descent, see Haeckel, _The Riddle of the Universe_,
chap. XVII.
Every now and then some reference to this question is noted in the daily
papers. Not long ago, in one of the large New York dailies, there
appeared a short paragraph concerning the letter of Lentulus. All
mention of the extremely doubtful authenticity of this letter was
omitted. The _Catholic Cyclopædia_, vol. IX, discusses the matter as
follows:
Publius Lentulus, A fictitious person said to have been the governor of
Judea before Pontius Pilate and to have written the following letter to
the Roman Senate: “Lentulus, the Governor of the Jerusalemites, to the
Roman Senate and People, greetings. There has appeared in our times and
there still lives, a man of great power (virtue), called Jesus Christ.
The people call him prophet of truth; his disciples son of God. He
raises the dead, and heals infirmities. He is a man of medium size
(_statura procerus, mediocris et spectabilis_); he has a venerable
aspect, and his beholders can both fear and love him. His hair is of the
color of the ripe hazel nut, straight down to the ears, but below the
ears wavy and curled, with a bluish and bright reflection flowing over
his shoulders. It is parted in two on the top of the head, after the
pattern of the Nazarenes. His brow is smooth and very cheerful, with a
face without a wrinkle or spot, embellished by a slightly ruddy
complexion. His nose and mouth are faultless. His beard is abundant, of
the color of his hair, not long, but divided at the chin. His aspect is
simple and mature, his eyes are changeable and bright. He is terrible in
his reprimands, sweet and amiable in his admonitions, cheerful without
loss of gravity. He was never known to laugh, but often to weep. His
stature is straight, his hands and arms beautiful to behold. His
conversation is grave, infrequent and modest. He is the most beautiful
among the children of men.” The letter was first printed in _The Life of
Christ_, by Ludolph the Carthusian, at Cologne, 1474. According to the
manuscript of Jena, a certain Giacomo Colonna found the letter in an
ancient Roman document sent to Rome from Constantinople. It must be of
Greek origin and have been translated into Latin during the thirteenth
or fourteenth century, though it received its present form at the hands
of a humanist of the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
The description agrees with the so-called Abgar picture of Our Lord. It
also agrees with the portrait of Jesus Christ drawn by Nicephorus, St.
John Damascene, and the Book of Painters (of Mt. Athos). Munter, (_Die
Sinnbilder und Kunstvorstellungen der alten Christen_, Altona, 1825, p.
9), believes he can trace the letter down to the time of Diocletian, but
this is not generally admitted. The Letter of Lentulus is certainly
apocryphal; there never was a governor of Jerusalem; no procurator of
Judea is known to have been called Lentulus; a Roman governor would not
have addressed the Senate, but the Emperor; a Roman writer would not
have employed the expressions, “prophet of truth,” “sons of men,” “Jesus
Christ.” The former two are Hebrew idioms, the third is taken from the
New Testament. The letter, therefore, shows us a description of Our Lord
such as Christian piety conceived him.
There is considerable literature touching on this letter, for which see
the _Catholic Cyclopædia_. Although we cannot credit the letter as
genuine, it is interesting, as the article indicated, in showing the
popular attitude to the traits in question, and in attributing these
Nordic characters to Christ, as are the occasional efforts to bring the
matter up again in the journals of to-day.
CHAPTER XII. ARYA
233 : 4. Synthetic. See the note on languages, p. 242 : 5.
233 : 13. Tenney Frank, 2, pp. 1, 2, and the authorities quoted at the
end of the chapter. Also Peake, 2, pp. 154–173; Freeman, _Historical
Geography of Europe_, pp. 44–45.
233 : 20. See the note to p. 99 : 27.
233 : 24. Ridgeway, 1; Conway, 1; Peake, 2; and numerous other
authorities.
234 : 2. The Messapians, according to Ridgeway, 1, p. 347, were the
remnants of the primitive Ligurians, who once occupied central Italy but
who migrated, under the pressure of the Umbrians, toward the south.
There some of them survived under the name Iapyges or Messapians, in the
heel of the peninsula. “The name Iapyges seems identical with that of
the Iapodes, that Illyrian tribe which dwelt on the other side of the
Adriatic, largely contaminated with the Celts (Nordics) who had flowed
down over them. That the Umbrians had a deadly hatred of a people of the
same name, who had survived in their coast area, is proved by the
Iguvine Tables, where the _Iapuzkum numen_ is heartily cursed along with
the Etruscans and the men of Nar.”
See also Giuffrida-Ruggeri.
234 : 3 _seq._ See the notes to pp. 157 : 10 and 157 : 14.
234 : 7. See the note to p. 192 : 1–4.
234 : 12. See pp. 174, 199 and 247 of this book.
234 : 13 _seq._ Non-Aryan traces in central Europe. Deniker, 2, pp. 317,
334; D’Arbois de Jubainville, 3, pp. 153 _seq._, gives Ligurian place
names. See also 4, t. II. It all depends on whether one considers the
Ligurians as Non-Aryan. D’Arbois de Jubainville is inclined to class
them as Aryans. Burke, _History of Spain_, says, in his footnote to p.
2, that Basque place names are found all over Spain. For survivals in
the British Isles see the notes to pp. 204 : 5 and 204 : 19, and for the
general question, Taylor, _Words and Places_.
234 : 18. Finnic dialects. Zaborowski, 3, pp. 174–175, says there are
very ancient traces of Germanic elements in the Finnic languages of the
Baltic. Prior to the fourth century they had a Gothic character.
234 : 24 _seq._ Agglutinative language. See the note to p. 242 : 5. For
the physical characters of the Basques, Collignon, 3, p. 13; and Ripley,
pp. 190 _seq._, who bases himself upon Collignon. On the language see
Pruner-Bey, 1; Feist, 5, pp. 362–363, and Ripley, pp. 20, 183–185. There
are of course other writers on the Basque language. As a result of the
epoch-making study of Keltic by Professor J. Morris Jones, of the
University College, Bangor, Wales, which appears as Appendix B, in Rhys
and Jones, _The Welsh People_, pp. 616–641, the assertion is made that
Basque is apparently allied to Berber, and that other problems hitherto
unsolved may be unravelled. It has not been possible to learn if any
very recent progress has been the result of this new method.
235 : 1 _seq._ Pseudo-brachycephaly of the Basques. A. C. Haddon,
correspondence, says: “The Basque skull is long, but with a broadening
in the temporal region, in the French Basques, which forms a spurious
kind of brachycephaly.”
235 : 11. See the notes above, to p. 234 : 24.
235 : 17. Liguria and the Ligurian language. Sergi, 4; Ripley, chap. X.
The modern Liguria comprises virtually the coast lands of Italy around
the Gulf of Genoa as far south as Pisa. For ancient Liguria, which once
extended into Gaul, see Déchellette, _Manuel d’archéologie_, t. II, pp.
6–25. D’Arbois de Jubainville treats of the Ligurians at length in
several of his works mentioned, but Déchellette shows his wrong
reasoning, rather convincingly it seems to the author. The opinions of
Jullian, as given in his _Histoire de la Gaule_, are also discussed by
Déchellette. A full discussion in English, of all the authorities on
ancient Liguria, the Ligurians and their language is given in Rice
Holmes, _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul_, pp. 277–287. The language is treated
on pp. 281–284, and 318, and by Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in
Italy_, pp. 164 _seq._; see also D’Arbois de Jubainville, 3, pp. 152
_seq._ Feist, 5, p. 369, says that the Ligurians were Mediterraneans. A
number of others agree with him. The evidence points rather to their
having been an early Alpine people, somewhat less brachycephalic than
those who came later, and this is the opinion held by Ratzel, vol. III,
p. 561. The name Ligurian in this book designates a Pre-Nordic race of
Alpine affinities, with a Pre-Aryan language.
The peculiar and discontinuous distribution of Alpine peoples with names
which are variations of the term Veneti, a condition rather analogous to
the scattered groups of Pelasgians as noted by various authors of
antiquity, may indicate the last traces of a once widely distributed
race. It is possible that the Ligurians displaced these “Veneti” in
southern Europe, and later became confined to a part of Gaul and
northern Italy.
235 : 23. Deniker, 2, p. 317, and the note to p. 234 : 13 of this book.
235 : 27–236 : 6. See the note to p. 234 : 17.
236 : 9. Feist, 1 and 5; G. Retzius, 2, 3; Ripley, p. 351; Nordenskiöld.
236 : 14. Livs and Livonians. Ripley, pp. 358 _seq._; Abercromby, _The
Pre- and Proto-Finns_; Peake, 2, p. 150.
236 : 17 _seq._ Ripley, pp. 365–367. Feist, 5, p. 55, says the Finnish
language was once agglutinative but is now inflectional. See also
another reference to it on p. 231, and our note to languages, p. 242 : 5
of this book.
236 : 26. Magyar language. The most authoritative books on Finnish,
Ugrian, and Hungarian speech are those of Szinnyei. See also Feist, pp.
394 _seq._, and Deniker, 2, pp. 349–351.
237 : 1. Ripley, p. 415, says: “Turkish is the westernmost
representative of a great group of languages, best known, perhaps, as
the Ural-Altaic family. This comprises all those of northern Asia, even
to the Pacific Ocean, together with that of the Finns in Russian
Europe.... According to Chantre the word Turk seems quite aptly to be
derived from a native root meaning _Brigand_.” Also see pp. 404–405 and
419 in Ripley.
237 : 13. Ripley, p. 418, and Von Luschan, _op. cit._
237 : 21. Gibbon, chap. LVII, on the “Seljukian Turks.” On the Osmanli
Turks see Ripley, pp. 415 _seq._ On Turks in general see Von Luschan.
237 : 25. See the notes to p. 173 : 11 and to pp. 253–261.
238 : 12. G. Elliot Smith, _Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 134 _seq._;
Zaborowski, 1, and the table of languages in the note to p. 242 : 5.
Practically any book dealing with Aryans gives this information.
238 : 24. Ripley, p. 415; Von Luschan.
239 : 1. See the notes to pp. 158 and 253.
239 : 2. Hittites and the Hittite Empire. See S. J. Garstang, _The Land
of the Hittites_; L. Messerschmidt, _Die Hetiter_ (_Der Alte Orient_,
IV, 1); Feist, 5, pp. 406 _seq._, and the Hittite Inscriptions, Cornell
Expedition of 1911. The history of the Hittite Empire has been brought
to light by the research and investigations of Professor Sayce. See his
_Hittites_. There are a number of short general descriptions in
practically all of the histories of ancient peoples, and in those of the
Near East. See for instance, Bury, _History of Greece_, pp. 45, 64;
Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, pp. 200, 334 seq.; Myres,
_Dawn of History_, pp. 118 seq., 152 _seq._ and 199 seq.; Myers,
_Ancient History_, pp. 91–93; Feist, _Kultur_, pp. 406 _seq._; Von
Luschan, pp. 242–243; and Zaborowski, 1, pp. 121, 134, 138 and 160, deal
more with the physical characters of the Hittites.
According to some of the most recent authorities, the Hittites were an
extraordinarily powerful nation and held Syria from about 3700 B. C. to
700 B. C., when the Assyrians overcame them. They had some contact with
Babylon and probably their development was influenced thereby. They seem
to have been the Kheta or Khatti of the Ancient Egyptians. “About 1280
B. C.,” according to Von Luschan, “when Khattusil made his peace with
Rameses II, there existed a large empire, not much smaller than Germany,
reaching from the Ægean Sea to Mesopotamia and from Kadesh on the
Orontes to the Black Sea. We do not know at present if this Hittite
Empire ever had a really homogeneous population, but we have a good many
Hittite reliefs and all these, without one single exception, show us the
high and short heads, or the characteristic noses of our modern
brachycephalic groups, (Armenoids).”
As to their language, J. D. Prince, correspondence, says that it was not
Aryan, in spite of all conjectures to the contrary. “Friedrich Delitzsch
analyzed some of the only syllabized material we have of this language,
and I analyzed it still further in the _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, vol. XXII, ‘Hittite Material in the Cuneiform Inscriptions,’
reaching the conclusion as to the Non-Aryan character of this idiom. The
so-called ‘Hittite Inscriptions’ are in hieroglyphs and give us no clue
as to the pronunciation and hence none to the character of the
language.” Von Luschan, p. 242, says: “Orientalists are unanimous in
assuming that the Hittite language was not Semitic.” A very recent
communication from Fr. Cumont, in _L’Académie des inscriptions et belles
lettres_ for April 20, 1917, says that the tongue is proved to have been
Aryan.
As to their physical characters, all are agreed that the Hittites had
short, brachycephalic heads, and thick, prominent noses. Myres, p. 44,
remarks that the earliest portraits, which he dates about 1285 B. C.,
have been thought by some to be Mongoloid, but the evidence is still
scanty and inconclusive. Surely if the older likenesses were Mongoloid,
they bear no resemblance to the later types. On the monuments bearded
figures are frequent and the type is Armenoid. See Hall, _The Ancient
History of the Near East_, p. 334, for a criticism of the Mongol theory.
239 : 10. Sumer. J. D. Prince, in his article on the Sumerians in the
_Encyclopædia Britannica_, classes the Sumerian language as
agglutinative. The language of Susiana is also known as Anzanite, Susian
or Elamite. The Anzanite may have been a dialect of Susian. Schiel’s
work with de Morgan’s mission shows that Elamite was agglutinative and
that inflections found in derived words are due to the influence of
another language. The locality of Anzan is not known exactly, but is
believed to have been in the plain south or southeast of Susa. See also
Zaborowski, 1, pp. 149–150, and Hall, _The Ancient History of the Near
East_. Hall agrees with Prince that Sumerian is agglutinative (p. 171).
He also states that Elamite was agglutinative, but not otherwise like
Sumerian. See his chap. V for the relationships of Sumerians and
Elamites.
For Media see the notes to p. 254 : 13.
239 : 12. Assyria and Palestine. Breasted, _Ancient Times_, p. 173 and
Fig. 112; Hall, _History of the Near East_; Myres, _Dawn of History_,
pp. 114–116, 140; and other histories of the Near East.
239 : 13. Kassites. See Hall, pp. 198–200. Very little is known about
the Kassites. Hall declares that there is very little doubt but that
they were Indo-European; Prince, from the same information, says this
could not possibly be the case. They are supposed to have been an
Elamite tribe who were living in the northwestern mountains of Elam,
immediately south of Holwan, when Sennacherib attacked them in 702 B. C.
They attacked Babylonia in the ninth year of Samsu-iluma, the son of
Khammurabi, overran it and founded a dynasty there in 1780 B. C., which
lasted 576 years. They became absorbed into the Babylonian population;
the kings adopted Semitic names and married into the royal family of
Assyria. Like the other languages of the Non-Semitic tribes of Elam,
according to Prince, that of the Kassites was agglutinative. That the
Kassites had been in contact with the horse-using nomads of the northern
steppes, is indicated by the fact that they first introduced the horse
into Mesopotamian lands, whence its use for riding and drawing chariots
spread into Egypt in 1700 B. C. See Breasted, _Ancient Times_, p. 138.
239 : 16. Mitanni. Very little is known of the Mitanni. Von Luschan, p.
230, dates them around the fourteenth century B. C. In 1380 they called
themselves Harri, from Harri-ya, an old form of the word Aryan. Myres,
_Dawn of History_, says: “The conquest of Syria in 1500 B. C. brought
Egypt face to face with a homogeneous state called Mitanni, occupying
the whole foothill country east of the Euphrates.... The Egyptian
conquest came just in time to relieve the kingdom of Mitanni from severe
pressure exerted simultaneously and probably in collusion, by its
neighbors in the foothills,—Assyria on the east, and the Hittites west
of the Euphrates. Egypt made friends with Mitanni and more than one
marriage was arranged between the royal houses. Soon after the treaty
between Egypt and Mitanni, Subiluliuma, king of the Hittites of
Cappadocia, whom Egyptian scribes conveniently abbreviate as Saplel, was
overlord apparently of a number of outpost baronies in north Syria.
Assured of their help, and watching his opportunity, he flung his whole
force, about 1400 upon Mitanni.... This closed the career of Mitanni.”
The racial affinities of Mitanni are doubtful. Prince, correspondence,
says the language of Mitanni was certainly not Aryan. It has been
thoroughly analyzed by Ferdinand Bork, in his _Die Mitanni Sprache_, who
compares it with the Georgian or Imeretian branch of the Caucasic
linguistic groups. The Mitanni are not to be confused with the Ossetes,
who speak a highly archaic, real Aryan language. Mitanni, in structure,
is like the polysynthetic North American groups. Feist, 1, p. 14, says
the Mitanni were Nordics and inhabited the western mountains of Iran, in
Zagros. In 5, p. 406, he places them on the north of the Euphrates
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries B. C. See also Hall, p.
200, the following note and that to p. 213 : 1–23 of this book. Hall
also considers them Nordics.
239 : 16 _seq._ Von Luschan, p. 230, asks: “Can it be mere accident that
a few miles north of the actual frontier of modern Kurdish languages
there is Boghaz-Köi, the old metropolis of the Hittite Empire, where
Hugo Winckler in 1908 found tablets with two political treaties of King
Subiluliuma with Mattiuaza, son of Tušrata, king of Mitanni, and in both
of these treaties Aryan divinities, Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya
are invoked, together with Hittite divinities, as witnesses and
protectors? And in the same inscriptions, which date from about 1380 B.
C., the king of Mitanni and his people are called Harri, just as nine
centuries later in the Achæmenidian inscriptions Xerxes and Darius call
themselves Har-ri-ya, ‘Aryans of Aryan stock.’ So the Kurds,” concludes
Von Luschan, “are the descendants of Aryan invaders and have maintained
their type and their language for more than 3300 years.”
See also the notes to p. 173 : 11.
239 : 29. See pp. 128 and 137 of this book.
240 : 4 _seq._ See the notes to p. 173.
240 : 15 _seq._ See the notes to p. 242 : 5.
CHAPTER XIII. ORIGIN OF THE ARYAN LANGUAGES
242 : 5. The following notes on languages were taken mostly from the
_History of Language_, by Henry Sweet, and were supplemented by the
writings of W. D. Whitney, and an article on “Indo-European Languages,”
by Peter Giles.
All languages may be roughly divided into two great groups, _isolating_
and _agglutinative_.
The isolating languages are constructed on the principle of single,
distinct words for each idea, and do not employ forms which add or drop
syllables, or letters, in order to obtain variety of expression, tense,
mode, person, number, etc. However, the element of intonation frequently
plays a large part in multiplying the number of possible forms, and
therefore of ideas, in isolating languages, by imparting to otherwise
identical words different meanings through pitch, rising or falling
inflection or accent.
To the isolating languages belong most of those of southeastern
Asia,—Chinese, Burmese, Siamese, Thibetan, Annamite, Cochin-Chinese,
Malayan, etc. The term isolating does not necessarily imply words of one
syllable, although there is a tendency in this direction since the roots
are stripped of all incumbrances of a modifying nature so common in
agglutinative or synthetic languages. The Chinese, Burmese, Siamese and
Annamite are classed as monosyllabic, the Thibetan as half-monosyllabic,
while the Malay is polysyllabic.
Because languages are isolating in structure does not mean that they
necessarily all belong to one family. They merely have this structural
principle in common. To establish family relationships it is necessary
to investigate the sets of phonetics used, the root forms, the types of
ideas expressed, the composition of the sentence and various other
important points included under the psychology of habit and growth forms
of speech. No one of these alone is ordinarily sufficient to prove that
two languages are of one common stock, since extensive borrowing of all
kinds has occurred since time immemorial.
Nevertheless, in point of fact, taking languages as they now exist, only
those have been shown related which possess a common structure, or have
together grown out of the more primitive radical stage, since structure
proves itself a more constant and reliable evidence than vocabulary.
But, on the other hand, since all structure is the result of growth, and
any degree of difference of structure, as well as of difference of
material, may be explained as the result of discordant growth from
identical beginnings, it is equally inadmissible to claim that the
diversities of languages prove them to have had different beginnings.
In isolating languages, word order is very important, but here again the
peculiar character of any tongue of this type depends upon the order
selected, or the relative importance of ideas (general, specific, etc.).
The employment of particles makes possible a freer word order.
The _agglutinative_ languages are those which combine roots or parts of
words or elements into new wholes to express other related ideas than
those imparted by the single forms, or else entirely new concepts.
Frequently these combinations are still separable on occasion into their
original elements, or, if inseparable in their secondary meanings, their
original parts with their derivations are still recognizable as such.
Again, the component parts are no longer independent, but form a firmly
knit whole.
In some languages certain classes of elements have arisen which may be
added in a perfectly formal manner to other fixed roots or elements,
with or without slight phonetic modifications of either or both parts.
Since this occurs in conformity with fairly fixed rules, the meanings of
the resultant combinations are, according to the class of the attached
elements used, fairly analogous. Thus in English many verb roots obtain
the present participle by the addition of the formal element _ing_, in
itself now meaningless, but once, no doubt, a separate root.
The process of agglutination may be accomplished in many different ways,
any of which may be characteristic of whole groups of unrelated
languages. These may be roughly divided first into mono- or
oligo-synthetic and polysynthetic. The former very nearly approach the
isolating languages, since usually only one element may be added at a
time, but the process of addition may be accomplished in any of the ways
possible to agglutination.
Agglutination includes prefixing, suffixing and infixing in all degrees
of complexity and fixity. Thus languages may be spoken of as
agglutinative only in a relative sense. Some are much more so than
others, both in point of the number of elements which it is possible to
add, and their dependence upon one another and the root, denoting a
higher or lower degree of inextricability in blending.
Many languages are only loosely agglutinative and the component parts of
the compounds readily resolve. In others, as in the inflecting
languages, the combination is inextricable.
Thus under the head of agglutinative we have the merely agglutinative or
synthetic, readily resolvable combinations, which are often hardly
distinguishable from isolating languages, and the less easily divisible
inflectional and incorporating types. Any or all of the three processes
of infixing, prefixing and suffixing may be employed in simple
agglutinative combinations.
In inflectional languages the root is attended by prefixes or suffixes
which form inseparable modifiers. At times phonetic changes occur which
render the complex unlike the simple joining of its component parts.
As Mr. Sweet says: “If we define inflection as ‘agglutination run mad’
we may regard incorporation as inflection run madder still, for it is
the result of attempting to develop a verb into a complete sentence.” In
some languages, such as the incorporating, a verb is sufficiently
distinct in its meaning not to require an independent pronoun. French
and Spanish, though not belonging to this category, contain words with
the incorporating idea, as in Spanish _hablo_, I speak, and French,
_pluit_, it rains. Where polysynthesism is the prevailing character, the
verb may be sufficiently comprehensive to include the objective pronoun
as well as the subjective, so that it is possible to find in one word a
transitive, as well as in others an intransitive, sentence. But this is
only rudimentary incorporation, and borders on inflection. Some American
Indian languages carry it to a very high degree, appending to or
inserting into this simple complex not only nouns which may stand in
apposition to the implied or actual pronouns, but particles and
modifiers of every description. (See the _Handbook of American Indian
Languages_, published by the Bureau of American Ethnology at
Washington.) Frequently during this process various parts undergo
phonetic changes in accordance with fixed laws, so that the final
complex may not at all resemble a string of the original elements, but
becomes a new, inseparable and fixed word containing a whole sentence of
ideas. This sentence, in some languages, may carry throughout certain
modifiers for all noun elements—for instance, as to whether the objects
under discussion are visible or invisible. These modifiers bear definite
relationships to the nouns, and the “sentence word” in each of its parts
must then be conjugated as a verb in an even more complicated manner.
This is agglutination par excellence, and is frequently so complex as to
be utterly bewildering to the Indo-European mind, even though the
Indo-European languages themselves employ agglutination to a limited
degree and of certain varieties, particularly of the inflectional order.
Compared to the most complicated Indian tongues, English is in the
position of Chinese to Indo-European languages in its structural
simplicity, though of course in Chinese we have an added complexity in
the use of pitch, etc.
There are certain types of speech which secure changes (plurals, etc.)
by internal vowel modification. English itself makes use of this device,
but it is the outstanding feature of Semitic tongues.
Sweet says: “There are many other minor criteria of morphological
classification. The most important of these is perhaps that of the
agglutinative or inflectional elements before or after the word or stem
[modified]. In Turkish and in other Altaic languages, as also in
Finnish, these are always post-positions, so that every word begins with
the root which always has chief stress. The Bantu languages of South
Africa, on the other hand, favor prefixes.... The Semitic languages
favor prefixes and post-positions about equally. The Aryan languages are
mainly post-positional, with occasional use of prefixes, most of which,
however, are of later origin.”
It must not be supposed that languages fall into absolutely distinct
categories because of their structure. No language to-day is purely of
one type or another. There have been too many centuries of borrowing and
change for that condition to now be possible for any language, nor are
there any longer what might be called primitive tongues. They have all
long since outgrown that state, whatever it may have been, even the
Botocudo of Brazil, which is generally ranked as the most primitive.
Languages may now be classified only according to their prevailing
tendencies. Thus, modern English is in part isolating, in part
inflectional and in part agglutinative, as that term is generally
applied. Basque is an incorporating language, far removed geographically
and linguistically from any other of that character. The Indo-European
family may be considered as inflectional, because that process is a
prominent feature, but it is by no means the only one present, nor is it
exclusively typical of that family.
There is no doubt that all languages pass through certain stages in
their development, but it is not at all true that they all have
eventually the same or even similar histories. There are endless
possibilities of growth and decay, and this fact alone excludes any set
evolutionary scheme. Nor are the isolating languages the most primitive.
On the contrary, they are as complex in their way as the most
agglutinative North American tongues, and as expressive, for some
psychological categories.
There is little doubt that all languages have begun on an isolating
principle of simple roots for single ideas, from which they have
diverged in endless variety. Probably all inflectional languages had an
isolating and agglutinative stage, although this is by no means proved.
The Chinese seems to have undergone an agglutinative past of some sort,
but to have resolved again into simple roots, with only traces of fuller
forms, but with the added complexity of tone, accent, and order, to
give, as Sweet puts it, “that extreme of elliptical conciseness and
concentrated force of expression, which excites our admiration.”
English has become analytical, for many older inflected words have now
been worked over into combinations of independent words, but this is far
from a complete or consistent process. Probably it will never become
like the Chinese, for to do away now with its inflectional system
entirely would necessitate a complete upheaval of structure which is not
likely to happen in the course of normal inner development, particularly
with a vast literature to assist in stabilizing present forms.
As regards polysynthesism, or amount of agglutination, the Aryan tongues
are intermediate; they allow affixes, but only within certain limits.
Languages undoubtedly differ from one another in their richness and
power of expression, but may not be used as a test of the intellectual
capacity of those who now speak them. In fact, men of any race can learn
any language, unless abnormal. To account for the great and striking
difference of structure among human languages is beyond the power of the
linguistic student, and will doubtless always continue so. We are not
likely to be able even to demonstrate a correlation of capacities,
saying that a race which has done this and that in other departments
might have been expected to form such and such a language. Every tongue
represents the general outcome of the capacity of a race as exerted in
this particular direction, under the influence of historical
circumstances which we can have no hope of tracing, but there are
striking anomalies to be noted.
“The Chinese and the Egyptians have shown themselves to be among the
most gifted races the earth has known; but the Chinese tongue is of
unsurpassed jejuneness, and the Egyptian, in point of structure, little
better, while among the wild tribes of Africa and America we find
tongues of every grade up to a high one or the highest. This shows
clearly enough that mental power is not measured by language structure.
On the whole the value and rank of a language are determined by what its
users have made it do—a poor tool in skilful hands can do vastly better
work than the best tool in unskilful hands, even as the ancient
Egyptians, without steel or steam, turned out products which, both for
colossal grandeur and for exquisite finish, are the despair of modern
engineers and artists.” In other words, we must not underestimate the
important part played by habit or inertia. “The formation of habit is
slow, and once formed it exercises a constraining as well as a guiding
influence.”
The Indo-European language is one of the most highly organized families
of tongues that exist, and its greatest power lies (in modern English,
etc.) in its mixed structural and material character. So to the
Indo-European family belongs incontestably the first place, and for many
reasons,—the historical position of the peoples speaking its dialects,
who have now long been the leaders in world history, the abundance,
variety and merit of its literatures ancient and modern and, most of
all, the great variety and richness of its development. These have made
it an illustration of the history of human speech, which is extremely
valuable and the training ground of comparative philology.
W. D. Whitney gives the following linguistic groups in order of their
importance from a literary standpoint:
1. Indo-European (Indo-Germanic). 2. Semitic. 3. Hamitic. 4.
Monosyllabic or Southeastern Asiatic. 5. Ural-Altaic (Scythian,
Turanian). 6. Dravidian or South Indian. 7. Malay-Polynesian. 8.
Oceanic— _a._ Australian and Tasmanian. _b._ Papuan and Negrito,
etc. 9. Caucasian— _a._ Circassian. _b._ Mitsjeghian. _c._
Lesghian, Georgian. 10. European Remnants— Basque. Etruscan?
Lydian? 11. South African, Bantu. 12. Central African. 13.
American.
The first ten groups are families. So little is or was known about the
last three groups that the author of the article classed together what
are now known to be vast agglomerations of families. For instance, the
American languages include several hundred distinct stocks, of which
fifty are found in California alone. These are all, according to our
present knowledge, utterly unrelated. It is known that the central
African tongues belong to a different group than the southern, and it
would be advisable to consult Sir Harry Johnston’s recent large work on
the Bantu languages.
The subdivision of the Indo-European family into cognate languages is
given here to show the great diversity of tongues that may spring from
one ancestor. Not all the dialects, nor even languages, have been
included, but only those best known:
I. Centum (European).
1. Greek.
ANCIENT MODERN
{ Latin. Portuguese
{ Oscan. Spanish.
2. Italic. { Umbrian Catalan.
{ Minor dialects of Provençal.
{ ancient Italy.
French. { Tuscan.
Italian. { Calabrian.
Friulian.
Ladin.
Romansch.
Rumanian.
{ { Irish.
{ _Q._ Celtic { Manx.
{ { Scotch Gaelic.
3. Celtic {
{ { Ancient Gaulish.
{ _P._ Celtic { Welsh.
{ { Cornish.
{ { Breton or Armorican.
{ Gothic.
{ { Swedish.
{ { Danish.
{ Scandinavian { Norwegian.
{ { Icelandic.
{ { Old Norse.
{
Germanic or {
Teutonic {
{
{ { English.
{ { Frisian.
{ West { Low Frankish { Dutch.
{ Germanic { { Flemish.
{ { Low German.
{ { High German.
5. Armenian.
[6. Tokharian?]
II. Satem. (Eastern Europe and Asia.)
{ { Zend.
{ Sanskrit { Old Persian.
1. Aryan or { { Modern Persian.
Indo-Iranian {
{ Hindu, and nearly all the modern languages
{ of India [and of the Pamirs].
{ { Lithuanian.
{ { Lettish.
{ _a_ { Old Prussian or Borussian, extinct
{ { since the 17th century.
{
{ { { Old Bulgarian.
{ { { { Great Russian
{ { 1. S.E. { { and White Russian.
2. Balto-Slavonic { { Slavic { Russian. { Little Russian or
{ { { Ruthenian.
{ _b_ { { Servian.
{ { { Slovene.
{ {
{ { 2. West { Polish.
{ { Slavic. { Czech or Bohemian.
{ { { Sorb.
3. Albanian.
242 : 16. _Cf._ S. Feist, 2, p. 250. On the archaic character of
Lithuanian, see Taylor, 1, p. 15, and the authorities he quotes. Also
Schrader, Jevons translation.
242 : 20–243 : 4. Deniker, 2, p. 320, sums up Hirt’s position on this
question in the footnote: “According to Hirt the home of dispersion of
the primitive Aryan language would be found to the north of the
Carpathians, in the Letto-Lithuanian region. From this point two
linguistic streams would start flowing around the mountains to the west
and east; the western stream, after spreading over Germany (Teutonic
languages), left behind the Celtic languages in the upper valley of the
Danube, and filtered through on the one side into Italy (Latin
languages), on the other side into Illyria, Albania, and Greece
(Helleno-Illyrian languages). The eastern stream formed the Slav
languages in the plains traversed by the Dnieper, then spread by way of
the Caucasus into Asia (Iranian languages and Sanscrit). In this way we
can account, on the one hand, for the less and less marked relationship
between the Aryan languages of the present day and the common primitive
dialect, and on the other hand, for the diversity between the two groups
of Aryan languages, western and eastern.”
If this were so, Sanskrit should more closely resemble the Slavic than
the western languages. As it is, the old Vedic speech, the earliest form
of Sanskrit, is said to show more affiliations with Greek than with any
other of the Aryan tongues (see Taylor, 1, p. 21, and authorities
quoted), a fact which merely adds another proof to our hypothesis that
sometime between 2000 and 1500 B. C. the Nordics filtered down the
Balkan peninsula in their earliest wave and about the same time other
branches found their way into northwestern India. The Sanskrit alphabet
is more closely related to the Phœnician than to any other. At the time
of the first Nordic expansion their language was not reduced to writing.
The alphabet used for early Sanskrit, was, according to Professor
Bühler, probably introduced into India by traders from Mesopotamia about
800 B. C. Another authority on the relations of Greek and Sanskrit is
Johannes Schmidt, _Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Indo-germanischen
Sprachen_, Weimar, 1872.
243 : 4. Prof. J. D. Prince, correspondence, in discussing the kinship
of prehistoric Ugrian to Aryan says that, although it is a temptation to
believe in it, there is insufficient data for proving it. As careful a
scholar as Szinnyei, in his _Vergleichende Grammatik der Ugrischen
Sprache_, is careful not to commit himself. But see Zaborowski, 3; also
the notes to p. 236 : 26; and Deniker, 2, pp. 349–351.
243 : 12. Deniker, 2, p. 320 and the authorities he quotes.
243 : 20. See the notes to pp. 158 : 21 and 159.
243 : 25. See p. 158 and also the notes on languages to p. 242 : 5.
244 : 1. See p. 157 and the notes.
244 : 6. Latin derivatives. Zaborowski, 1, p. 2. See table of languages,
in the note to p. 242 : 5 of this book.
244 : 12–28. Ripley, pp. 423–424; Freeman, 2, p. 217; Obédénare, p. 350;
Ratzel, vol. III, p. 564; and the articles on the Balkans and Hungary in
the _Geographical Review_, by Cvijič and Wallis. _Cf._ G. Poisson, _The
Latin Origin of the Rumanians_.
244 : 29–245 : 3. Freeman, 1, p. 439.
245 : 3. Jordanes, _History of the Goths_; Procopius, _The History of
the Wars_; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, chaps. I and
XI; Freeman, _The Historical Geography of Europe_, pp. 70–71; also the
notes to pp. 143 and 156 : 10.
245 : 12. Sarmatians. See the note to p. 143 : 21. The same for the
Venethi. Under the Roman dominion Latin speech appears to have spread
from the Adriatic coast eastward over the Balkans replacing the native
dialects except along the shores of the Ægean and in the large cities.
246 : 9. Freeman, 1, pp. 440–441.
246 : 15. Ripley, p. 425.
246 : 24. See the note to p. 173 of this book.
246 : 27. Rhys and Jones, _The Welsh People_, pp. 12, 13.
247 : 3. See the note to p. 174; Oman, 2, pp. 13, 14; Rice Holmes, 1,
pp. 409–410; 2, pp. 319–320; Rhys and Jones, pp. 1, 2.
247 : 9. Goidels. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 227, 291 and 455–456.
247 : 16. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 229, 456; Oman, 2, p. 16. See also p. 174
of this book.
247 : 23. Ripley, p. 127; Feist, 4, p. 14; Ridgeway, 1, p. 373; and pp.
195 and 212 of this book.
247 : 27. See the note to p. 247 : 3.
248 : 3. Fleure and James, pp. 146, 148; D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, p.
88.
248 : 6. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 319–321; Taylor, 2, pp. 138, 167–168;
Beddoe, 4, p. 20.
248 : 12. Neo-Celtic. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, p. 88; Fleure and
James, p. 143.
248 : 14. Rice Holmes, 2, p. 12.
248 : 29–249 : 4. See the notes to pp. 177–178 of this book.
249 : 16. Beddoe, 4, p. 223.
249 : 20. The same, pp. 241–242; Ripley’s maps, pp. 23 and 313; but
consult Beddoe, 4, p. 66, for criticisms of evidence derived from place
names; Taylor, 2, p. 119.
249 : 27–250 : 1. Beddoe, 4, pp. 139, 241–242.
250 : 1 _seq._ Taylor, 2, p. 173; Palgrave, vol. I of _The English
Commonwealth_; Oman, 2, pp. 158 seq.
250 : 6. Taylor, 2, pp. 170–171.
250 : 14. Ripley, p. 22; Taylor, 2, pp. 137–138.
250 : 20. Jordanes, XXXVI; Gibbon and others.
250 : 24. Ripley, pp. 531–533.
250 : 28 _seq._ _Cf._ Ripley, pp. 101, 151 _seq._
251 : 7 _seq._ _Cf._ Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 309–314.
251 : 18. See the note to p. 182 of this book.
251 : 26. Since the Belgæ were the last wave of the Celts, and Cymric
was the later Celtic, this deduction is inevitable, even if there were
no facts, such as place names, history, etc., to prove it. See the note
to p. 248 : 6.
251 : 28–252 : 2. Beddoe, 4, p. 35; Ripley, pp. 101, 152; Taylor, 2, pp.
95, 98.
252 : 5. See the note to p. 196 : 7.
CHAPTER XIV. THE ARYAN LANGUAGE IN ASIA
253 : 1. See p. 158 and note. Also Peake, 2, p. 165; Breasted, 1, p.
176; Von Luschan, pp. 241–243; Zaborowski, 1, p. 112; DeLapouge, 1, p.
252, says: “Aryans were in India about 1500 B. C.”
253 : 10. See Peake, 2; also pp. 170–171 and 213 of this book.
253 : 13. See the note to p. 225 : 11.
253 : 13–15. Eduard Meyer, _Zur ältesten Geschichte der Iranier_.
253 : 16 _seq._ See the note to p. 239 : 16 seq.
253 : 19. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 137 and 214.
254 : 1. See pp. 173 and 225 of this book.
254 : 3 _seq._ For Sacæ see the note to p. 259 : 21. Cahun, _Histoire de
l’Asie_, says on p. 35: “The Sacæ and the Ephtalites and Massagetæ were
from the Kiptchak.” See also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 94, 100–101, 215 _seq._
254 : 6. Massagetæ. See the note to p. 259 : 21.
254 : 8. Ephtalites, or White Huns. Cahun, _Histoire de l’Asie_, pp.
43–55: “The Turks destroyed in the first half of the seventh century a
powerful nation, the Ephtalites of Soghdiana, north of Persia. They were
called Ephtalites, or White Huns or Tie-le-urn Turks.” See also the
notes to pp. 119 : 15 and 224 : 3 of this book, and chap. XXVI in Gibbon
on the Huns in general.
Procopius, vol. I, says in speaking of the Ephtalite Huns and describing
their war with the Persians about 450 A. D.: “The White Huns are of the
stock of the Huns in fact as well as in name, living in the territory
north of Persia, and are settlers on the land in contrast to the Nomadic
Huns who live at a distance.... They are the only ones among the Huns
who have white bodies and countenances that are not ugly and they are
far more civilized than are the other Huns.” The general impression
gained from Procopius is that they were not true Huns. “Massagetæ” is
used as another name for Huns by Procopius. He describes them as mounted
bowmen. It is clear that in using this name he refers to Huns only.
254 : 13. Medes. The name Medes is variously applied by different
authorities; by many the Medes are regarded as a branch of the Persians,
one of two kindred tribes of Nordics. The author follows Zaborowski in
applying the name to the round skulled population which was conquered by
the Persians. See Zaborowski, 1, chaps. V and VI, especially part II and
p. 125. Also Herodotus in the references given for Persia. Hall,
_Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 459, gives an interesting bit of
their story.
254 : 15. Persians. The Persians were a branch of Nordics who invaded
the territory of the round skulled Medes, and gradually imposed their
language and much of their culture on the subjugated populations. See
Herodotus, book I, especially 55, 71, 72, 74, 91, 95, 101, 107, 125,
129, 135, 136; and book VI, 19, where he discusses both Medes and
Persians. For modern commentary the author follows Zaborowski, 1, pp.
138–139, 153 _seq._, chap. VI, and also pp. 212–214.
Von Luschan, pp. 233–234, describes the present day Persians, showing
that there has been a resurgence of types and that the Nordic elements
have been largely absorbed by the original inhabitants. He adds,
however, on p. 234, that while he never saw Persians with light hair and
blue eyes, he was told that in some noble families fair types were not
very rare.
254 : 19. See the note on the Medes, and Zaborowski, p. 156, on the
Magi.
254 : 26. Darius. Zaborowski, 1, p. 12. Herodotus, I, 209, says: “Now
Hystaspes the son of Arsames was of the race of the Achæmenidæ and his
eldest son Darius was at that time twenty years old.” Another name for
Hystaspes was Vashtaspa, whose father was Arsames (Arsháma). He traced
his descent through four ancestors to Achæmenes (Hakhámamish).
Von Luschan, p. 241, says: “Nothing is known of the Achæmenides who
called themselves ‘Aryans of Aryan stock’ and who brought the Aryan
language to Persia. About 1500 B. C. or earlier, there seems to have
begun a migration of northern men to Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Egypt
and India. Indeed we can now connect even Further India with the Mitanni
of central Asia Minor.”
See Zaborowski in regard to the Behistun tablet, etc., although
practically any writers on Persia and Mesopotamia discuss this great
monument.
255 : 2. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 116–117.
255 : 6. See the note on the Medic language, 255 : 13. Also Zaborowski,
1, pp. 34, 182–184.
255 : 7 _seq._ Zaborowski, 1, pp. 180–184; Feist, 5, p. 423.
255 : 13. Bactria and Zendic. See the notes to pp. 119 : 15 and 257 :
12.
255 : 13. Zendic or the Medic language. See Zaborowski, 1, chap. VI.
According to the Census of India, vol. I, pp. 291 _seq._, both Persian
and Medic tongues belong to the Aryan stock. They are divided in the
following table:
ARYAN
|
+-------+-----+---------------+--------------+
| | | |
Persic | | +---Medic
| | | | (The language of
Old Persian of the Achæmenides | the Avesta. No
(Darius’ insc. at Behistun, c. | transition language
5th century B. C.) | between
| | | Medic and its
| | | modern derivatives
Pehlevi or Parthian | is known.)
3d–7th century +-----+-----+-----+-----+
A. D. | | | | | |
| Galchah dialects of the Pamirs
| | | | | |
| Pashto | | | |
Modern Persian. | | | |
Omuri | | |
| | |
Balochi | |
| |
Kurdish |
|
Other minor
dialects.
Zaborowski, 1, p. 146, positively identifies Medic as agglutinative, in
which he agrees with Oppert. See chaps. V and VI, especially part II and
p. 125. For early data on the Medes see the Herodotus references given
under Persia. Zaborowski says, p. 121, that Medic was spoken until 600
B. C.
255 : 15. Kurdish. Von Luschan, p. 229: “The Kurds speak an Aryan
language.... The eastern Kurds are little known.... They speak a
different dialect from the western tribes, but both divisions are
Aryan.” On the Kurds as a people, see the notes to p. 225 : 20.
255 : 20. Zaborowski, 1, p. 216–217.
255 : 23. Von Luschan, p. 234, and the note to p. 225 : 19 of this book.
255 : 26–256 : 10. See Plutarch’s _Life of Alexander_; _Historia
Alexandri Magni de præliis_; Zaborowski, 1, p. 171.
256 : 3. Alexander the Great and the Persians. Plutarch, _Life of
Alexander_: “After this he accommodated himself more than ever to the
manners of the Asiatics, and at the same time persuaded them to adopt
some of the Macedonian fashions, for by a mixture of both he thought a
union might be promoted much better than by force, and his authority
maintained when he was at a distance. For the same reason he selected
30,000 boys and gave them masters to instruct them in the Grecian
literature as well as to train them to arms in the Macedonian manner. As
for his marriage with Roxana, it was entirely the effect of love.... Nor
was the match unsuitable to the situation of his affairs. The barbarians
placed greater confidence in him on account of that alliance....
Hephæstion and Craternus were his two favorites. The former praised the
Persian fashions and dressed as he did; the latter adhered to the
fashions of his own country. He therefore employed Hephæstion in his
transactions with the barbarians and Craternus to signify his pleasure
to the Greeks and Macedonians.”
256 : 11 _seq._ Armenians. Ridgeway, 1, p. 396, speaking of language,
says: “That the Armenians were an offshoot of the Phrygians as mentioned
in Herodotus VII, 73, is proved by the most modern linguistic results,
which show that Armenian comes closer to Greek than to the Iranian
tongues.” _Cf._ also Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 475.
This need not imply racial affinity, however. The following notes on
Armenian were contributed by Mr. Leon Dominian: “The proof of Aryan
affinities in the Hittite language has not yet been established. The
great difficulty in establishing the pre-Aryan relation of Armenian is
due to the fact that the earliest text dates only from the fifth century
A. D.
“The Cimmerians and Scythians, coming from southern Europe by way of the
Caucasus (Herodotus, IV, 11, 12), reached Armenia about 720 B. C. (see
Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, p. 62). The old Vannic language
antedating this invasion resembles the Georgian of the Caucasus,
according to Sayce (_Jour. Roy. As. Soc._, XIV, p. 410), who has studied
the local inscriptions. On p. 409 he infers that the Aryan occupation of
Armenia was coeval with the victory of Aryanism in Persia at the end of
the sixth century, B. C.
“The fact that Armenia is linguistically related to the western groups
of the Indo-European languages and that the Persian element consists of
loan words is corroborated by geographical evidence. The Armenian
highland culminating in the 17000 foot altitude of Mt. Ararat has acted
as a barrier dividing the plateau of Anatolia from that of Iran.
Herodotus called the Armenians the ‘beyond’ Phrygians.” See also O.
Schrader, Jevons translation, p. 430.
256 : 14 _seq._ Phrygians. See the note to p. 225.
256 : 15. Félix Sartiaux, _Troie, la guerre de Troie_, pp. 5–9.
256 : 16–17. See the note to p. 239 : 2 _seq._
256 : 21 _seq._ See the table of languages to p. 242 : 5.
256 : 27–257 : 7. See pp. 20, 134, 238–239, of this book.
257 : 12. Bactria. See the note to p. 119 : 15.
257 : 16 _seq._ See the notes to pp. 158 and 253. Also Von Luschan, p.
243; Zaborowski, 1, p. 112; and the Indian Census, 1901, vol. I, p. 294.
257 : 19. Punjab. _Panch_—five, _ab_—river, in Hindustani. _Cf._ the
Greek _penta_—five.
257 : 22. Dravidians. See pp. 148–149 of this book.
257 : 23. See the note to. p. 259 : 21 and Zaborowski, 1, pp. 113 seq.
257 : 28–258 : 2. See the note to p. 242 : 5. George Turnour’s edition
in 1836, of the Mahavamsa, first made it possible to trace Sinhalese
history and to prove that about the middle of the sixth century B. C. a
band of Aryan-speaking people from India, under Vijaya conquered and
settled Ceylon permanently. There are a number of later works on Ceylon,
dealing with its archæology, flora, fauna, history, etc.
According to the British Indian Census of 1901 nearly two-thirds of the
inhabitants of Assam were Hindus, and the language of Hinduism has
become that of the province. The vernacular Assamese is closely related
to Bengali. E. A. Gait has written a _History of Assam_ (1906).
258 : 3. See the notes to pp. 158 and 253 of this book.
258 : 8. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 184–185. Compare de Morgan’s dates with
those of Zaborowski, the Indian Census and Meillet.
258 : 19. See Meillet, _Introduction á l’étude des langues européens_.
On p. 37 he claims that the relation between the two is comparable to
that prevailing between High and Low German. Zaborowski, 1, p. 184,
says: “The language of the Avesta, the Zend, is a contemporary dialect
of the Persian of Darius (_i. e._, of Old Persian), from whence has come
the Pehlevi and its very close relative. It even presents the closest
affinities with the Sanskrit of the Vedas, from which was derived, in
the time of Alexander, classical Sanskrit. This Sanskrit of the Vedas is
itself so close to Old Persian that it can be said that one and the
other are only two pronunciations of the same tongue.” See also the
Indian Census for 1901, vol. I, p. 294.
258 : 25 _seq._ Zaborowski, 1, pp. 213–216; Peake, 2, pp. 165 _seq._ and
especially pp. 169 and 172.
259 : 4. Ellsworth Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_; Peake, 2, p. 170;
and Breasted, _passim_.
259 : 9. See pp. 173, 237, 253–254 and 257 of this book.
259 : 16. See the notes to pp. 119 : 13 and 255 : 7.
259 : 21. Sacæ or Saka. The Sacæ or Saka were the blond peoples who
carried the Aryan language to India. Strabo, 511, allies them with the
Scythians as one of their tribes. Many tribes were called Sacæ,
especially by the Hindus, who used the term indiscriminately to
designate any northern invaders of India.
One tribe gained the most fertile tract in Armenia which was called
Sacasene, after them.
Zaborowski, 1, p. 94, relates the Sacæ with the Scythians, and says:
“The Tadjiks are a people composed of suppressed elements where blonds
are found in an important minority. These blonds, saving an atavistic
survival of more ancient or sporadic characters I can identify. They are
the Sacæ.” He continues, in a note, that a great error has been
committed on the subject of the Sacæ. “Repeating an assertion of Alfred
Maury, whose very sound erudition enjoyed a merited reputation, I myself
once repeated that the Sacæ who figures on the rock of Behistun was of
the Kirghiz type. This assertion is completely erroneous. I have proved
it and can say that the Sacæ and the Scythians were identical.”
Zaborowski, p. 216, also identifies the Sacæ with the Persians. On this
whole subject see Herodotus, VII, 64; also Feist, 5.
259 : 21. Massagetæ. Zaborowski, 1, p. 285, says: “The first information
of history concerning the peoples of Turkestan refers to the Massagetæ,
whose life was exactly the same as that of the Scythians (Herodotus, I,
205–216). They enjoyed a developed industrial civilization while they
remained nomads. They were doubtless composed of ethnic elements
different from the Scythians, but probably already spoke the Iranian
tongue, like them. And since the time of Darius, at least, there were in
Turkestan with them and beside them, Sacæ, whom the Greeks have always
regarded as Scythians come from Europe.”
Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_, p. 11, says: “The Scyths and the
Massagetæ were contemporaneous and different. The Massagetæ are
evidently a mixed collection of tribes without an ethnic unity; the
variety of their customs and states of culture shows this and Herodotus
does not seem to suggest that they are all one people. They are
generally reckoned to be Iranian.... The picture drawn of the nomad
Massagetæ seems very like that of the Scythians in a rather ruder stage
of development.”
Herodotus, I, 215, describes them as follows: “In their dress and mode
of living the Massagetæ resemble the Scythians. They fight both on
horseback and on foot, neither method is strange to them.... The
following are some of their customs,—each man has but one wife, yet all
wives are held in common; for this is a custom of the Massagetæ and not
of the Scythians, as the Greeks wrongly say. Human life does not come to
its natural close with this people; but when a man grows very old, all
his kinsfolk collect together and offer him up in sacrifice; offering at
the same time some cattle also. After the sacrifice they boil the flesh
and feast on it; and those who thus end their days are reckoned the
happiest. If a man dies of disease they do not eat him, but bury him in
the ground, bewailing his ill fortune that he did not come to be
sacrificed. They sow no grain, but live on their herds and on fish, of
which there is great plenty in the Araxes. Milk is what they chiefly
drink. [_Cf._ the eastern Siberian tribes of the present day.] The only
god they worship is the sun, and to him they offer the horse in
sacrifice, under the notion of giving to the swiftest of the gods, the
swiftest of all mortal creatures.”
D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, p. 231 declares they were the same as
the Scyths.
Horse sacrifices are said to prevail among the modern Parses. On the
whole, the Massagetæ appear to have been largely Nordic.
259 : 24. Kirghizes. See Zaborowski, 1, pp. 216, 290–291.
259 : 25 _seq._ See the note to p. 119 : 15.
260 : 3. Gibbon, chap. LXIV. Also called the battle of Lignitz. Lignitz
is the duchy, and Wahlstatt a small village on the battlefield.
260 : 8. See the notes to pp. 224 : 3 and 259 : 21.
260 : 17. Feist, 5, pp. 1, 427–431, says the Tokharian is related to the
western rather than to the Iranian-Indian group of languages, and places
the Tokhari in northeast Turkestan. (See the note to p. 119 : 13.) On p.
471 he identifies the Yuë-Tchi and Khang with Aryans from Chinese
Turkestan, basing himself on Chinese annals, the date being given as 800
B. C. _Cf._ also the notes to p. 224 : 3 of this book.
260 : 21. See DeLapouge, 1, p. 248; Feist, 5, p. 520.
260 : 29–261 : 5. See Feist, above, in the note to 260 : 17.
261 : 6. Traces. See the note to p. 70 : 12.
261 : 17. Deniker, 2, pp. 407 _seq._; G. Elliot Smith, _Ancient
Egyptians_, p. 61; Ripley, p. 450.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abercromby, J. _Bronze Age Pottery_, 1912.
Alsina, Juan A. _European Immigration to the Argentine_, 1898.
Appian of Alexandria:
1. _De Rebus Hispaniensibus._
2. _De Bello Annibalico._
3. _Appian’s Roman History_, with an English translation by Horace
White, 2 vols. London, Wm. Heinemann; New York, Macmillan,
1912–1913.
4. _Appiani Historia Romana._ Edidit Ludovicus Mendelssohn. Lipsiæ,
Trübner, 1878–1881.
Arbois de Jubainville, M. H. d’:
1. “Les Celts en Espagne,” _Revue Celtique_, vols. XIV and XV.
2. “Les Celts et les langues celtiques,” _Revue archéologique, série
2_, t. XLIII, pp. 87–96, 141–155.
3. “Les Gaulois dans l’Italie du Nord,” _Rev. Celt._, vol. XI.
4. _Les premiers habitants de l’Europe._
Avebury, Lord (Sir John Lubbock). _Prehistoric Times_, 7th ed. New
York, Henry Holt & Co.; London, Williams and Norgate, 1864–1913.
Avienus, Rufius Festus. _Ora maritima._
Bannwarth, E. See Studer.
Bassanovitch, I. _Materials on the Anthropology of the Bulgars: The
Lomsk District_, pp. 3–186. 1891.
Beddoe, John:
1. _The Anthropological History of Europe._ 1893.
2. “The Kelts of Ireland,” _Journal of Anthropology_, 1870–1871, pp.
117–131.
3. “On the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles,” _Memoirs of
the Anthropological Society_, vol. III, pp. 384–573, London,
1867–1869.
4. _The Races of Britain._ Bristol and London, 1885.
5. _Scottish Review_, vol. XIX, 1892.
Belloc, H. _The Old Road._ London, Constable & Co., 1911.
Bertrand, Alexandre. (With S. Reinach.) _Les Celts dans les vallées du
Pô et du Danube._ Paris, E. Leroux, 1894.
Binder, Julius. _Die Plebs._ Leipsig, G. Bohme, Deichert, 1909.
Boas, F.:
1. _Changes in the Bodily Form of the Descendants of Immigrants._
Document 208. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1911.
2. “Modern Populations of America,” _19th International Congress of
Americanists_, pp. 569 _seq._, 1915. Washington, D. C.
Boni, G. Roma. _Notizie degli Scavi_; série 5, pp. 123 _seq._ and 375
_seq._, 1903.
Bork, Ferdinand. _Die Mitanni Sprache._ Berlin, W. Peiser, 1909.
Botsford, George Willis. _The Roman Assemblies._ Macmillan, 1909.
Boule, M.:
1. “Essai de paléontologie stratigraphique de l’homme,” _Revue
d’anthropologie_, série 3, t. III, pp. 129–144, 272–297, 385–411,
647–680. 1888.
2. “La taille et les proportions du corps de l’homo
neanderthalensis,” _Compte-Rendue, Inst. franc. anth._, pp. 57–60.
1912.
3. Various writings.
Breasted, James H.:
1. _Ancient Times, A History of the Early World._ Boston, Ginn & Co.,
1916.
2. “The Origins of Civilization,” _Scientific Monthly_, vols. IX,
nos. 4, 5, 6, and X, nos. 1, 2, 3.
3. _A Survey of the Ancient World._ Boston, Ginn & Co., 1919.
4. _History of Egypt_ and other writings.
Breuil, L’Abbé H.:
1. “Les peintures rupestres d’Espagne,” (avec Serrano Gomez et Cabre
Aguilo), _L’Anthropologie_, t. XXIII, 1912.
2. (With Obermaier.) “Les premiers travaux de l’Institut de
Paléontologie humaine.” _L’Anthr._, t. XXIII, 1912.
3. “Les subdivisions du paléolithique supérieure et leur
signification,” _Congr. intern. d’anth. et d’arch. préhist.,
Compte-Rendue_, XIV, pp. 165–238, Sess. Genève, 1912.
4. Various writings.
Broca, Paul:
1. “Les peuples et les monuments megalithiques: les Vandals en
Afrique,” _Rev. d’Anth._, série 1, V.
2. Various writings.
Bryce, George. _The Remarkable History of the Hudson Bay Company._ New
York, Scribner, 1900.
Bryce, James. _The Holy Roman Empire._ Macmillan, 1904.
Bruhnes, Jean. “Race et nation,” _Le Correspondant_, Paris, September,
1917.
Burke, U. R. _A History of Spain_, 2d ed. London, Longmans, Green &
Co., 1900.
Burrowes, R. M. _The Discoveries in Crete._ London, J. Murray, 1907.
Bury, J. B.:
1. _A History of Greece._ Macmillan, 1917
2. _A History of the Later Roman Empire_, 2 vols. Macmillan, 1889.
Cahun, Léon. _Histoire de l’Asie._ Paris, Armand Colin et Cie., 1896.
Caldwell, Bishop R. _A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South
Indian Family of Languages_, 2d ed. London, K. Paul, Trench, Trübner
& Co., 1913.
Candolle, Alphonse de. _Histoire des Sciences et des savants depuis
deux siècles_, 2me éd. Genève, H. Georg, 1806–1893.
Cartailhac, Émile.:
1. _La France préhistorique d’après les sepultures et les monuments_,
2me éd. Paris, 1903.
2. (With H. Breuil.) Various writings.
Castle, William E.:
1. _Genetics and Eugenics._ Cambridge, Harvard University Press,
1916.
2. _Heredity._ New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1911.
Cattell, J. McKeen. “A Statistical Study of American Men of Science,”
_Science_, N. S., vol. XXIV, nos. 621–623, and vol. XXXII, nos. 827
and 828.
Chantre, Ernest:
1. “Recherches anthropologiques dans l’Asie occidentale,” _Extrait
des Archives du musée d’histoire naturelle de Lyon._ Lyon, 1895.
2. _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_, 4 vols. Paris,
1885–1887.
Clay, Albert T. _The Empire of the Amorites._ Yale University Press,
1919.
Clemenceau, Georges. _South America To-day._ New York and London, G.
Putnam & Sons, 1911.
Collignon, R.:
1. “L’anthropologie au conseil de révision, etc.,” _Bulletin de la
Société d’anthropologie_, pp. 736–805. 1890. Also _Bull. Soc.
d’anth._, 1883.
2. “Anthropologie de la France: Dordogne, Charente, Creuse, Corrèze,
Haute-Vienne,” _Mémoires de la Société d’anthropologie_, série 3,
I, fasc. 3, pp. 3–79.
3. “Anthropologie du sud-ouest de la France,” _Mém. Soc. d’anth._,
série 3, fasc. 4.
4. “Étude anthropométrique élémentaire des principales races de
France,” _Bull. Soc. d’anth._, pp. 463–526, 1883.
5. “Étude sur l’ethnographie générale de la Tunisie,” _Bull. de
géographie historique et descriptive_, Paris, 1887.
6. “L’indice céphalique des populations françaises,” _L’Anth._, série
1, pp. 200–224, 1890.
7. “Répartition de la couleur des yeux et des cheveux chez les
Tunisiens sédentaires,” _Rev. d’anth._, série 3, t. III, 1888.
Comparetti, Domenico. “Le leggi di gortyna, e le altre iscrizioni
arcaiche cretesi,” _Monumenti Antichi_, vol. III, Milano, 1893.
Conklin, Edwin G.:
1. _Heredity and Environment._ Princeton University Press, 1915.
2. “The Mechanism of Evolution in the Light of Hereditary
Development,” _Scientific Monthly_, vols. IX, no. 6, 1919, and X,
nos. 1, 2, 3, 1920.
Constantinus Porphyrogenitus. _Corpus scriptorum historiæ byzantinæ._
Conway, R. S.:
1. _Early Italic Dialects._ Cambridge University Press, 1897.
2. “The Pre-Hellenic Inscriptions of Præsos,” _Annual of the British
School at Athens_, vol. VIII, pp. 125–157.
3. “A Third Eteocretan Fragment,” _Ann. Brit. Sch. at Athens_, vol.
X, pp. 115–127.
Crawford, O. G. S. “Distribution of Early Bronze Age Settlements in
Britain,” _Geographical Journal_, XL, pp. 184 _seq._, 1912.
Cuno, J. G. _Forschungen im Gebiete der alten Völkerkunde._ Berlin,
1871.
Cvijič, Jovan:
1. “The Geographical Distribution of the Balkan Peoples,”
_Geographical Review_, vol. V, no. 5, pp. 345–361, May, 1918.
2. “The Zones of Civilization of the Balkan Peninsula,” _Geog. Rev._,
vol. V, no. 6, June, 1918.
Darwin, Charles. _The Descent of Man_, 2d ed. London, John Murray,
1901.
Davenport, Charles B.:
1. _The Feebly Inhibited, Nomadism ... Inheritance of Temperament._
Washington, D. C., Carnegie Institution, 1915.
2. _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics._ New York, Henry Holt & Co.,
1911.
Davis, J. Barnard:
1. _Thesaurus Craniorum._ London, 1867.
2. (With J. Thurnam.) _Crania Britannica._ 2 vols. London, 1865.
Dawkins, W. Boyd. _Early Man in Britain._ London, Macmillan, 1880.
Dawson, Charles:
1. “On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a
Flint-bearing Gravel Overlaying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at
Piltdown, Fletching, Sussex.” With an appendix by Prof. G. Elliot
Smith (with A. Smith Woodward), _Quarterly Journal of the
Geological Society_, vol. LXIX, part I, pp. 117–151, London, 1913.
2. “Prehistoric Man in Sussex,” _Zoologist_, series 4, vol. XVII, pp.
33–36.
3. “Supplementary note, On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull
and Mandible,” _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. LXX, pp. 82–99,
London, 1914.
Déchelette, J. _Manuel d’archéologie._ Paris, A. Picard et Fils, 1908.
Deniker, J.:
1. “Les races de l’Europe, Note préliminaire,” _L’anthropologie_,
vol. IX, pp. 113–133, Paris, 1898.
2. _The Races of Man_. New York, Scribner; London, Walter Scott,
1902.
Dill, Samuel:
1. _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_, 2d ed.
Macmillan, 1906.
2. _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius._ Macmillan, 1905.
Diodorus Siculus. _Bibliothecæ historicæ._
Dionysius Perigetes. _Orbis descriptio._
Dottin, G. _Manuel Celtique._ Paris, Édouard Champion, 1915.
Dubois, E. _Pithecanthropus Erectus, eine menschenähnliche
Uebergangsform aus Java._ Batavia, 1894.
Duckworth, W. L. H.:
1. _Morphology and Anthropology._ Cambridge University Press, 1904.
2. _Prehistoric Man._ New York, Putnam, 1912.
Dugdale, R. L. _The Jukes._ New York, Putnam, 1877.
Eginhard. _Life of Charlemagne_, Glaister translation. London, George
Bell & Sons, 1877.
Evans, Sir Arthur J.:
1. “Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phœnician Script,” _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, vol. XIV, part 2, pp. 270–373. 1895.
2. “Essai de classification des époques de la civilisation
minoienne,” _Report of the British Association_, 1904 (1905),
London, 1906.
3. “Further Discoveries of Cretan and Ægean Script,” _Jour. of
Hellenic Studies_, vol. XVII, pp. 327–395. 1898.
4. _Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos._ 1906.
5. “Reports of Excavations at Cnossus,” _Ann. Brit. Sch. at Athens_,
vols. VI-X.
6. _Scripta minoa._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1909.
Evans, Sir John. _Ancient Bronze Implements ... of Great Britain and
Ireland._ Longmans, Green & Co., 1881.
Faguet, Émile. _Le culte de l’incompétence._ Paris, B. Grasset, 1914.
Feist, Sigismund:
1. _Address to the International Congress at Gratz._ 1909.
2. _Beiträge z. Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache u. Literatur_, XXXI,
2, Sept. 15, 1910.
3. Europa im Lichte der Vorgeschichte “Quellen und Forschungen zur
alten Geschichte und Geographie,” 19, 1910.
4. _Geschichte Deutschen Sprachen und Kultur der Indo-Germanen._
1913.
5. Kultur, _Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indo-Germanen_. Berlin,
Weidmann, 1913.
Ferrero, Guglielmo. _The Greatness and Decline of Rome._ New York,
Putnam, 1909.
Fischer, Eugen. _Die Rehobother Bastards._ Jena, Fischer, 1913.
Fischer, E. “Fossile Hominiden,” _Sonderabdruck Handwörterbuch
Naturwissenschaft_, Bd. IV, Jena, 1913.
Fisher, H. A. L. _The Political History of England_, vol. IV. Edited by
William Hunt and Reginald Poole. London, Longmans, Green & Co.,
1906.
Fisher, Irving. _National Vitality, Its Wastes and Conservation._
Senate Document, no. 676, vol. III, 60th Congress, 2d Session.
Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, March, 1910.
Fleure, H. J. (with James, T. C.). “Anthropological Types in Wales,”
_Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland_, vol. XLVI, pp. 35–154.
Fleure, H. J. (with L. Winstanley). “Anthropology and Our Older
Histories,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLVIII, pp. 155 seq.
Flower and Lydekker. _Mammals, Living and Extinct._ London, Adam and
Charles Black, 1891.
Ford, Henry Jones. _The Scotch-Irish in America._ Princeton University
Press, 1915.
Frank, Tenney:
1. “Race Mixture in the Roman Empire,” _American Historical Review_,
vol. XXI, no. 4, July, 1916.
2. _Roman Imperialism._ Macmillan, 1914.
Freeman, E. A.:
1. _A Historical Geography of Europe._ Edited by J. B. Bury, 3d ed.
London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1912.
2. _Race and Language._ Historical Essays, series 3, pp. 173–230. New
York and London, Macmillan, 1879.
Fritsch, Gustave. _Das Haupthaar und seine Bildungsstätte bei den
Rassen des Menschen._ Berlin, 1912.
Funel, L. “Les parlers populaires du département des Alpes-Maritimes,”
_Bull. géogr. hist. et descrip._, no. 2, 1897.
Fustel de Coulanges. _La cité antique_, 2me éd. Paris, L. Hachette et
Cie., 1866.
Gaillard, Claude. (See Lortet, Louis.) “Les Tatonnements des Égyptiens
de l’ancien empire à la recherche des animaux à domestiquer,” _Revue
d’ethnographie_, 1912.
Galton, Sir Francis. _Hereditary Genius._ London and New York,
Macmillan & Co., 1892.
Garstang, S. J. _The Land of the Hittites._ London, Constable & Co.,
1910.
Gatterer, J. C. _Comm. Societ. Reg. Scient._, XIII, Göttingen.
Geer, Baron Gerard de. “A Geochronology of the Last 12,000 Years,”
_Compte-Rendue de la session 1910, du Congrès Géol. Intern._, vol.
XI, fasc. 1, pp. 241–257.
Gibbon. _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire._
Gindely, Anton. _History of the Thirty Years’ War_. New York, G.
Putnam’s Sons, 1884.
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. “A Sketch of the Anthropology of Italy,” _Jour.
Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLVIII, pp. 80–103. 1918.
Gjerset, Knut. _The History of the Norwegian People._ New York,
Macmillan, 1915.
Glück, Leopold. “Zur Physischen Anthropologie der Albanesen,”
_Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und Herzegovina_.
Gowland, W. “The Metals in Antiquity,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol.
XLII, pp. 235–288.
Grant, Madison. “The Origin and Relationships of North American
Mammals,” _Eighth Annual Report of the New York Zoological Society_,
New York, 1904.
Green, John R. _A History of the English People._ New York, Harper,
1878.
Greenwell, W., Canon. _British Barrows._ Oxford, 1877.
Gregory, W. K.:
1. “The Dawn Man of Piltdown, England,” _American Museum Journal_,
vol. XIV, New York, May, 1914.
2. “Facts and Theories of Evolution, with Special Reference to the
Origin of Man,” _Dental Cosmos_, pp. 3–19, March, 1920.
3. “Studies on the Evolution of the Primates,” _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist._, vol. XXXV, article xix, New York, 1916.
Gross, V. _La Tène, un oppidum helvète._ Supplément, 1886, to _Les
Protohelvètes_. Berlin, 1883.
Grierson, G. A. _A Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. IV, _Munda and
Dravidian Languages_. Calcutta, 1906.
Grillière, M. le Dr. “La taille des conscrits corréziens de la classe
1910,” _Bull. Soc. d’anth._, série VI, t. IV, pp. 392–400. 1913.
Haddon, A. C.:
1. _The Races of Man and Their Distribution._ London, Milner & Co.
2. _The Study of Man._ New York, Putnam; and London, Bliss Sands,
1898.
3. _The Wanderings of Peoples._ Cambridge University Press, 1912.
Haeckel, Ernest. _The Riddle of the Universe._ Harper, 1901.
Hall, H. R. _The Ancient History of the Near East_, 3d edition. London,
Methuen & Co., 1916.
Hall, Prescott F.:
1. _Immigration_, 2d ed. New York, Henry Holt & Co. 1908.
2. “Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics,” _Journal of
Heredity_, vol. X, no. 3, pp. 125–127, Washington, D. C., March,
1919.
Harrison, J. P. “On the Survival of Racial Features in the Population
of the British Isles,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XII, pp.
243–258.
Hart, H. H. _Sterilization as a Practical Measure._ Russell Sage
Foundation.
Hauser, O. See Klaatsch.
Hawes, C. H.: 1. “Some Dorian Descendants?” _Ann. Brit. Sch. at
Athens_, no. XVI, pp. 254–280. 1909–1910.
2. (With H. B. Hawes.) _Crete, the Forerunner of Greece_, 1911.
Herodotus. _History of the World._
Hervé, G.:
1. “Les brachycéphales néolithiques,” _Revue d’école
d’anthropologie_, tome IV, pp. 392–406, Paris, 1894; V, pp. 18–28,
1895.
2. “Les populations lacustres,” _Rev. d’école d’anth._, t. V, pp.
137–154, Paris, 1895.
Hirt, Herman:
1. _Die Indo-Germanen, ihre Verbreitung, ihre Urheimat und ihre
Kultur._ Strassburg, Trübner, 1905.
2. “Die Urheimat ... der Indo-Germanen,” _Geographische Zeitschrift_,
Bd. I, Leipsig, 1895.
His and Rütimeyer. _Crania Helvetica._ Basel, 1861.
Hodgkin, Thos. _Italy and Her Invaders._
Hoernes, Moritz:
1. “Die Hallstattperiode,” _Archive für Anthropologie_, Bd. XXXI, pp.
233–283. 1905.
2. _Urgeschichte d. Mensch._ Wien, 1890.
Holmes, T. Rice:
1. _Ancient Britain, and the Conquests of Julius Cæsar._ Oxford
University Press, 1907.
2. _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul._ Oxford University Press, 1911.
Homer. The Iliad; the Odyssey.
Horace. _Epodes._
Hrdlička, Aleš.:
1. “The Genesis of the American Indian,” _19th International Congress
of Americanists_, pp. 559 _seq._, Washington, D. C., 1915.
2. “The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man,” _Report, Smithsonian
Institution_, pp. 481–552, Pub. 2300, 1913. Washington, D. C.,
Government Printing Office, 1914.
3. “Old White Americans,” _19th Internat’l Congress of Americanists_,
pp. 582 _seq._ Washington, D. C., 1915.
Hoton. See Peake.
Huntington, Ellsworth:
1. _Civilization and Climate._ Yale University Press and Oxford
University Press, 1915.
2. _The Pulse of Asia._ Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1907.
Jacobs, J. “On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,” _Jour. Roy.
Anth. Inst._, vol. XV, pp. 23–62. 1885–1886.
James, T. C. (with Fleure, H. J.). “Anthropological Types in Wales,”
_Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLVI, pp. 35–154. 1916.
Jessen, A. (Et Thomsen, Thomas). _Une trouvaille de l’ancien âge de la
pierre._ Copenhague, Braband, 1906.
Johnston, Sir Harry H.:
1. _The Negro in the New World._ London, Methuen & Co., 1910.
2. “On North African Animals, A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,”
_Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLIII, pp. 375–422.
3. Various writings.
4. _Views and Reviews._ London, Williams and Norgate, 1912.
Jones, David B. (With Rhys, John.) _The Welsh People._ London,
Macmillan, 1900.
Jones, Sir J. Morris. “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” Appendix B
of Rhys and Jones, _The Welsh People_. London, Macmillan, 1900.
Jordan, David Starr. _War and the Breed._ Boston, The Beacon Press,
1915.
Jordanes. _History of the Goths_, Mierow translation. Princeton
University Press, 1915.
Josephus, Flavius. _De Bello Judaico_, or _The Jewish War of Flavius
Josephus_, translated by Robert Traill. London, Houlston & Stoneman,
1851.
Kanitz, P. F. _Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan._ Leipsig, 1875.
Keane, A. H.:
1. _Ethnology._ Cambridge University Press, 1896.
2. _Man, Past and Present._ Cambridge University Press, 1900. Also
new edition by Ouiggin & Haddon.
Keary, C. F. _The Vikings in Western Christendom._ London, T. Fisher
Unwin, 1891.
Keith, Arthur:
1. _Ancient Types of Man._ Harper, 1911.
2. The _Antiquity of Man._ London, Williams and Norgate, 1915.
3. “Presidential Address to the Royal Anthropological Society of
Great Britain and Ireland,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLV,
pp. 12–23. 1915.
Keller, Ferdinand. _The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland and Other Parts
of Europe_, translated by John Edward Lee, F.S.A., F.G.S., 2d
edition. London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1878.
King, L. W.:
1. _Chronicles Concerning the Early Babylonian Kings._ London, Luzac
& Co., 1907.
2. _The History of Babylonia and Assyria._ London, Chatto.
Vol. I, _The History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910.
Vol. II, _The History of Babylon_, 1915.
Klaatsch, H. _Homo-Aurignacius Hauseri_, 1909.
Klaatsch, H., and O. Hauser. _Archiv für Anthropologie_, 1908.
Klaproth, J. _Tableaux historiques de l’Asie._ Paris, 1826.
Kluchevsky, V. O. _A History of Russia_, 3 vols., translated by C. J.
Hogarth. London, Dent & Sons; New York, E. P. Dutton, 1911–1913.
Kolrausch, F. _Deutsche Geschichte._
Kraus, Franz Xaver. _Dante._ Berlin, 1897.
Kretschmer, P. _Einleitung in die Geschichte der Griechischen Sprache_.
Göttingen, 1896.
Kurth, G. “La frontière linguistique en Belgique,” _Mém. couronnés
Acad. R. Scien. Lit. et Beaux Arts de Belg._, XLVIII, vol. I, 1895;
vol. II, 1898. Brussels.
Lapouge, V. C. de:
1. _L’Aryen, son rôle sociale._ Paris, 1899.
2. _Les Sélections sociales._ Paris, 1896.
3. Various writings.
Laughlin, Harry H. _Eugenics Record Office Bulletins_, 10A and 10B.
Part I. “The Scope of the Committee’s Work.” Part II. “The Legal,
Legislative and Administrative Aspects of Sterilization.” Cold
Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., Feb., 1914.
Lecky, W. E. H. _A History of European Morals_, 2 vols. New York, D.
Appleton & Co., 1900.
Lefèvre, A. _Germains et Slavs._ 1903.
Lewis, A. L. “The Menhirs of Madagascar,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._,
vol. XLVII, pp. 448–455. 1917.
Livi, R. _Antropometria Militaire_, Parte I, “Dati Antropologia ed
Etnologici.” Roma, 1896.
Livius, Titus. _Historiæ romanæ decades._
Lortet, Louis. (And Gaillard, Claude.) “La faune momifiée de l’ancienne
Égypte,” _Musée d’histoire naturelle de Lyon, Archives_, vol. VIII,
no. 2; vol. IX, no. 2. Lyon, 1903–1907.
Lydekker. See Flower.
McCulloch, J. R. _A Statistical Account of the British Empire_, 3 vols.
London, Longmans, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1854.
McCulloch, Oscar C. “The Tribe of Ishmael,” _Report of the 15th Annual
Conference of Charities and Corrections_, pp. 154–159. 1888.
MacCurdy, George Grant:
1. “Eolithic and Palæolithic Man,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S.,
vol. XI, no. 1, pp. 92–101. 1909.
2. “The Eolithic Problem,” _Amer. Anth_, N. S., vol. VII, no. 3, pp.
425–480. 1905.
3. “Recent Discoveries Bearing on the Antiquity of Man in Europe,”
_Smithsonian Report_ for 1909. Washington, D. C., Government
Printing Office, 1910.
Mackenzie, Sir Duncan:
1. “The Middle Minoan Pottery of Knossos,” _Jour. of Hellenic
Studies_, vol. XXVI, pp. 243–268. 1906.
2. “Cretan Palaces,” _Ann. Brit. Sch. at Athens_, vols. XI-XIV.
MacLean, Hector:
1. “The Ancient Peoples of Ireland and Scotland Considered,” _Jour.
Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XX, pp. 154–179. 1890–1891.
2. “On the Comparative Anthropology of Scotland,” _Anthropological
Review_, vol. IV, pp. 209–226. 1866.
3. Various writings.
Madsen, A. P. (With Sophus Müller, etc.) _Affaldsdynger fra Stenalderen
i Danmarck._ Kjobenhavn, 1900.
Malte-Brün, V. A. “Carte archéologique de la France,” _Bull. Soc. de
Géogr._, série 6, XVII, pp. 319–526, Paris, 1879.
Martin, Rudolf. _Lehrbuch der Anthropologie._ Jena, Gustave Fischer,
1914.
Matthew, W. D.:
1. “Climate and Evolution.” Published by the _New York Academy of
Sciences_, vol. XXIV, pp. 171–318. New York, 1915.
2. “Revision of the Lower Eocene Primates,” _Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.
Hist._, vol. XXXIV, pp. 429–483, New York, Sept., 1915.
Meillet, Antoine. _Introduction à l’étude comparative des langues
Indo-Européens._ Paris, Hachette et Cie., 1912.
Menzel, W. _Geschichte der Deutschen._ Stuttgart, 1834.
Merriam, John C. “The Beginnings of Human History Read from the
Geological Record: The Emergence of Man,” _Scientific Monthly_,
vols. IX and X, 1919–1920.
Messerschmidt, L. _Die Hetiter_ (_der Alte Orient_, IV, 1), 2te
Auflage, 1902. Leipsig, 1909.
Metchnikoff, Elie. _Nature of Man._ Putnam, 1903.
Meyer, Eduard:
1. _Ægyptische Chronologie._ Berlin, 1904–1907.
2. _Geschichte des Altertums_, 2te Auflage, 1ster Bd., 2te Hälfte.
Stuttgart und Berlin, 1909.
3. _Die Sclaverei im Altertum._ Dresden, 1898.
4. _Sumerier und Semiten in Babylonien._ Berlin, 1906.
5. “Zur ältesten Geschichte der Iranier,” _Zeitschrift für
vergleichende Sprachforschung_, 1907.
Meyer, Leo. “Über den Ursprung der Namen Indo-Germanen, Semiten und
Ugro-Finner,” _Göttinger Gelehrte Nachrichten,
philologische-historische Klasse_, 1901.
Miller, Gerrit S.:
1. “The Jaw of the Piltdown Man,” _Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections_, vol. LXV, no. 12. Washington, D. C., Nov., 1915.
2. “The Piltdown Jaw,” _American Journal of Physical Anthropology_,
vol. I, no. 1, pp. 25–52, Jan.-Mar., 1918.
Minns, E. H. _Scythians and Greeks._ Cambridge University Press, 1913.
Modestov, Vasilii Ivanovich. _Introduction à l’histoire romaine._
Paris, F. Alcan, 1907.
Mommsen, Theodor. _A History of the Roman Provinces_, translated by
William P. Dickson. Scribner, 1887.
Montelius, Oscar:
1. “Die Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit,” _Arch. f. Anth._, Bd.
25, pp. 443 seq. 1900.
2. _The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times_, translated by F. H.
Woods. London, Macmillan, 1888.
3. _La Civilisation primitive en Italie_, Stockholm, 1895.
4. _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens von den ältesten Zeiten._ Leipsig,
1906.
5. _L’Anthropologie_, série XVII, 1906.
6. _Archive f. Anth._, Bd. XVII, pp. 151–160; XIX, pp. 1–21; XXI, pp.
1–40.
Morgan, de. _Rev. de l’école d’anth._, t. XVII, p. 411, 1907.
Morgan, Thomas Hunt:
1. _Heredity and Environment._ Princeton University Press, 1915.
2. _Heredity and Sex._ Columbia University Press, 1914.
Mortillet, G. de
1. _Formation de la nation Française._ Paris, 1897.
2. (With A. de Mortillet.) _Le préhistorique._ C. Reinwald, Paris,
1883.
Much, Mathæus. _Die Heimat der Indo-Germanen im Lichte der
urgeschichtlichen Forschung._ Berlin, 1902.
Müllenhoff, C. V. _Deutsche Altertumskunde._ Berlin, 1870–1892.
Müller, Friedrich:
1. _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft._ Wien, 1884.
2. _Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den
Jahren 1857–9, unter den Befehlen des Commodore B. von
Wiellerstorf-Ubair._ Wien. Linguistischer, 1867.
Müller, Sophus:
1. _Affaldsdynger fra Stenalderen i Danmarck_, Kjobenhavn, 1900.
(With A. P. Madsen, etc.)
2. _L’Europe préhistorique_, tr. du Danois, ... par Emmanuel
Philipot. Paris, J. Lamarre, 1907.
3. _Nordische Alterthumskunde._ Strassburg, 1897.
Munro, Dana Carleton. _A Source Book of Roman History._ D. C. Heath &
Co. Boston, New York and Chicago, 1904.
Munro, John. _The Story of the British Race._ New York, D. Appleton &
Co., 1907.
Munro, R.: 1. _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe._ London, Cassell & Co.,
1890.
2. _Palæolithic Man and the Terramara Settlements._ Macmillan, 1912.
3. Discussion in _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._ for 1890.
Myres, J. L. “A History of the Pelasgian Theory,” _Jour. of Hellenic
Studies_, vol. XXVII, pp. 170–226, 1907.
Nansen, Fridtjof. _In Northern Mists._ New York, Frederick A. Stokes,
1911.
Nordenskiöld, Erland. “Finland: The Land and the People,” _Geographical
Review_, vol. VII, no. 6, pp. 361–375, June, 1919.
Obédénare, M. G. _La Roumanie économique._ Paris, 1876.
Obermaier, Hugo:
1. “El Hombre Fósil,” _Museo National de Ciencias Naturales_, Madrid,
1916.
2. _Der Mensch der Vorzeit._ München, R., 1912.
3. (With Breuil.) See Breuil, 2.
Oloriz. “Distribución geográfica del Indice cefálica,” _Boletín
Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid_, vol. XXXVI, 1894.
Oman, Sir Charles:
1. _The Dark Ages._ London, Rivington’s Press, 1905.
2. _England before the Norman Conquest._ London, Methuen & Co.; or
New York, Putnam, 1913.
Oppert, Jules. _Le peuple et la langue des Mèdes._ Paris, 1879.
Osborn, Henry Fairfield:
1. _Men of the Old Stone Age_, 2d edition. New York, Scribner, 1918.
2. _The Origin of Life._ New York, Scribner, 1917.
Palgrave, Sir Francis. _The Rise and Progress of the English
Commonwealth._ London, 1832.
Parkman, Francis:
1. _The Old Régime in Canada._ Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1905.
2. Various writings.
Parsons, F. G. “Anthropological Observations on German Prisoners of
War,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLIX. 1919.
Pausanias. _Description of Greece._
Payne, Edward John. _A History of the New World Called America._ Oxford
Press, vol. I, 1892; vol. II, 1899.
Peake, H. J. E.:
1. _Memorials of Old Leicestershire._ 1911.
2. “Racial Elements Concerned in the First Siege of Troy,” _Jour.
Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLVI, pp. 154–173. 1916.
3. (With Hoton.) “A Saxon Graveyard at East Shefford, Berks,” _Jour.
Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XLV, pp. 92–131.
Pearl, Raymond. “The Sterilization of Degenerates,” _Eugenics Review_,
April, 1919.
Peet, T. E.:
1. _Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders._ Harper, 1912.
2. _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy._ Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1909.
Penck, Albrecht:
1. “Das Alter des Menschengeschlechts,” _Zeitschr. f. Eth._, Jahrg.
40, Heft 3, pp. 390–407. 1908.
2. _Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter_, Bd. I, II, III, Leipsig, 1909.
Penka, K.:
1. _Die Herkunft der Arier._ Wien, 1886.
2. _Origines Ariacæ._ Wien, 1883.
Petersen, E. (With F. von Luschan.) _Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und
Kibyratis._ Wien, 1889.
Petrie, W. M. F.:
1. “Migrations,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XXXVI, pp. 189–233.
1906.
2. _Revolutions of Civilization._ Harper, 1912.
Peyrony, M. (and Capitan). _Bulletins de la Société d’anthropologie de
Paris_, 1909–1910.
Pilcher, Maj.-Gen. Thomas L. “The Present Situation in India,”
_Outlook_, March 10, 1920.
Pilgrim, J. “The Correlation of the Siwaliks with the Mammal Horizons
of Europe,” _Records of the Geological Survey of India_, vol. XLIII,
part 4, pp. 264–326.
Pliny. _Natural History._
Plutarch’s _Lives_, Langhorne translation. London, Frederick Warne &
Co.
Poirot, J. “Review of Atlas de Finlande,” _Annales de géographie_, vol.
XXII, pp. 310–325 and 417–426.
Poisson, G. “L’Origine latin des Roumaniens,” _Revue anthropologique_,
t. XXVII, pp. 357–379, Paris, 1917.
Pollard, A. F. _A Political History of England_, vol. IV. London,
Longmans, Green & Co., 1915.
Polybius. _History._
Popenoe, Paul. “One Phase of Man’s Modern Evolution,” _19th Internat’l
Congress of Americanists_, pp. 617 _seq._, Washington, D. C., 1915.
Pösche, T. _Der Arier._ Jena, 1878.
Procopius. _A History of the Wars_, translated by H. B. Dewing, Loeb
Classical Library. New York, Putnam; and London, Wm. Heinemann,
1919.
Pruner-Bey:
1. “Sur la langue Euskara,” _Bull. Soc. d’anth._, pp. 39–71, 1867.
2. “Sur l’origine de l’ancienne race égyptienne,” _Mém. Soc.
d’anth._, t. I, pp. 399–433. 1860.
Pumpelly, Raphael. _Explorations in Turkestan._ Washington, D. C.,
Carnegie Inst., 1905 and 1908.
Punnett, R. C. _Mendelism_, 3d edition. Macmillan, 1911.
Quintus Curtius Rufus. _Historiarum Alexandri Magni Libri Decem._
Ranke, Johannes. _Der Mensch._ Leipsig, 1886–7.
Ratzel, Friedrich. _The History of Mankind._ Macmillan, 1908.
Read, Charles H. _A Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age._
British Museum Handbook.
Reade, Arthur. _Finland and the Finns._ New York, 1915.
Reid, Sir G. Archdall:
1. _The Laws of Heredity._ London, Methuen & Co., 1910.
2. _The Principles of Heredity._ London, Chapman & Hall, 1905.
Reinach, Salomon:
1. “Les Gaulois dans l’art antique,” _Revue Archéologique_, série 3,
t. XII, pp. 273–284; série 3, t. XIII, pp. 13–22, 187–203,
317–352. 1888–1889.
2. “Inscription attique relative à l’invasion des Galates en Grèce,”
_Rev. Celtique_, série 11, pp. 80–85.
3. “Le Mirage oriental,” _L’Anth._, série 4, pp. 539–578, 697–732.
4. _Repertoire de l’art quaternaire._ Paris, 1913.
5. “La sculpture en Europe avant les influences gréco-romaines,”
_L’Anth._, série 5, pp. 15–34,173–186, 288–305; 6, pp. 168–194.
(With Alexandre Bertrand.) _Les Celts dans les vallées du Pô et du
Danube._ Paris, E. Leroux, 1894.
Reisner, George A. _The Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr._
University of California publications, 1908; Leipsig, J. C.
Hinrichs, 1905.
Renwick, George. _Finland Today._ New York, 1911.
Retzius, A.:
1. _Ethnologische Schriften._ Stockholm, 1864.
2. “Mémoire sur les formes du crâne des habitants du Nord,” _Annales
des Sciences naturelles_, série 3, Zoologie, t. VI, pp. 133–172.
1846.
Retzius, G.:
1. _Anthropologia Suecica, Beiträge zur Anthropologie der Schweden_,
Stockholm, 1902.
2. _Crania Suecica Antiqua._ Stockholm, 1900.
3. “Matériaux pour servir à la connaissance des caractères ethniques
des races finnois,” _Compte-rendue, Congrès intern. d’anth._,
session VII, t. II, pp. 741–765, Stockholm.
4. “The So-Called North European Race of Mankind,” _Jour. Roy. Anth.
Inst._, vol. XXXIX, pp. 277–314. 1909.
Rhys, Sir John. (With D. B. Jones.) _The Welsh People._ London,
Macmillan, 1900.
Rice Holmes, T.:
1. _Ancient Britain and the Conquests of Julius Cæsar._ Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1907.
2. _Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1911.
Ridgeway, Sir William:
1. _The Early Age of Greece._ Cambridge, 1901.
2. _The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse._ Cambridge
University Press, 1905.
3. “Who Were the Romans?” _Proceedings of the British Academy_,
1907–1908.
Ripley, William Z. _The Races of Europe._ New York, D. Appleton & Co.,
1899.
Roese. _Beiträge zur Europäischen Rassenkunde_, 1906.
Rutot, A. de:
1. “Les industries primitives,” _Bull, et Mém. Soc. d’anthr._, t. XX,
Mém. III, Bruxelles, 1902.
2. Various writings.
Sacken, Baron von. _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt._ Wien, 1868.
Sarauw, G. F. L. _En Stenolden Boplads: Maglemose ved Mullerup_, 1913.
Or “Trouvaille fait dans le nord de l’Europe, datant de la période
de l’hiatus,” _Congr. préhist. de France_, Perigeux, 1905.
Sartiaux, Félix. _Troie, la guerre de Troie._ Paris, Hachette et Cie.,
1915.
Savigny, Friedrich Karl. _Geschichte des römischen Rechtes im
Mittelalter._
Sayce, Archibald Henry:
1. _The Ancient Empires of the East._ Scribner, 1898.
2. _The Hittites._ 1888.
3. _Jour. Roy. Ass. Soc._, vol. XIV, p. 410.
Schenck, A. _La Suisse préhistorique._ Lausanne, Rouge et Cie., 1912.
Schleicher, August. _Altpreussische Grammatik._
Schlözer, Kurd von. _Nestor, Koch. Revolut. de l’Europe._
Schoetensack, Otto. _Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis aus den
Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg: Ein Beitrag zur Paläontologie des
Menschen._ Leipsig, 1908.
Schrader, Oscar:
1. _Die Indo-Germanen._ Leipsig, 1911.
2. _Reallexicon der Indo-germanischen Altertumskunde._ Strassburg,
Trübner, 1917.
3. _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte._ Jena, 1890.
Or _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, a translation by
F. B. Jevons. London, 1890.
Schwalbe, G.:
1. “Studien über Pithecanthropus erectus Dubois,” _Zeitschrift für
Morphologie und Anthropologie_, Bd. I, Heft 1, 1899.
2. “Vorgeschichte des Menschen,” _Zeitschrift für Morphologie und
Anthropologie_, 1906.
Schwerz, Franz. _Die Völkerschaften der Schweiz von der Urzeit bis zur
Gegenwart._ Stuttgart, 1915.
Sclater, W. L. and P. L. _The Geography of Mammals._ London, Kegan
Paul, Trench. Trübner & Co., 1899.
Sergi, G.:
1. _Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Cannitica (Specie
Eurafricana)._ Torino, 1897.
2. _Arii e Italici._ Torino, 1898.
3. _Italia le Origini._ Torino, Fratelli Bocca, Editori, 1919.
4. _The Mediterranean Race._ New York, Scribner; and London, Walter
Scott, 1901.
Siculus, Diodorus. See Diodorus Siculus.
Skeat, W. W. _The Wars of Alexander_, translated chiefly from _Historia
Alexandri Magni preliis_. London, N. Trübner & Co., 1886.
Smith, G. Elliot:
1. _The Ancient Egyptians._ Harper, 1911.
2. “Ancient Mariners,” _Journal of the Manchester Geographical
Society_, vol. XXXIII, parts 1–4, pp. 1–22, 1917. Manchester and
London, April, 1918.
Sneyd, Charlotte Augusta, translator. _A Relation of the Island of
England about the Year 1500 (known as The Italian Relation)._
Published by the Camden Society, 1847.
Soane, E. B. _To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise._ Boston, Small,
Maynard & Co.
Stark, James H. _The Loyalists of Massachusetts._ W. B. Clark Co.,
1910.
Steenstrup, J. C. H. R. _Normannerne._ Kjøbenhavn, 1876–1882.
Steenstrup, J. J. S.:
1. _Kjøkken Møddinger: eine gedrängte Darstellung dieser Monumente
sehr alter Kulturstadien._ Kopenhagen, 1886.
2. _Sur les Kjökkenmöddings de l’âge de pierre et sur la faune et la
flore préhistorique du Dänemark._ Kopenhagen, 1872.
Stephen, Sir James Fitzjames. _A History of the Criminal Law of
England_, 3 vols. London, Macmillan, 1883.
Stoddard, Lothrop. _The French Revolution in San Domingo._ Boston,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914.
Strabo. _Geography._
Studer, T. (With E. Bannwarth.) _Crania Helvetica Antiqua_, Leipsig,
1894.
Sullivan, Louis R. “The Growth of the Nasal Bridge in Children,”
_American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. XIX, no. 3, pp. 406–409,
1917.
Svoronos, J. N. _L’Hellénisme primitif de la Macédoine prouvé par la
numismatique, et l’or du Pangée._ Paris, Ernest Leroux; Athens, M.
Eleftheroudakis, 1919.
Sweet, Henry. _The History of Language._ London, 1900.
Sykes, Mark. “The Kurds,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._, vol. XXVIII, pp. 45
seq., 1908.
Szinnyei, Josef:
1. _Finnische-Ugrische Sprachwissenschaft._ Berlin u. Leipsig,
Sammlung Göschen, 1910. Leipsig; G. J. Göschen’sche
Verlagshandlung, G.m.b.H., 1912.
2. _Ungarische Sprachlehre._ Berlin, Göschen, 1912.
3. _Vergleichende Grammatik der Ugrischen Sprache._
Tacitus. _Germania_, translated by M. Hutton, Loeb Classical Library.
New York, Macmillan; and London, Wm. Heinemann, 1914.
Taylor, Isaac Canon:
1. _The Origin of the Aryans._ London, Walter Scott, 1890.
2. _Words and Places_, edited by A. Smythe Palmer. New York, E. P.
Dutton & Co.; and London, Routledge & Son.
Thomsen, Thomas (et A. Jessen). _Une trouvaille de l’ancien âge de la
pierre_, Copenhague, (Braband), 1906.
Thomson, J. Arthur. _Heredity._ New York, Putnam; and London, John
Murray, 1910.
Thunman. _Untersuchungen über der Geschichte der östlichen Europäischen
Völker._
Thurnam, J. (With J. B. Davis.):
1. _Crania Britannica_, 2 vols. London, 1865.
2. _Mem. Anth. Soc._, vol. I, pp. 120–168, 485–519; III, pp. 41–75,
London.
Topinard, P.:
1. “Carte de la couleur des yeux et des cheveux en France,” _Rev.
d’anth._, série 3, IV, pp. 513–530.
2. _Éléments d’anthropologie générale._ Paris, Delahaye et
Lecrosnier, 1885.
3. “Les types indigènes de l’Algérie,” _Bull. Soc. d’anth._, série 3,
t. IV, pp. 438–469, Paris, 1881.
4. “Sur la couleur des yeux et des cheveux en Norvège,” _Rev.
d’anth._, IV, série 3, pp. 293–405.
Tout, Thomas Frederick. _The Empire and the Papacy._ London,
Rivington’s Press, 1903.
Trevelyan, Sir George. _George III and Charles Fox._ London, Longmans,
Green & Co., 1914.
Trogus Pompeius. _History._
Van Cleef, Eugene. “The Finn in America,” _Geographical Review_, vol.
VI, pp. 185–214. 1917.
Vanderkindere, Léon. “Recherches sur l’ethnologie de la Belgique,”
_Compte-Rendue du Congrès international d’anth._, session VI, pp.
569–574, Bruxelles, 1872.
Villari, Pasquale. _The Barbarian Invasions of Italy_, translated by
Linda Villari, 2 vols. Scribner, 1902.
Virchow, Rudolf:
1. “Gesammtbericht ... über die Farbe der Haut, der Haare, und der
Augen der Schulkinder in Deutschland,” _Archive f. Anth._, Bd.
XVI, pp. 275–477.
2. “Über die kulturgeschichtliche Stellung des Kaukasus unter
besonderer Berücksichtigung der ornamentirten Bronzegürtel aus
transkaukasischen Gräbern,” _Berlin Akademie der Wissenschaften
Abhandlungen_, pp. 1–66, Berlin, 1895.
Von Luschan, F.:
1. “The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia,” _Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst._,
vol. XLI, pp. 221–244.
2. (With E. Petersen.) _Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratis._
Wien, 1889.
Vouga, E. _Les Helvètes à La Tène._
Vouga, P. (With M. Wavre.) _Extrait du musée neuchatelois._ Mars-Avril,
1908.
Wallace, Alfred Russel. _Island Life._ Macmillan, 1902.
Wallis, B. C.:
1. “The Rumanians in Hungary,” _Geographical Review_, Aug., 1918.
2. “The Slavs of Northern Hungary,” _Geo. Rev._, Sept., 1918.
3. “The Slavs of Southern Hungary,” _Geo. Rev._, Oct., 1918.
4. “Central Hungary: Magyars and Germans,” _Geo. Rev._, Nov., 1918.
Wavre, M. (With P. Vouga.) _Extrait du musée neuchatelois._ Mars-Avril,
1908.
Weisbach, A.:
1. “Die Bosnier,” _Anthropologische Gesellschaft Mitteilungen_, Bd.
XXV, pp. 206–239, Wien, 1895.
2. “Körpermessungen verschiedener Menschenrassen,” Ergänzungsband,
_Zeitschr. f. Eth._, Berlin, 1877.
3. “Die Serbokroaten der Adriatischen Küstenländer,” _Zeitschr. f.
Eth._ (supplement), 1884.
Weissbach, Franz H. _Achämenidenschriften_, Zweiter Art. Leipsig, 1890.
Wendell, Barrett. _A Literary History of America._ Scribner, 1900.
White, Horace. _Appian’s Roman History_, 2 vols. London, Wm. Heinemann;
New York, Macmillan, 1912–1913.
Wilser, L. _Die Germanen._ Eisenach u. Leipsig, 1904.
Wilson, Sir D. _The Archæology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland._
Edinburgh, 1851.
Winstanley, L. See Fleure.
Wissler, Clark. _The American Indian._ New York, Douglas C. McMurtrie,
1917.
Woodruff, C. E.:
1. _The Effect of Tropical Light on White Men._ New York and London,
Rebman Co., 1905.
2. _The Expansion of Races._ New York, Rebman Co., 1909.
Woods, Frederick Adams:
1. _Heredity in Royalty._ New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1906.
2. _The Influence of Monarchs._ Macmillan, 1913.
3. “Significant Evidence for Mental Heredity,” _Jour. of Hered._,
vol. VIII, no. 13, pp. 106–112. Washington, D. C., 1917.
Zaborowski, M. S.:
1. “Les peuples aryens d’Asie et d’Europe” (part of the _Encyclopédie
scientifique_), Octave Doin, Éditeur. Paris, 1908.
2. “Relations primitives des Germains et des Finnois,” _Bull. Soc.
d’anth._, pp. 174–179, Paris, 1907.
3. _Les races de l’Italie._ Paris, 1897.
Zampa, R.:
1. “Anthropologie illyrienne,” _Rev. d’anth._, série 3, t. I, pp.
625–647. 1886.
2. “Il tipo umbro,” _Arch. per l’ant._, vol. XVIII, pp. 175–197.
1888.
3. “Vergleichende anthropologische Ethnographie von Apulien,”
_Zeitschr. f. Eth._, Bd. XVIII, pp. 167–193, 201–232. 1886.
Zeuss, J. K. _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme._ München, 1837.
ANONYMOUS PUBLICATIONS, COLLECTIONS, ENCYCLOPÆDIAS, ETC.
_Argentine Geography._ Published by Messrs. Urien y Colombo. (Members
of the Academy of American History and Numismatics, 1914.)
_Atlas de Finlande._ Société de Géographie de Finlande, Helsingfors,
1911.
_British Indian Census_, 1901, 1911.
_Cambridge Modern History._ (Planned by Lord Acton, edited by A. W.
Ward, Litt.D., G. W. Protheroe, Litt.D., and Stanley Leathes.) New
York, Macmillan Co., 1902–1913.
_Dutch East Indian Census_, 1905.
_Fontes Rerum Bohemicarum_, 5 vols. Prague, 1873–1893.
_Genealogical Records of the Society of Colonial Wars._ Publications
and documents on file with the secretary-general of the Society of
Colonial Wars, New York.
_Handbook of the American Indian._ Bureau of American Ethnology,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., 1907.
_Hittite Inscriptions._ Cornell Expedition, Ithaca, New York, 1911.
_El libro statistico de la republica argentina._ Dirección géneral de
comercio e industria. Talleres gráficos del ministerio de
agricultura, Buenos Aires, 1905.
_Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia._
_Secret History, or The Horrors of Santo Domingo, in a series of
Letters Written by a Lady at Cape François to Colonel Burr (late
Vice-President of the United States) principally during the Command
of General Rochambeau._ Philadelphia, Bradford and Inskeep, R. Carr,
printer, 1808.
_The Statesman’s Yearbook for 1915._ London, Macmillan.
_Statisk Arsbok for Finland, 1917._ Helsingfors, 1918.
_The Statistical Yearbook of the Argentine Republic_, 1915.
INDEX
Aachen, 182.
Accad, 147;
language of, 239.
Achæans, 158–161, 173, 189, 223, 225, 243, 253;
at Troy, 159;
invade Greece, 158–159;
language of, 161.
Acheulean period, 104–106, 133.
Achilles, 159.
Actinic rays, 38, 84.
Adamic theory, 13.
Adriatic, 36, 138.
Ægean, islands of, Hellenes in, 162;
Ægean region, Nordics in, 253.
Æolian language, 243.
Æolians, 159.
Afghan hill tribes, physical character of, 261;
language, 261;
passes, Nordics in, 257, 259.
Afghanistan, 257, 261;
Mediterranean race in, 148;
physical types of, 257.
Afghans, 148;
language of, 148.
Africa, 23, 33, 82;
Alpines in, 140, 158;
Bronze Age in, 128;
cephalic index in, 23;
hunting tribes of, 113;
Mediterraneans in, 148, 151, 152, 155;
megaliths in, 155;
Negro population of, 33, 79, 80;
no Nordic blood in, 180, 223;
Nordic invasion of, 223;
North Africa, as part of Europe, 152;
Berbers of, 152;
under Vandals, 180, 233;
_South Africa_, density of native population barrier to white
conquest, 79, 80.
Agglutinative languages, 148, 234, 239, 240.
Agriculture, 112, 122–124, 138, 146, 240.
Ainus, physical characters of, 224–225;
crossed with Mongols, 225.
Alabama, 99.
Alani, or Alans, 66, 177, 195.
Alaska, 45.
Albania, 30, 36, 164;
stature in, 190.
Albanian language, 164;
origin of, 243–244;
Albanian type, 164.
Albanians, 25;
blondness of, 163;
in the Balkan peninsula, 153.
Albigensians, 157.
Albinos, 25.
Alcoholism, 55.
Alemanni, 135, 145, 177.
Alexander the Great, 161–162, 256, 259.
Alexandria, 92.
Algeria, 44.
Alphabet, earliest traces of, 115.
Alpine race, 20, 21, 25, 29, 31, 34, 35, 63, 64, 69, 73, 134–147, 167,
226;
an agricultural race, 138–139, 146;
and Aryan language, 238–241;
and Dorians, 160;
and High German, 188;
and iron, 129;
and lake dwellings, 121, 139;
and Proto-Slavic language, 143;
and Round Barrows, 137;
as aristocracy in Rome, 154;
Asiatic, and earliest civilizations, 147;
bringers of bronze, 127–128;
of cereals, 138, 146;
of culture, 138, 146;
of domesticated animals, 138, 146;
of metals, 122, 127, 129, 146–147;
of pottery, 146;
Celticized, 174;
centre of radiation of, 124, 136, 141–143;
conquered by Nordics, 129, 145–147;
crossed with Mediterraneans, 151;
crossed with Nordics, 134, 135, 151, 163;
discovery of type of, 130;
distribution of, 241;
eastern spread of, 136;
final invasion of Europe, 127–128;
first appearance of, 116;
in Europe, 136;
habitat of, 43–44;
hair of, 34;
in Africa (North), 128, 140, 156;
Alsace, 140;
Armorica, 251;
Asia, 144;
Austria, 232;
Auvergne, 146;
Baden, 140;
Bavaria, 141;
Belgium, 138, 140;
Britain, 137–138, 239–240, 247;
(present absence of, 137);
British Isles, 199, Brittany, 63, 146;
Canada, 81;
cities, 94;
Denmark, 136;
Egypt, 128, 140;
Europe, 117 (central, 138–139, 141);
(eastern, 44);
(western, 44);
(during the Neolithic, 124);
France, 63, 64, 138, 140, 146, 194, 240, 251;
Gaul, 240;
Germany, 64, 72, 184, 232;
Greece, 65;
Holland, 136;
Italy, 64, 128, 140, 154, 157 (north, 141);
Ireland, 128, 137;
Lake Dwellings, 121;
Lorraine, 140;
Neolithic period, 136;
Norway, 136, 211;
Po valley, 157;
Rome, 154;
Russia, 136, 142–144;
Savoy, 146;
Sicily, 140;
Spain, 140;
Switzerland, 121, 135, 141;
Syria, 140;
Terramara, 122;
Tyrol, 141;
Würtemberg, 140;
maximum extension of, 136–137;
migrations, route of, 116;
mixed with Celts, 177;
with Nordics, 25, 35–36, 62, 135–136;
Nordicized, 130, 141, 147;
north of the Black Sea, 136, 144;
origin of, 134, 241;
original language of, 140, 235;
physical characters of, 35–36, 73;
racial aptitudes of, 227;
reinforced by others, 144;
replacing Nordics in Europe, 260;
resurgence of in Europe, 131, 146–147, 184, 190–191, 196, 210;
retreat of from northwest Europe, 136–138;
skull of, 62;
speech of, 64;
substratum in eastern Germany, 72;
underlying population, 136;
(in relation to Nordics in central Europe, 141);
unimportant in modern culture, 147.
Alps, 42, 123, 129, 174, 187;
Alpines in, 124;
lake dwellings in, 121;
Mediterraneans in, 149, 151;
Nordics in, 151.
Alsace, 182;
Alpines in, 140.
Amber, 125.
America, 6, 10, 14, 57;
change of religion in, 219;
genius in, 98;
immigrants to, 218;
in Colonial times, 46–48, 83–85;
Mediterranean element in, 45;
Nordic immigration to, 211;
Nordics in, 83, 84, 87, 89, 206, 231;
Norman type in, 207;
race development in, 262–263;
replacement of types in, 110;
result of immigration to, 11, 12, 72, 86, 89–94, 100, 209, 211;
Scandinavian element in, 211.
American aristocracy, 5;
characters, 26;
colonies, 10;
democracy, 6;
factories, 11;
farming and artisan classes, 11;
Indians, 33
(eliminated by smallpox, 55;
arrowheads of, 113);
mines, 11;
Negro, provenience of, 82;
Revolution, 6.
Americans, 5, 11, 12, 77, 83, 88–90, 100;
birth rate decline of, 46, 91;
brunet type of, 45, 150;
destruction of in Civil War, 88;
future race mixture of, 92–93, 100;
in competition with immigrants, 91;
individualism of, 12;
national consciousness of, 90;
Nordic element of, 88;
race consciousness among, 86;
southerners, 42;
typical hair shade of, 26.
Amerindian blood, 61.
Amerinds, 23, 31, 33, 34.
Amorites, 223.
Anak, sons of, 223.
Anaryan languages, 140, 194, 204, 233–236;
survivals of in Europe, 234–236, 240;
in Russia, 243;
in the British Isles, 246.
Anatolia, 21;
present population of, 225.
Anatolians, 237.
Andaman Islands, Negroids in, 149.
Angles, 177;
in Britain, 206, 248–249;
in England, 200;
in Scotland, 203;
origin of, 200.
Anglian blood of American settlers, 83.
Anglian type, 40.
Anglo-Norman type, 162.
Anglo-Normans of Ireland, 64.
Anglo-Saxons, 63, 67, 80, 154;
and genius, 109;
in Colonial America, 83.
Animals, domesticated, 112, 117, 122, 123, 138, 146, 240.
Antes, 141.
Anthropoid Apes, 101–102.
Anthropology, 3, 97;
in the British Isles, 249.
Apes, 101–102.
Aquitaine, Iberian language of, 194;
brunet elements from, 208;
and Celtic language, 248.
Aquitanian language, 140.
Arabia, 44, 152.
Arabic language, in Spain, 156.
Arabic race, 147.
Arabs, in Spain, 156.
Aral Sea; _see also_ Caspian-Aral Sea, 171, 254.
Argentine, 78.
Arian faith of the barbarians, 181.
Aristocracy, 5, 10, 140–142, 153–154, 187–189, 191–192, 196–197;
Alpine, 154;
Austrian, 141;
Bavarian, 141;
British, 247;
French, 140;
German, 141;
Greek, 153;
Italian, 189, 215;
military, 78;
Persian, 254;
Roman, 154;
Russian, 142;
Spanish, 192, 247;
Swabian, 141;
a true, 7, 8.
Aristocrats, 188, 191, 192, 197.
Aristotle, 226.
Armenians, 59, 63, 66, 238–239, 256;
language of, 238, 256.
Armenoid Alpines, 254.
Armenoids, 20, 134, 238, 254, 257.
Armies, conscript and volunteer, 198.
Armor, 120;
of the Romans, 154.
Armorica; _see also_ Brittany;
Alpines in, 251;
Celts in, 250–251.
Armorican language, 248, 251.
Armoricans, 250.
Arrow, in the Azilian Period, 115;
in the Palæolithic Period, 112, 115.
Art, Cro-Magnon, 112;
Magdalenian, 114;
in the Palæolithic Period, 112;
decline of in the Solutrean Period, 114.
Artois, 210.
Arya, 233–241.
Aryan deities, 253.
Aryan language or speech, 20, 61, 67, 130, 155, 161, 233;
and Alpines, 238;
associated with the Nordics, 234, 241–242;
diversity of, 242;
first appearance of in Europe, 246;
imposed upon the Alpines and Mediterraneans, 242;
in Armenia, 239;
in Asia, 253–263;
in Asia Minor, 238–239;
in the Caucasus, 238–239;
in Iran, 238–239;
introduced into Etruria, 244;
into Europe, 155;
into Greece, 203;
into India, 258;
into Media, 254;
into Spain, 192;
language of the Ossetes, 66;
of Hindustan, 67, 70;
origin of, 242–252;
place of development of, 243;
primitive 212;
Pre-Aryan, 204, 233, 235, 247;
Proto-Aryan, 61, 233, 238, 242–243.
Aryan race, 3, 67, 213.
Asia, 20, 21, 61;
Alpines in, 144;
area of man’s evolution, 13;
Aryan languages in, 253–263;
Aryanization of, 255;
blondness in, 224;
cradle of mankind, 100–101;
cradle of the Negro, 33;
early civilizations in, 119;
ethnic conquest of, 78;
(western) Hellenization of, 162;
(western) Macedonian dynasties of, 162;
Mediterranean languages in, 253;
Mediterranean race in, 148–149;
Mongols destroy civilization in, 260;
Negrito substratum in, 148–149;
Nordics in, 214, 224, 253–263.
Asia Minor, 20;
Alpines in, 127, 134, 136;
Armenians in, 256;
bronze weapons in, 127;
Cimmerians in, 254;
early iron in, 129;
Gauls in, 158;
Greek colonies in, 160;
Hellenized, 220;
invaded by Phrygians, 159;
Nordics in, 214, 225;
Turkish language in, 237.
Asiatic types, Europeanized, 144.
Asiatics, 22.
Assam, dialects of, 258.
Assyria, 147;
ancient civilizations of, 153;
languages of, 239.
Athenians, instability and versatility of, 229.
Athens, 160, 162.
Atlas Berbers, 25.
Atlas Mountains, 223.
Attica, and genius, 109;
Pelasgians in, 160.
Attila, 139, 250.
Augustus, Emperor, 51, 154, 216.
Aurignacian Period, 105, 108, 111, 112, 114, 132.
Australia, Nordic race in, 79.
Australians, 31;
opposing the Japanese and Chinese, 79.
Australoids, 33, 107;
hairiness of, 224.
Austria, 56, 183;
Alpines in, 210, 232;
Nordics in, 210;
present population of, 231–232;
Slavs in, 141.
Austrians, 57, 135.
Auvergne, Alpines in, 146;
ancient centre of population, 149.
Avars, 143–145;
language of, 236.
Avesta, 255.
Azilian Period (Azilian-Tardenoisian), 99, 105, 115–117, 132, 136;
and brachycephalics, 116;
and Mediterranean race, 117;
bow and arrow in, 113, 115.
Azilians, 113, 138.
Babylonia, 147;
ancient civilization of, 153.
Bactra, 119.
Bactria, language of, 255;
Mongolization of, 259;
Sacæ in, 259.
Baden, Alpines in, 140.
Bahamas, 39, 40;
English in, 40.
Balkan Peninsula, Albanians in, 153;
Illyrians in, 153;
Mediterranean substratum in, 152–153;
Nordics in, 189;
Slavs in, 143, 153.
Balkan Question, 156–157.
Balkans, 56, 57, 144;
Alpines in, 116, 124, 127, 136;
immigrants from, 89;
language in, 237.
Balkh, 119.
Balochi dialect, 255.
Baltic, coasts, Neolithic occupation of, 122–123;
Pre-Neolithic culture of, 117;
Provinces, 211, 212;
Race, _see_ Nordic race;
Russification of, 58;
Sea, 20, 37, 117, 122, 124, 151, 168, 169, 171, 173, 174, 180;
subspecies, 20;
_see also_ Nordic race.
Baluchistan, 148.
Bantus, 80.
Barbadoes, 39.
Bashkirs, 144.
Basques, 140;
language of and its affinities, 140, 234;
physical characters of, 234–235.
Bas-reliefs, 112.
Batavia, 210.
Batavians, 177.
Bavaria, Alpines in, 116, 141;
dolichocephalics in, 116.
Bavarians, 135, 141.
Beaker Maker type, 138, 164.
Bedouins, 100.
Belgæ, 145, 194–195, 200, 269;
in Britain, 251;
in England, 175;
in France, 175;
Gaul, 251;
Normandy, 251;
mixed with Teutons, 248;
language of, 251.
Belgians (modern), 195.
Belgium, 56, 64, 195;
divided into Walloons and Flemings, 57;
Alpines in, 116, 138, 140;
Walloons in, 146.
Benin, Bight of, 82.
Berbers, 25, 63, 152, 223;
language of, 204, 233;
related to the Spaniards and South Italians, 152.
Berserker, 231.
Bessarabia, Rumanian language in, 245.
Birth control, 48–49;
increase, 51;
privilege of, 6;
rate in upper and lower classes, 47–52, 91;
unconscious part played by church in, 52.
Black Belt of Mississippi, 76.
Black Breed of Scotland, 107.
Black Sea, 125, 136, 144, 165;
Alpines north of, 136.
Blends, 14.
Blond Hair, 24, 25.
Blond type, 24–26, 229, 230;
crossed with brunet, 14, 18, 26, 28, 202;
origin of, 214.
Blondness, 25, 26;
associated with glabrous skin, 32;
with red hair, 32;
of Ainus, 224;
of Albanians and Greeks, 163;
of Berbers, 223;
of Libyans, 223;
of Swiss, 136;
of Tamahu, 223;
in Asia, 224;
in Bosnia, 190;
in central Europe in Roman times, 131;
in Ireland, 201;
in literature as special trait, 229;
in Poland, 190;
in Russia, 190;
in Spain, 192;
of Christ, 230.
Blonds, mixed with brunets, 202.
Bohemia, 59, 183;
revolt of, 187;
loss of population in during Thirty Years’ War, 184.
Bohemian national revival, 58.
Bone-carving, 112.
Borreby type (_see_ Beaker Makers), 164.
Borussian language, 242.
Bosnia, 190.
Boundaries, of Catholics and Protestants, 185;
of Nordics and Alpines, 185–186;
of Eastern and Western Empires, 179.
Bow and arrow in the Paleolithic Period, 112, 113, 115.
Brachycephalic, as a term, 19;
races, first appearance of, 116.
Brachycephaly, 19, 116, 122, 127–128, 136–138, 144, 146, 151, 157, 172;
increase of in France, 197;
Russian, 136.
Brahmans, 257.
Brandenburg, population of, 72.
Brazil, Negro blood in, 78.
Brenner Pass, 189.
Brennus, 157.
Bretons, 62;
Asiatic origin of, 63.
Britain, 128, 131, 194;
Alpine invasion of, 239;
Angles in, 206, 248–249;
Aryan language in, 234;
Beaker Makers in, 138;
Belgæ in, 248, 251;
bronze in, 127;
Bronze Age in, 163;
Celtic language in, 247;
Celts in, 248;
Danes in, 249;
Goidels in, 174, 248;
iron in, 130–131;
land connection of, with France, 199;
with Ireland, 199;
loss of Roman power in, 250;
Mediterraneans in, 123, 127, 248;
(_see also_ British Isles and England)
Neolithic population of, 123;
Normans in, 249;
Norse in, 249;
Paleolithic population of, 123;
Proto-Mediterraneans in, 150;
race mixture in, 248;
racial composition of, 199;
Round Barrow Men in, 163;
Saxons in, 248–249;
Welsh in, 248–249.
British, 29;
native British stature, 29.
British Empire, 57.
British Isles (_see also_ Britain and England);
Alpines absent in, 63;
absence of round skulls in, 63, 137, 138, 247, 249;
anthropology of, 249;
brunets of, 28, 29, 149, 150;
conquered by Saxons, 180;
Celtic languages in, 249–250;
Iberian substratum in, 249;
invaded by Belgæ or Cymry, 199;
by Brythons, 199;
by Goidels, 199;
Mediterraneans in, 149, 198, 266;
Nordics in, 188, 199–206, 269, 271;
Saxon and Danish parts of, 88;
Saxons in, 180;
Teutonic languages in, 249;
Vikings in, 249.
Brittany, 81, 129, 146, 202, 248;
(_see_ Armorica);
Alpines in, 146, 267;
Armorican language in, 248;
Celtic language in, 250–252;
Celts in, 250–251;
dolmens in, 129;
megaliths in, 155;
ravaged by the Saxons, 251–252.
Bronze, 132, 155;
associated with Alpines, 128, 136;
composition and invention of, 126;
effect of, 127, 128, 129;
fabulous value of, 126;
implements, wide diffusion of common types, 128;
in Crete, 128;
in England, 128, 137;
in Ireland, 137;
in Italy, 127–128;
in megalithic monuments, 129;
in north Africa, 128;
in Scandinavia, 128;
in Sweden, 137;
introduction of, 157, 158;
on Atlantic coasts, 128;
absence of in dolmens, 127.
Bronze Period (Age), 120–122, 126–133, 137, 163, 174, 199, 213, 238,
267;
and Beaker Makers, 138;
in the South contemporary with the northern neolithic, 129.
Brunet, crossed with blond, 14, 18, 26, 28, 202.
Brunetness, among Greeks, 163;
in central Europe, 131;
in literature, as a special character, 229;
in England and America, 150, 153;
in Scotland, 150, 153, 204.
Brünn-Předmost race, 113, 114, 132.
Brutus, 217.
Brythonic elements, in Scotland, 203;
(Cymric) invasion, 247;
language, 248;
in France, 248;
in Wales, 205.
Brythons, 203, 247–249, 269;
on the continent, 174;
in England, 175, 200, 206;
in Ireland, 200, 206.
Bukowina, Rumanian language in, 245.
Bulgaria, Mongoloid characters in, 144;
Mediterraneans in, 153.
Bulgarian national revival, 58.
Bulgarians and Christianity, 65;
domination of in Thrace, 246.
Bulgars, 145.
Burgund, 142.
Burgundians, 70, 72, 145, 177, 194;
in Gaul, 180.
Burgundy, 30, 182–183.
Byzantine Army, 189;
Empire, 65, 165–166, 179, 181, 189, 221, 237, 246;
decline of, 221;
Greeks in, 165.
Byzantium, 92, 166.
Cacocracy, 79.
Cæsar, 69, 140, 182, 193–195, 200, 217, 221, 248, 251.
Caithness, 249.
Calabrian, language, 244.
California, 11, 75.
Californians, 79.
Caligula, 217.
Campignian Period, 120, 121;
culture of, 132.
Canada, 23;
Nordics in, 81;
French Canada, 47.
Canadians (French), 11, 47, 58, 81;
origin of, 81;
Alpine character of, 81;
language of, 81;
(Irish), 11;
Indian, 9, 87.
Cantabrian Alps, 140, 267.
Carpathian Mountains, 124, 136, 141, 142, 143, 244–245.
Carthage, 126, 165, 180;
ancient civilization of, 153.
Carthaginians, 228.
Caspian Sea (_see also_ Caspian-Aral Sea), 171, 257.
Caspian-Aral Sea, 170, 214, 225, 254, 258.
Cassiterides, 127.
Cassius, 217.
Castes, 70.
Castilian language, 156, 244.
Catalan language, 156, 244.
Catholic boundaries in Europe, 185.
Catholic colonies, the half-breed in, 85.
Caucasian race, 3, 32, 34, 65, 66, 67;
hair of, 34;
in the United States, 65;
origin of the name, 66.
Caucasus, 66, 144, 225, 238–239, 253;
Cimmerian raids in, 254;
Nordics in, 214, 258.
Caucasus Mountains, 66, 214, 257.
Cavalier type, 185.
Caverns of France and Spain, 112, 132.
Celtiberians, 192;
language of, 234.
Celtic dialects, 62, 130.
Celtic languages, 62;
antedating Anglo-Saxons in England, and Romans in France, 63;
in Spain, 155, 234;
Celtic and High German, 189;
Celtic in France, 194, 248;
Celtic language of the Nordics, 194;
first crosses the Rhine westward, 246;
introduced into Britain, 247–250;
in Brittany, 250–251;
in Gaul, 250;
descendants of, 250;
remnants of, 155–156.
Celtic Nordics, 139.
Celtic race, 3, 62–64.
Celtic-speaking nations, 130, 131, 139, 173–177, 189, 192, 199;
physical characters of, 175.
Celtic tribes, 250;
in Armorica, 251.
Celto-Scyths, 174.
Celts, 62, 63, 194;
in the Rhine valley, 174;
in the Danube valley, 174;
expulsion of from Germany, 174;
physical characters of, 175;
mixed with Mediterraneans and Alpines, 177;
“Q” and “P,” 247–248.
Central America, 61, 75.
Centum group of Aryan languages, 256.
Cephalic index, 19–24;
in England, 137;
increase of in France, 197.
Cereals, 138.
Ceylon, 258;
Mediterranean race in, 148;
Negroids in, 149;
Veddahs in, 149.
Châlons, battle of, 250, 272.
Channel coasts, 201;
depression of, 199.
Characters, unit, 13 _et seq._
Charlemagne, 182, 187, 191, 195;
capital of, 182;
coronation of, 182;
empire of, 182;
language of the court of, 182.
Charles V, 183.
Charles Martel, 181.
Chase, the, 122.
Chellean Period, 104–105, 132;
Pre-Chellean, 104–105.
Cherbourg, 201.
China, whites in, 78.
Chinese, 11, 79, 119, 260;
in California and Australia, 79;
Nordic elements among, 224.
Chinese civilization, 119.
Chinese coolie, 11.
Chinese Turkestan, Wu-Suns in, 260;
Tokharian language in, 260.
Chivalry, 228.
Christ, 227;
blondness of, 230.
Christianity, 181–183, 221–222.
Chronological table, 132–133.
Chronology, Hebrew, 4.
Church, and birth control, 52;
harboring defective strains, 49–50.
Church of Rome and democracy, 85.
Cimbri, 177.
Cimmerians, 173, 189, 214, 225, 253, 258, 269.
Cinque cento, 215.
Circassians, 237.
Cisalpine Gaul, 157.
Cities, consumers of men, 209;
Alpines in, 94;
Mediterraneans in, 94, 209;
Nordics in, 94, 209.
Civil War, 16, 42–43, 81, 86, 88, 218.
Civilization, foundation of European, 164, 165;
and race mixture, 161;
of Nordics and Mediterraneans, 214–216.
Climate and arboreal man, 101.
Climatic conditions, 38–42, 215.
Cnossos, 165.
Colonial American families, 46–48, 51, 83–85.
Colonial population, of America, 48, 83, 84.
Colonial Wars, causes of, 85.
Colonies, American, Nordic blood in, 84;
Catholic, in New France and New Spain, 85.
Colonization, 93.
Columbaria, 220.
Competition of races, 46–55.
Conquistadores, 73, 193.
Conscript Armies, 197–198.
Constantine, 166.
Constantinople, 166 (_see_ Byzantium).
Consumption, 55.
Continuity of physical characters, 262.
Copper, 125, 132;
in Egypt, 125;
first appearance of in Europe, 122;
implements, 121;
mines, 125.
Cornish language, 248.
Cornwales, 178.
Cornwall, 178;
racial types in, 206;
Phœnicians in, 127.
Cotentin, 201.
“Crackers,” 39.
Cretans, 228.
Crete, 99, 165;
ancient civilization of, 153;
bronze in, 128;
Hellenes in, 162;
Minoan culture of, 99, 164;
Pre-Aryan language, remnants in, 233.
Crimea, 176;
Gauls in, 174.
Croats, 143.
Cro-Magnon, race, 105–107, 108–115, 132;
and art, 112, 114;
and Esquimaux, 112;
cranial capacity of, 109;
culture of, 111–113;
direction of entrance of, into Europe, 111;
disappearance of, 110–111, 115;
disharmonic features of, 110;
distribution of, 111;
first appearance of, 108, 111;
genius of, 109;
in France, 265;
origin of, 111;
race characters of, 108–109;
remnants of, 15, 110;
skull of, 15, 110;
weapons of, 112, 113.
Crossing, brunets and blonds, 14, 18, 26, 28, 202.
Crucifixion, in art, 230.
Crusades, 182, 191.
Cuba, 76.
Culture, European, derivation of, 164.
Cumberland Mountains, 39.
Cymric invasions, 174;
(Brythonic), 247.
Cymric language, 248;
Anaryan syntax of, 204;
in Britain, 248;
in central Europe, 248;
in Normandy, 251;
in Wales, 205.
Cymry, 145, 174, 205–206, 247, 269, 271;
and La Tène, 131;
in Britain, 175, 200;
in France, 175, 251.
Cyprus, mines of, 125;
Mycenæan culture of, 164.
Cyrus, 254.
Czechs, 143.
Da Vinci, Leonardo, 215.
Dacia, 245.
Dacian Plain, 176, 244–245;
occupation of, 143.
Dalmatian Alps, 30;
coast, 138.
Danes, 69, 145, 177, 196, 206, 211;
along the Atlantic coasts, 180;
in Britain, 249;
invasion of, 201;
Nordic, 64;
of Ireland, 63–64, 201;
of Schleswig, Germanization of, 58–59.
Danish barbarians, identified with Normans, 252;
Danish blood of American settlers, 83;
Danish Peninsula, 200.
Dante, 215.
Danube, 244–245;
Alpines, in valley of, 116, 127, 136, 167;
lake dwellings of, 121, 122;
Nordics in, 174;
routes of, 125.
Dardanelles, 256.
Darius, 254–255;
Nordic type, 258.
Dark Ages, 99.
Dart, barbed, 112;
poisoned, 113.
David, fairness of, 223;
mother of, 223–224.
Dawn Man, 105.
Dawn stones, 102–103.
DeGeer, Baron, 169.
Delphi, Galatians at, 158.
Democracy, 5, 8, 10, 12, 78, 79;
and socialism, 79.
Democratic forms of government, 5.
Denmark, Alpines in, 136, 211;
kitchen middens of, 123;
Maglemose culture in, 117, 123, 169;
Teutons from, 174.
Dinaric race, or type, 138, 163–164, 190.
Diogenes, 227.
Diseases, 54, 55.
Disharmonic combinations of physical characters, 14, 28, 35, 110.
Dnieper river, 143.
Dog, the, domesticated, 117, 123;
Paleolithic, 112.
Dolichocephalic, as a term, 19;
Dolichocephalics, earliest races in Europe, 116.
Dolichocephaly, 24, 107, 108, 114, 116, 122, 136, 148–149, 151, 172.
Dolichocephs and megaliths, 129.
Dolmens, of Brittany, absence of bronze in, 129.
Domesticated animals, 117, 122–123, 138.
Dominion of Canada, 81.
Dordogne, stature in, 198.
Dorian dialects, 164, 243;
invasion of Greece, 99, 159–160.
Dorians, 159–160, 164, 189, 269.
Dravidians, 148, 257;
mixed with Mediterraneans, 150.
Dutch, 61;
in the East Indies, 78;
in New York, 80, 84;
in South Africa, 80.
East Indies, whites in, 78;
Dutch in, 78.
Eastern Empire of Rome, 165–166, 176, 179, 221.
Ecclesiastics among Normans, brachycephalic, 208.
Egypt, Alpines in, 128, 140;
ancient civilization of, 119, 153, 164;
bronze weapons in, 127;
copper in, 125;
culture synchronous with the northern Neolithic, 125;
(lower) earliest fixed date of, 125;
fellaheen of, 15;
freedmen of, 16;
Hellenized, 220;
invaded by Libyans, 223;
iron in, 129;
Macedonian dynasties of, 162;
Mediterranean race in, 148;
monuments in, 155;
national revival of, 58;
Nordics in, 223.
Egyptians, 15, 63;
ancient, 152;
language of, 233.
Elam, 147.
Elimination of the weak and unfit, 49–54.
Eneolithic Period, 121, 128, 132.
Energy of the Nordics, 215.
England, 10, 21, 26, 56, 62, 185–186;
Alpines in, 137;
Angles in, 200;
blond elements in, 63;
bronze introduced into, 128;
Brythons in, 175;
cephalic index in, 137, 138;
conquered by the Danes, 69, 201;
by the Normans, 69, 206–207;
by the Norsemen, 69;
by the Saxons, 69;
blonds mixed with brunets in, 202;
deterioration of, 209;
economic change in, 43, 209;
ethnic elements in, 201–210;
Goidelic elements in, 201;
Goidelic speech in, 200;
Iberian substratum in, 201;
iron in, 129–131;
land connection of with Ireland and France, 128, 199;
loss of Nordics in, 168, 191;
Mediterranean race in, 26, 83, 150, 153, 155, 203, 208–210;
megaliths in, 155;
nobility in, 191;
Nordic race in, 26, 188, 199–210;
decline of Nordic element in, 190, 191, 208–210;
Norman type in, 206–208, 252;
physical types in, 249;
Post-Roman invaders of, 73;
race elements in, 64, 249;
Round Barrow men of, 137–138;
Saxon invasion of, 200–201;
Saxon speech of, 69;
severed from France and Ireland, 128;
stone weapons in, 120–121;
in world war, 191, 198.
English, the, 61, 67;
brunet, 149–150;
borderers, 40;
characters, 26, 29, 64;
in the Bahamas, 40;
in New York, 80;
in South Africa, 80;
modern, 67;
Norman type among, 207;
Round Barrow survivals among, 164;
typical hair shade of, 26.
English Channel, 199.
English language, 61;
a world language, 80, 204.
English race related to the Frisians, 73.
Environment, 4, 16, 19, 28, 38–39, 98–99;
effects of, 262.
_Eoanthropus_, 105–106.
Eolithic culture, 103;
man, 97–103;
Period, 102–103, 105, 132.
Eoliths, 102–103.
Ephtalites, 254.
Epirus, 164.
Erse language, 247.
Esquimaux, and Cro-Magnons, 110, 112, 225.
Esthonians, 234;
language of, 234, 236, 243;
immigration of, 236.
Esths, 236, 243.
Eternal City, 153.
Ethiopia, 151.
Ethiopian Negro, 24, 151.
Etruria, 153, 165;
ancient civilization of, 153;
struggles of with the Latins, 154;
empire of, 165.
Etruscans, 154, 157, 244;
language of, 234, 244;
empire of, 157;
power of destroyed, 157;
learn Aryan, 244.
Eugenics, ideal in, 48.
Eurasia, 100, 202.
Europe, 20, 21, 24, 27, 30, 44, 56, 60, 62, 63, 68;
abandoned to invaders, 179;
Alpines in, 117;
Anaryan survivals in, 234–235;
brain capacity of, 53;
Cro-Magnons in, 108, 115;
dolichocephalic, 116;
early man in, 102;
glaciation in, 101–102;
not the home of the Alpines, 43;
nor of the Slavs, 65;
German types in, 73;
iron in, 129–131;
(mediæval), 10, 52, 59;
megaliths in, 155;
Mongols in, 65;
Nordic aristocracy in, 188;
_see also_ Aristocracy;
Nordics in, 188;
peninsula of Asia or Eurasia, 100;
Pre-Aryan speech in, 235;
Teutonic, 179–187;
Turkish language in, 237;
(western) introduction of Aryan speech into, 234.
Europe (Paleolithic), 23.
European culture, derivation of, 164.
European man, 25,000 years ago, 109.
European races, 18–21, 24, 28–30, 32, 33, 35, 60, 66, 131;
natural habitat of, 37;
physical characters of, 21, 31, 34;
present distribution of, 272–273.
European wars and Nordics, 73, 74;
causes of, 56.
Europeans, in Brazil, 78;
modern, cranial capacity of, 109.
Euskarian language; _see also_ Basque, 140, 235.
Euskarians (Basques), 234.
Eye color, 13, 24, 25, 35, 135, 168, 175.
Farms, immigrants on, 209;
nurseries of nations, 209.
Fellaheen, 152.
Fen districts, Mediterraneans in, 153.
Ferdinand of Hapsburg, 187.
Fertility and infertility of races, 22.
Feudalism, 228.
Finland, 59, 236;
Alpines in, 211;
colonized by Sweden, 211;
conquered by the Varangians, 177.
Finlanders, language of, 234, 236, 243.
Finnic dialects, 234.
Finns, 58, 243;
round skulled, invasion of, 236.
Firbolgs, 108, 203.
Flanders, 182;
Nordics in, 188, 210, 231.
Flemings, 57, 61, 195, 210;
language of, 195;
descended from the Franks, 210.
Flints, chipped, 102–104, 113, 119–121;
polished, 119–120.
Foot, as a race character, 31.
Forests, 124.
Forty-Niners, 75.
France, 23, 56, 60, 63;
and the church, 181;
and the Huguenots, 53;
Alpines in, 138, 140, 142, 194;
Aryan language in, 234;
Athenian versatility of, 161;
Basques in, 140;
Bronze Age in, 129, 131;
Brythonic language in, 248;
caverns in, 112;
Celtic language in, 194, 248–251;
connection of by land with Britain, 199;
cephalic index in, 197;
conquered by Gauls, 173;
Cro-Magnon race in, 110;
Cymry or Belgæ in, 175, 251;
decline of international power in, 197;
first Alpines in, 116;
Hallstatt relics in, 131;
in Cæsar’s time, 194–195;
invasion of by Gauls, 199;
loss through war, 197;
Mediterraneans in, 149, 156, 194;
megaliths in, 129;
mercenaries in, 135;
Nordic aristocracy in, 140;
Nordics in, 188, 231;
Normans in, 201;
Paleolithic,
remnants in, 110;
racial composition of, 194;
religious wars of, 185, 196;
Saxons in, 201;
severed from England, 128;
stature in, 198;
Tardenoisian Period of, 115;
variation of physical characters in, 23.
Francis I, 183.
Franco-Prussian War, 198.
Frankish aristocracy, 196;
dynasties, 195;
kingdom, 196.
Franks, 67, 70, 145, 177, 181, 251;
founders of France, 195;
in Belgium, 195;
in Gaul, 206;
conquer the Lombards, 181;
conversion of, 181;
control western Christendom, 181;
defeat the Moslems, 181;
kingdom of, 180–196.
French, 67;
stature of, 197–198;
conscripts, 198;
language, 244;
Revolution, 6.
French Canadians, 11, 58.
Frisia, 73.
Frisian coast, 210;
dialect (Taal), South Africa, 80.
Frisians, 177;
Nordic character of, 73.
Friulian language, 244.
Frontiersmen of America, 45, 74–75, 85.
Furfooz-Grenelle race, 116, 132, 136, 138.
“Furor Normanorum,” 130.
Gaelic, 247, 249.
Galatia, 158, 225.
Galatians, 158;
physical character of, 175.
Galicia, 245;
Nordics in, 156.
Gallicia, Slavs in, 143.
Gaul, 60, 131;
Cisalpine Gaul, 157;
Roman Gaul, 69;
Alpines in, 124, 240;
Belgæ in, 251;
Burgundians in, 180;
Celtic speech in, 250;
conquered by the Goths and Franks, 251;
Franks in, 206;
Goidels in, 248;
languages in, 69–70;
Latinized, 194;
Latin speech in, 251;
Mediterraneans in, 123;
Nordics in, 193–194;
Nordics or Celts cross into, 173, 194;
Teutonic speech in, 251;
Visigoths in, 180.
Gauls, 68, 131, 145, 156, 189, 194;
ancient, 229;
conquer France, 174;
enter Spain, 174, 192;
in Asia Minor, 158;
in the Crimea, 174;
in France, 199;
in Galatia, 225;
in Greece, 158;
in Italy, 157, 174, 225;
in south Russia, 174;
in Thrace, 225;
mixed with Alpines, 247;
mixed with Mediterraneans, 192, 247;
physical characters of, 175;
as a ruling class, 247.
Genius and leaders, 98;
and education or environment versus race, 98;
in Greece, 109;
in various states, 99;
genius producing type and rate of increase, 51, 99.
Georgia, 39, 99.
Georgians, 237.
Gepidæ, 177.
German, Emperor, 182–183;
Empire, 184;
immigrants to America, 84, 86, 87, 184;
in the Civil War, 87;
in Brazil, 78;
language, 61, 182, 188–189;
Revolution, of 1848, 87;
type, 73.
Germans, 61, 67;
Austrian Germans, 145;
defeat Mongols, 260;
descendants of Wends, 72;
immediate forerunners of, 194;
in America, 84;
in Brazil, 78;
in Civil War, 87;
of the Palatinate, 84;
Russification of, 58;
stature of, 154.
Germany, 65, 72, 200;
Alpines in, 64, 72, 73, 124, 135, 141–142, 184–187, 189, 232;
Celts in, 173–174, 248;
change of race in, 141–142, 184–185;
Christian overlordship of, 183;
early Nordics in, 124, 131;
gentry of, 185, 198;
Goidels in, 247–248;
imperial idea in, 187;
loss of population of during Thirty Years’ War, 183;
Mediterraneans in, 123;
in Middle Ages, 183;
modern population of, 186, 231–232;
nobility of, 185;
Nordics in, 73, 124, 131, 141–142, 170, 174, 184, 187–188, 210, 213,
231;
peasantry (Alpine) in, 185;
race consciousness of, 57;
race mixture in, 135;
racial composition of, 72, 73, 184;
Slavic substratum in, 72, 131, 141–142;
Teutons in, 72, 73, 184–189;
Thirty Years’ War, effect of, 183–187, 198;
unified, 56–57, 186;
Wends in, 236;
women of, 228;
in world war, 186–187, 231.
Ghalcha, 255, 259.
Ghalchic, 261.
Ghettos, 209.
Gizeh round skulls, 127.
Glacial stages, 101, 105–106, 133.
Glaciation, 100–106, 132.
Goidelic dialects, 200–201, 248;
elements in Scotland, 203;
language, Anaryan syntax in, 204;
in Wales, 205;
older in central Europe, 248.
Goidels, 131, 173–174, 194–195, 200, 247, 269, 271;
crossed with Mediterraneans, 248–249;
invade Britain, 199;
late wave of from Ireland to Scotland, 250;
a ruling class, 247.
Gold, 125.
Gothic language in Spain, 156.
Goths, 66, 73, 142, 145, 176–177, 180–181, 189, 192, 206, 211, 251,
270;
early home of, 176;
in Italy, 157.
Græculus, 163.
Greece, 59;
ancient, absence of Dinaric type in, 164;
ancient civilization of, 153;
classic period of, 99, 160–161;
conquered by Achæans, 158;
culture of, contrasted with that of the Persians, 255;
dark period of, 99;
Dorian invasion of 99, 159;
Homeric, 163–164;
Homeric-Mycenæan culture of, 99;
Mediterranean substratum in, 152;
modern, 161–164;
Hellenes in, 162;
Mycenæan culture of, 164;
Nordics in, 159–160, 173, 214;
Pelasgians in, 158;
race mixture in, 161;
war of with Persia, 255.
Greek language, 179;
origin of, 243.
Greek states, 162.
Greeks, in Asia Minor, 160.
ancient, cranial capacity of, 109;
brunets among, 159, 163;
blonds among, 159, 163;
genius of, 109;
language of, 158;
Mediterraneans, 153, 158
classic, 161, 256;
blondness of, 159, 163;
brunets among, 160–161;
character of, 154, 160;
language of, 161;
Nordic type of, 162;
physical character of, 163;
race mixture among, 160–161
modern, 68;
Alpines among, 65;
language of, 163;
physical character of, 162–163.
Greenland, 211.
Gregory, Pope, 230.
Grenelle race, 116, 132, 136, 138, 267.
Gulf States, Negroes in, 76.
Günz glaciation, 101, 132.
Günz-Mindel glaciation, 132.
Gustavus Adolphus, 210.
Hair, of the head, 33;
character of, 33–34.
Hair color, 13, 24, 25, 28, 32, 35, 135, 168, 175.
Hairiness, 31, 168;
of the Ainus, 224;
of the Australoids, 224;
of the Scandinavians, 224.
Haiti, 76, 77.
Hallstatt iron culture, 129, 130–132.
Hamitic peoples, 152;
speech, 140.
Hannibal, 217.
Hanover, 73.
Hapsburg, House of, 183;
Ferdinand of, 187.
Harold, King of England, 120.
Hebrew chronology, 4.
Heidelberg jaw, 102;
man, 106, 118, 133.
Hellas, ancient civilization of, 153, 160, 215;
conquered by Macedon, 161–162.
Hellenes, 68, 158–163, 215, 243;
language of, 233–234.
Hellenic colonies, 165;
language, 233–234;
states, 165.
Henry VIII, 183.
Henry the Fowler, 142.
Heredity, 4, 13 _et seq._;
in relation to environment, 16;
unalterable, 16–19.
Heroes, blondness of, 159, 229.
Heruli, 177.
Hidalgo, meaning of the term, 192.
High German, and Teutonized Alpines, 189;
and Celtic elements, 189;
High German people, 73;
High and Low German, 258.
Highlanders, Scottish, 62.
Highlands, Goidelic speech in, 250;
language of, 247.
Himalayas, western, 22;
Alpines in, 134.
Hindu Kush, 20, 256;
Alpines in, 134.
Hindus, 18, 21, 70, 159, 216;
Aryan speech of, 67;
languages of, 148, 216, 257.
Hindustan, 67, 70, 148–149, 255;
Mediterraneans in, 149;
Nordic invaders of, 67, 70;
physical types of, 257;
whites in, 78.
Hittite empire, 256;
language, 239.
Hittites, ancestors of the Armenians, 239;
and iron, 129.
Hiung-Nu, 224.
Hohenstaufen emperors, 186.
Holland, 26, 73, 182, 210;
Alpines in, 136;
bronze in, 127;
Nordics in, 188, 210.
Hollanders, related to Anglo-Saxons of England, 80.
Holstein, 73.
Holy Roman Empire, 182, 184.
Homer, 159, 189.
Homeric-Mycenæan civilization, 159.
_Homo_, 32, 33, 167;
_eoanthropus_, 105–106;
_europæus_, 167;
_heidelbergensis_, 102, 106, 118;
_pithecanthropus_, 101.
Horse, 112.
“House of Refuge,” 115.
Hudson Bay Company, 9.
Huguenots, exterminated in France, 53;
in exile, 53;
in America, 84.
Humboldt, skull of, 226.
Hungarian nation, 59.
Hungarians, 143;
modern, 145.
Hungary, 144;
Alpines and Nordics in, 210;
early Nordics in, 131;
independent, 59;
languages in, 236;
Saxons in, 201;
Slavs in, 131.
Huns, 176.
Hunting, 113, 122.
Hybridism, 14, 17, 18, 60, 188.
Iberian language, 194, 235.
Iberian Peninsula, Aryan language in, 192;
Mediterraneans in, 152, 156;
states, 60.
Iberian subspecies, 20, 148 (_see_ Mediterranean race);
as substratum in British Isles, 249;
in England, 201;
in Ireland, 201.
Iberian type or race, 148, 202 (_see_ Mediterranean race);
resurgence of, in Scotland, 249.
Iberians, 68, 156, 193, 201, 249.
Iceland, 211.
Illyria, stature in, 190.
Illyrian language, 164;
origin of, 243.
Illyrians, mixed with Slavs, 153, 190.
Immigrants, 71, 74, 84, 100, 218;
Americanization of, 90–91;
and American institutions and environment, 90;
in America, 11, 12, 84, 86–92, 209, 211, 218;
German and Irish, 84, 86, 87;
large families among, 47;
Norwegian, 211;
Scandinavian, 211;
skulls of, 17;
Teutonic and Nordic types of, 184.
Immigration, and decline of American birth rate, 91;
German, in Brazil, 78;
Italian, in Brazil, 78;
Japanese and Chinese, 79;
result of, in the United States, 11, 12, 89–94.
Immigration Commission, Congressional, report of, 17.
Immutability of characters, 15, 18.
Imperial idea, 182;
of Germany, 187.
Implements, bronze, 121, 122;
copper, 125;
flint, 103–104;
wide diffusion of, 128.
Incineration, 128.
Increase of native Americans, 88, 89;
and immigration, 89.
India, 22, 33, 66, 78, 119, 171, 241, 261;
Aryan languages in, 173, 216, 237, 257–261;
conquering classes in, 70, 71;
Dravidians in, 148;
fossil deposits in, 101;
Mediterraneans in, 150–151, 261;
Negroids in, 149;
Nordics in, 257;
physical types of, 257;
Pre-Dravidians in, 149;
prehistoric remains in, 101;
race mixture in, 150;
Sacæ in, 257–258;
Sanskrit introduced into, 216;
selection in, 150;
whites in, 78.
Indian languages, 173, 216, 237, 257–261.
Indians, 9, 18, 23, 33, 55, 65, 76, 77, 85, 87.
Individualism, 12.
Indo-European race, 3, 66;
Indo-Germanic race, 3, 66;
Indo-Iranian group of Aryan languages, 261.
Inequality, law of nature, 79.
Inheritance of genius, 15, 18, 98.
Inhumation, 128.
Inquisition, in selection, 53.
Instep, as race character, 31.
Intellect, privilege of, 6.
Interglacial periods, 102, 104, 105, 133.
Invaded countries, effect on language and population in, 70–73.
Ionia, Pelasgians in, 160.
Ionian language, 163–164, 243.
Ionians, 159.
Iran, Alpines in, 134, 261.
Iranian, division of Aryan languages, 255, 259, 261;
plateaux, 116, 238.
Ireland, 59;
Alpines in, 128;
blond elements in, 63, 201;
Celtic language in, 247;
connection of, by land, with Britain, 199;
Danes in, 201;
Erse language in, 247;
Goidelic element in, 201;
Goidelic invasion of, 199, 200;
Goidelic speech in, 200;
Goidels leave Ireland for Scotland, 250;
Iberian substratum in, 201;
Mediterraneans in, 203;
Nordics in, 201;
Paleolithic man in, 202–203;
Paleolithic remnants in, 108;
religion in, 203;
severed from England, 128.
Irish, 29, 58;
immigrants, 11, 86, 87;
instability and versatility of, 229;
intellectual inferiority of, 203;
Neanderthal type of, 108;
race elements in, 63, 64, 175, 201–203, 229;
red hair of, 175;
stature of, 29.
Irish Canadians, 11;
Irish Catholic immigrants to America, 84, 86, 87;
Irish coasts, Norse language on, 249–250;
Irish immigrants in the Civil War, 87;
Irish language, Pre-Aryan syntax of, 204, 249;
Irish national movement, 58, 64;
Irish recruits, pigmentation of, 202;
Irish type, 202.
Iron, 123, 124, 129, 132;
discovery and effect of, 129;
fabulous value of, 126;
first appearance of, 121;
in Asia Minor, 129;
in eastern Europe, 129;
in Egypt, 129;
in western Europe, 130;
weapons, 126, 159, 200.
Iroquois, 85.
Islam, 59.
Isle of Man, language of, 247.
Italia Irredenta Movement, 58.
Italians, 68, 91;
decline of, 217;
descended from slaves, 216;
loss in war, 216;
(south) immigrants in Brazil, 78;
(south) mixture of, 71;
related to the Berbers, 152.
Italy, 29, 120;
Alpines in, 64, 127, 139–140, 157;
and the Huguenots, 53;
bronze in, 127;
introduction of, from Crete, 128;
Eneolithic Period in, 121, 128;
Gauls in, 174, 225;
Goths in, 157;
Lake dwellings in, 139;
languages in, 234, 244;
Lombards in, 157, 180;
Mediterraneans in, 29, 123, 152, 157–158;
mercenaries in, 135;
Mycenæan culture in, 164;
Nordics in, 42, 145, 157, 173, 174, 180, 189, 215, 220–221, 269–271;
Ostrogoths in, 180;
races in the north, 157, 189;
races in the south, 158;
Terramara Period in, 122;
Teutons in, 176, 180;
slaves in, 218;
Saxons in, 201;
Umbrians and Oscans in, 173;
under Austria, 183;
unification of, 56, 57.
Ivory carving, 112.
Jamaica, population of, 76.
Japan, Ainus of, 224.
Japanese, 11;
in California and Australia, 79.
Java, connection of with mainland, 101;
prehistoric remains in, 101.
Jews, 16–18, 82, 91, 227.
Jutes, 177.
Jutland, 200.
Kalmucks, 144.
Kassites, 214, 239;
language of, 239;
Aryan names among, 253.
Kentish dialect, related to Frisian and Taal, 80.
Kentucky, 39, 40.
Kiptchak, 254.
Kirghizes, 259.
Kitchen Middens, 123.
Kurd, 100.
Kurdish dialect, 255.
Kurgans, Russian, 265.
Lacedæmonian power, 160.
Ladin language, 244.
Lake Dwellers, 121, 123, 139;
physical characters of, 139.
Lake Dwellings, 132;
bronze in, 127.
Languages, 3, 4, 233–263;
and nationality, 56–57;
changes in, 249–252;
through superposition, 204;
in invaded countries, 70;
a measure of culture, 240;
nationalities founded on, 56, 57;
no indication of race, 60–68.
_See also under_ various languages.
Languedoc, Mediterraneans in, 156;
Nordics in, 180.
Langue d’oïl, 140, 180, 244.
Lapps, language of, 234, 236.
La Tène culture, 131;
Period, 130–132, 266.
Latifundia, 218.
“Latin America,” 61.
Latin language, 69;
ancestral forms of, 234;
derivation of, 244;
descendants of, 244;
in Gaul, 182, 251;
in Normandy, 251;
in Spain, 156;
limiting Western Roman Empire on the east, 179;
Teutons adopt it in Artois and Picardy, 210;
Vlachs in Thrace adopt it, 246;
Latin nations, 61;
race, 3, 61, 76, 154;
stock, 61;
type, 76.
Latins, struggle of with Etruria, 154.
Leaders and genius, 98.
Legendary characters and physical types, 229–230.
Leonardo da Vinci, 215.
Lettish language, 212, 242.
Levant, Hellenization of, 162, 220.
Libya, 152.
Libyans, blondness of, 223;
invade Egypt, 223.
Liguria, Mediterraneans in, 152, 157.
Ligurian language, 140, 234.
Lips, as race character, 31.
Literary characters and physical types, 229–230.
Lithuanian language, 212, 242.
“Litus Saxonicum,” 252.
Livonian language, 236.
Livonians, or Livs, 236.
Lombards, 73, 142, 145, 177, 271;
in Italy, 157, 180;
overthrow of, by Franks, 181, 191.
Lombardy, 25, 35, 183;
Nordics in, 189, 221.
London, 29, 153.
Long skulls in India, 261.
Lorraine, 182;
Alpines in, 140.
Low Countries and the Huguenots, 53.
Low German language, 258;
and the Nordics, 188–189.
Low German people, 73.
Lower Paleolithic, 104–106, 132.
Loyalists, 6.
Lusitania (Portugal), occupied by the Suevi, 180.
Luxemburg, 183.
Macedon, 161–162.
Macedonian dynasties, 162.
Macedonians, mixed with Asiatics, 161–162.
Magdalenian bow, 112–113;
Period, 105, 111, 112, 114, 115, 132;
art, 114.
Magi, 254.
Maglemose culture, 117, 123, 132, 169, 265.
Magna Græcia, 158.
Magyar language, 236, 244.
Magyars, 143, 144.
Malay Peninsula, Negroids in, 149.
Male, as indicating the trend of the race, 27.
Man, ancestry of, 104–118;
arboreal, 101;
ascent of, 97–98;
classification of, 32;
definition of, 104;
earliest skeletal evidence of, in Europe, 101, 102;
evolution of, 101;
phases of development of, 101–103;
place of origin, 100;
predisposition to mismate, 22;
race, language, and nationality of, 3, 4;
three distinct subspecies of, in Europe, 19–22.
Manx language, 247.
Marcomanni, 177.
Maritime architecture, 165, 199.
Marius, 177, 217.
Marriages between contrasted races, 60.
Mas d’Azil, 115, 265.
Massachusetts, genius produced in, 99.
Massagetæ (_see_ Sacæ), 214, 254, 257, 270;
physical characters of, 259.
_Massif_ Central, 141.
Medes, 173, 216, 254;
Nordics in the Empire of, 254.
Media, 147;
language of, 239;
introduction of Aryan language into, 254;
Nordics in, 173.
Mediæval Europe, 10, 52, 179–188.
_See also_ Middle Ages.
Medic language (_see_ Media, also Zendic language), 255.
Mediterranean basin, 89, 111, 123;
immigrants from to America, 89.
Mediterranean race, or subspecies, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 29, 31, 34, 66,
68, 69, 111, 134, 145, 148–167, 226;
and Alpine race, 146, 181;
and ancient civilization, 153, 214–215;
and Aryan speech, 155, 233, 235, 237–238, 257;
and Celtic language, 247–251;
and Gauls, 156;
and Negroes, 151;
and Negritos, 151;
and synthetic languages, 237;
as sailors, 227–228;
classic civilization due to, 153, 165–166;
Celticized, 248;
crossed with Goidels, 248;
description of, 20, 148;
distribution of, 148–149, 241;
distribution in the Neolithic, 123, 148–149;
in the Paleolithic, 147;
to-day, 20, 148 _seq._, 152, 167, 273;
habitat of, 44, 45;
hair of, 20, 26, 31, 34;
expansion of, 266;
eye color of, 20;
forerunners of, 117;
handsomest types of, 158;
_in_ Afghanistan, 148;
Africa, 148, 151–152, 155;
Algeria, 44;
America, 44, 45;
Arabia, 153;
Argentine, 78;
Asia, 148–150, 257;
Azilian Period, 117;
Baluchistan, 148;
Britain (_see also_ British Isles and England), 123, 149, 247–249;
British Isles, 137, 149–153, 177 (Pre-Nordic), 153, 198–199, 247;
Bronze Age, 128, 155;
Eastern Bulgaria, 145;
Canada, 44;
Ceylon, 148;
cities, 94, 209;
north and western Europe, 149, 155;
Egypt, 148;
England, or the British Isles, 64, 83, 123, 127, 137, 149, 150, 153,
208–210, 249;
France, 44, 149, 156, 194, 197;
Greece, 158–161;
Iberian Peninsula, 152, 156;
India, 66, 148, 150, 257, 261;
Italy, 122, 127, 157, 158;
Languedoc, 156;
Liguria, 152, 157;
Morocco, 148;
Nile Valley, 151;
Paleolithic Period, 149;
Persia, 66, 148;
Po Valley, 157;
Provence, 156;
Rome, 153–154;
Sahara, 151;
Scotland, 150, 153, 203–204;
Senegambian regions, 151;
in Sicily, 158;
in South America, 78;
in Spain, 149, 151, 155–156, 192;
in the Terramara Period, 122;
in Wales, 62, 63, 153, 177, 203, 205;
increasing in America, 45;
language of, 155–158, 233;
(in Spain, Italy, and France, 238);
knowledge of metallurgy, 146;
mental characteristics of, 229;
mixed with Celts, 177;
with Dravidians, 150;
with Gauls, 192;
with Negroids, 150, 241;
with Nordics, 161;
with other ethnic elements, 149–166;
never in Scandinavia, 150–151;
not in the Alps, 149, 151;
not purely European, 155, 241;
origin of, 241;
original language of, 235;
physical characters of, 34, 117, 134, 148;
racial aptitudes of, 228–229;
rise of, in Europe, 190;
route of migration of, 155;
resurgence of, 190, 196;
in England, 83, 208;
skulls of, 20, 24, 117, 134;
stature of, 20, 29;
underlying the Alpines and Nordics in western Europe, 150;
victims of tuberculosis, 45;
yielding to the Alpines at the present time, 177;
Proto-Mediterraneans, 132, 149, 150.
Mediterranean Sea, 71, 89, 111, 117, 123, 148, 155, 165, 179.
Megalithic monuments, 128–129;
distribution of, 155, 265.
Melanesians, 33.
Melting Pot, 16, 263.
Mendelian characters, 13.
Mercenaries, 135, 216.
Mesaticephaly, 19.
Mesopotamia, 147, 239;
chronicles of, 253;
city-states of, 119;
copper in, 125;
culture synchronous with the northern Neolithic, 125;
earliest fixed date of, 126.
Messapian language, 234.
Messina, Pelasgians in, 160.
Mesvinian river terraces, 133.
Metallurgy, 120, 122, 123, 125–132, 146, 238–240, 267.
Metals, 120–132.
Mexican War, 86.
Mexico, 17, 76;
peons of, 9.
Michael Angelo, 215.
Microliths, 113.
Middle Ages, 65, 135, 156, 183, 185, 189, 197, 202, 227;
civilization of, 165;
elimination of good strains of, 52–53.
Middle Paleolithic Period, 104, 106, 132.
Middle West, settlement of by poor whites, 40.
Migrating types, 10, 208.
Mikklegard, 179.
Mindel glaciation, 133.
Mindel-Riss Interglacial stage, 102, 133.
Minoan culture of Crete, 99, 164;
Minoan Empire, 164.
Miocene Period, 101–102.
Miscegenation, 60.
Mississippi, 99;
black belt of, 76.
Missouri, 40;
river, 40.
Mitanni, 214;
Aryan names among, 253;
Empire of, 239.
Mixture of races, 18, 34, 60;
_see also_ race mixture.
Mohammedan invasion of Europe, 181.
Moldavia, Vlachs in, 246.
Mongolian elements in Europe, 139.
Mongolians, _see_ Mongols.
Mongoloid race, 33, 144, 237;
hair of, 34;
invasions of Europe by, 65, 259–260, 272.
Mongols, 31, 33, 34, 65, 134, 139, 144, 224, 241, 260;
crossed with Ainus, 225;
crossed with Esquimaux, 225;
in Russia, 65.
Monosyllabic languages, 240.
Moors, in Spain, 156, 181, 192.
Moral, intellectual and physical characters, race differences in, 226
_et seq._
Mordvins, 144.
Morocco, bronze in, 128;
Mediterranean race in, 148.
Mosaics, 13.
Moscovy, 212.
Moslems in Europe, 181.
Mound burials, 129.
Mousterian Period, 104, 106–107, 132.
Muscovite expansion in Europe, 65.
Mycenæ, ancient civilization of, 153.
Mycenæan civilization, 159, 161, 164;
culture, of Crete, 164;
of Greece, 99;
of Sardinia, 164.
Myrmidons, 159.
Napoleon, 186.
Napoleonic Wars, 197.
National consciousness of Americans, 90.
National movements, 57, 58;
types, absorption of higher by lower, 58, 59.
Nationalities, formed around language and religion, 57, 58.
Nationality, 3, 4;
artificial grouping, 56;
and language, 56–68.
Navigation, development of, 165, 199.
Neanderthal man, 15, 104–107, 111, 114, 118, 132;
habits of, 107;
race characters of, 107;
remnants or survivals of, 15, 107–108;
skull of, 15, 107–108.
Neanderthaloids, 106–107;
remnants of, 114.
Negritos, and Mediterraneans, 151;
as substratum in southern Asia, 148–149.
Negroes, 16, 18, 23, 24, 31, 33, 34, 40, 65, 76, 80, 88, 152;
African, 80;
American, provenience of, 82;
and genius, 109;
and the Mediterranean race, 151–152;
and socialism, 87;
citizenship of, 218;
hair of, 34;
_in_ Africa, 23, 24, 33, 79, 80;
America, 82;
Brazil, 78;
Haiti, 76, 77;
Mexico, 76;
New England, 86;
South America, 76, 78;
Southern States, 42;
United States, 16, 40, 65, 76, 82, 85–87, 99;
West Indies, 76;
Nordic blood in, 82;
rapid multiplication of, 79;
replacing whites in the South, 76–78;
a servient race, 87, 88;
stationary character of their development, 77.
Negroids, 33, 111, 149;
crossed with Mediterraneans, 150, 241, 257;
hair of, 34;
(in India) physical character of, 261.
Neo-Celtic languages, 248.
Neo-Latin, 250.
Neolithic (New Stone Age), 29, 105, 136, 139, 148, 157, 169, 199, 205,
213–214, 248;
Beaker Makers in, 138;
beginning of, 118–122;
duration of, 121;
distribution of races during, 123–124;
in western Europe, 121;
northern Neolithic contemporary with southern Bronze, 129;
Pre-Neolithic, 117, 207;
Upper or Late Neolithic, 121, 132;
and writing, 115.
Neolithic ancestors of the Proto-Mediterraneans, 149;
invasion of the Alpines, 138.
Nero, 217.
New England, 11, 38, 41, 55;
immigrants in, 11, 72;
lack of race consciousness in, 86;
Negro in, 86;
Nordic in Colonial times, 83;
race mixture in, 72;
settlers of, 83.
New England type, 83.
New France, Catholic colonies in, 85.
New Spain, Catholic colonies in, 85.
New Stone Age, 119;
_see_ Neolithic.
New York, 5, 41, 80;
immigrants in, 91, 92.
New Zealand, whites in, 79.
Nile river, 80;
Nile valley, Mediterraneans in, 151.
Nobility (French), Oriental and Mediterranean strains in, 197.
Nomads, 10, 209, 258, 259;
_see also_ migratory types.
Non-Aryan, 204.
_See_ Anaryan.
Nordic aristocracy, 213;
_see also_ aristocracy;
_in_ Austria, 141;
Britain, 247;
eastern Germany, 141;
France, 140, 196–197;
Gaul, 247;
Germany, 187;
Greece, 153;
Italy, 215;
Lombardy, 189;
Persia, 254;
Rome, 154;
Russia, 142;
Spain, 192, 247;
southern Europe, 188;
Venice, 189;
loss of through war, 191.
Nordic broodland, 141, 213 _et seq._;
Nordic conquerors of India, 71, 216;
fatherland, 213–222;
immigrants to America, 211;
invaders of Italy, 215;
invasions of Asia, 257–259;
nations, 142.
Nordic race, or subspecies, 20, 24, 31, 61, 131, 133, 149, 151,
167–178;
adventurers, pioneers and sailors, 74;
affected by the actinic rays, 84;
allied to the Mediterraneans, 24;
depleted by war, 73–74;
a European type, 167;
in the Great War, 168;
habitat of, 37–38;
hair of, 34;
in Italy, 42;
in the subtropics and elsewhere outside of its native habitat, 41–42;
location of, in Roman times, 131;
mixed with Alpines, 25, 35–36, 135–136;
mixed with other types in the United States, 82–94;
passing of, 168;
physical character of, 20, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 167–168;
at the present time, 168;
racial aptitudes of, 226–228;
red-haired branch of, 32.
Nordic stature, 29.
Nordic substratum in eastern Germany and Poland, 141;
in Russia, 172.
Nordic troops of Philip and Alexander, 161.
Nordic type, 40;
among native Americans, 88;
in California, 75;
in Scotland, 249.
Nordic vice, 55.
Nordics, 58, 61, 72, 129;
absorption of by conquered nations, 176;
and alcoholism, 55;
and consumption, 55;
and Low German, 188–189;
and Aryan languages, 240–242;
and Proto-Slavic languages, 143;
and specialized features, 92;
around the Caspian-Aral Sea, 214;
among the Amorites, 223;
among the Philistines, 223;
as mercenaries, 155, 216;
as officers, 142;
as raiders, 130;
Celtic dialects of, 157, 194;
Celtic and Teutonic Nordics, 139;
centre of evolution of, 169–171;
checked by the Etruscans in their advance southward, 157;
carriers of Aryan speech, 234;
conquer Alpines, 145, 147;
continental, 73;
cross the Rhine westward, 173, 194, 240;
decline of, 190, 196;
(in England) 208–210, (in India) 216, (in Europe and Asia) 260, (in
Spain) 192;
destroyed by war, 230–231;
distribution of, 242;
early movements of, 253;
energy of, 215;
expansion of, 174, 188–212;
first, 130–132;
first appearance of along the Baltic, 169;
first appearance of in Scandinavia, 117;
founders of France, England and America, 206;
_in_ agriculture, 209;
Africa, 223;
Afghan passes, 257;
the Ægean region, 253;
the Alps, 151:
Austria, 210;
Asia, 214, 224;
Asia Minor, 214, 225;
the Balkan Peninsula, 189;
the British Isles, 188;
the Caucasus, 214, 225;
south of the Caucasus, 253–254;
cities, 94, 209;
colonies, 84;
England (Britain), 64, 137, 188, 249;
France, 188, 231;
Flanders, 188, 210, 231;
Gaul, 69, 193–194;
Germany, 170, 174, 188, 210, 231;
Europe, 188;
Hindustan, 67;
Holland, 188;
Galicia, 156;
Greece, 158–160, 214;
India, 257;
Ireland, 201;
Italy, 189, 220–221;
Lombardy, 221;
Persia, 254;
Poland, 188;
Portugal, 192;
the Punjab, 257–258;
Rome, 154;
Russia, 188, 214, 231;
Scandinavia, 188, 210;
Scotland, 188;
Spain, 156;
Styria, 210;
Thrace, 214;
the Tyrol, 210;
invade Greece, 158–160;
landed gentry in Wales, 205;
later in central Europe, 141;
long skulls of, 134;
loss of through war, 184, 191–193, 196–197;
mixed with Alpines, 134–135, 151, 163;
with Mediterraneans, 161, 192;
Neolithic location of, 124;
outside of Europe, 223–224;
owners of fertile lands and valleys, 141;
physical characters of, 214;
Protestants, 228;
reach the Mediterranean Sea through the Alpines, 145, 147;
seize the Po valley, 157.
Norman language, spoken by French Canadians, 81.
Norman type, in England and America, 207.
Normandy, 23, 206;
conquest of, 196;
Belgæ in, 251;
change of language in, 251;
Cymric language in, 251;
Latin speech in, 251;
Normans in, 252;
Norse pirates in, 70;
ravaged by Saxons, 251–252.
Normans, 201, 206–207;
characters of in Sicily, 207;
ecclesiastics among, 208;
in Britain, 249;
in England, 252;
language of, 252;
racial aptitudes of, 207–208;
racial mixture among, 208;
settle Normandy, 252;
transformation of, 252.
Norse, along the Atlantic coasts, 180;
Norse blood of American settlers, 83;
Norse in Britain, 200, 249;
in Ireland, 64;
in Scotland, 203;
Norsemen, 201;
Norse pirates, 70;
language of, 250;
Norse Vikings, _see_ Vikings.
North Europeans, 67.
North Germans, 61.
North Sea, 20, 73, 166, 168, 171.
Northmen, 145, 196;
invasion of, 201;
language of, 70.
Norway, 201;
Alpines in, 136, 211;
bronze in, 127;
intellectual anæmia of, 210.
Norwegian immigrants, 211.
Nose form, 13, 30, 31.
Ofnet race, 116.
Oklahoma, 87.
Old Persian, 254–255, 258.
Old Prussian, 212, 242.
Old Sanskrit, 257.
Old Saxon (related to Frisian and Taal), 80.
Old South, 42–43.
Old Stone Age (_see also_ Paleolithic), 120, 123.
Oscan language, 234.
Oscans, 157, 160, 173, 244, 269.
Osmanli Turks, 237.
Ossetes, 66;
language of, 66.
Ostrogoths, 176;
in Italy, 180.
Ottoman Turks, 166.
Paintings, polychrome, 112.
Palatine Germans, 84.
Paleolithic Period, 23, 38;
art of, 112, 114;
close of, 117, 149;
dates of, 104;
man, 104–118, 107–108, 124, 149, 227, 247;
in Ireland, 202;
remnants of in England, 64;
in Wales, 205;
races of the Paleolithic Period, 118;
Lower Paleolithic Period, 104–106, 133;
Middle Paleolithic Period, 104, 106, 133;
Upper Paleolithic Period, 100, 105, 108, 111, 113, 132;
close of, 115.
Palestine, 223;
bronze weapons in, 127;
language of, 239.
Pamirs, the, 20, 254, 261;
Alpines in, 134;
language of, 259.
Pan-Germanic movement, 58.
Pan-Rumanian movement, 58.
Pan-Slavic movement, 58.
Parthian language, 255.
Patagonia, 23.
Patricians in Rome, 11, 217.
Pax Romana, 195.
Peasant, European, 117;
_see also under_ Alpines _and_ Racial aptitudes.
Pehlevi language, 255.
Pelasgians, 158–161, 215;
at Troy, 159;
language of, 158, 233, 243.
Peloponnesus, 160.
Pennsylvania Dutch, 84.
Peons, Mexican, 9.
Pericles, 263.
Persia, 22, 66, 147, 171, 241, 254;
Aryan language in, 237;
Aryanization of, 225;
language of (_see_ Old Persian), 255;
Mediterraneans in, 148;
physical types in, 257;
wars of with Greece, 255.
Persian Empire, organization of, 254.
Persians, 63, 73, 161, 214, 216, 253–256, 269;
culture of, 255;
date of separation of, from the Sacæ, 258;
expansion of, 225;
Hellenization of, 256;
as Nordics, 255;
physical character of, 259.
Pharsalia, 217.
Philip of Macedon, 161.
Philippi, 217.
Philippines, 33;
Spanish in, 78;
whites in, 78.
Philistines, Nordics among, 223.
Phœnicia, 165;
ancient civilization of, 153.
Phœnician language in Spain, 156.
Phœnicians, 228;
colonies of, 126;
in Spain, 156;
voyages of, 126–127.
Phrygians, 173, 225, 253, 256;
invade Asia Minor, 159;
language of, 256.
Physical types and literary or legendary characters, 229–230;
physical types of Normans, 207–208;
of British soldiers and sailors, 208;
_see also under_ various races.
Picardy, 210.
Pictish language, 204, 247.
Picts, 204.
Pile dwellings, 121, 127, 132.
Piltdown man, 105–106.
Pindus mountains, Vlachs in, 45–246.
Pioneers, 45, 74–75.
_Pithecanthropus erectus_, 101, 133.
Plebeians or Plebs of Rome, 11, 154, 217–218.
Pleistocene Period, 100.
Pliocene Period, 22, 101.
Po valley, Alpines in, 157;
as Cisalpine Gaul, 157;
Mediterraneans in, 157;
seized by Nordics, 157;
Terramara settlements in, 127.
Poetry, 241.
Poland, 59;
Alpines in, 44, 124, 141–142;
blondness in, 190;
dolichocephaly in, 190;
Nordics in, 124, 131, 170, 188–213;
Nordic substratum in, 141;
Slavs in, 131, 142;
stature in, 190.
Poles, 58, 72, 143;
increase in East Germany, 184.
Polesia, 143.
Polish Ghettos, immigrants from, 89.
Polish Jews, 16;
in New York, 91.
Polished Stone Age, _see_ Neolithic;
beginning of, 118–119.
Polygamy, among the Turks, 237.
Pompey, 217.
“Poor Whites,” 39–40;
physical types of, 40.
Population, direction of pressure of, 171;
effect of foreign invasion on, 69–71;
infiltration into, of slaves or immigrants, 71;
value and efficiency of a, 48.
Portugal, Nordics in, 192;
occupied by the Suevi, 180, 192.
Portuguese language, 156, 244.
Posen, 72.
Post-Glacial Periods, 105–106, 132–133.
Post-Roman invaders of Britain, 73.
Pottery, 138, 146, 241;
first appearance of, 122–123.
Pre-Aryan language, 204, 233, 235, 247;
in the British Isles, 246.
Pre-Dravidians, 149;
physical character of, 261.
Pre-Neolithic culture on the Baltic, 117.
Pre-Nordic brunets in New England, 83.
Pre-Nordics, 29, 63;
of Ireland, 64.
Primates, 3, 24, 106;
erect, 101.
Pripet swamps, 143.
Procopius, 189.
Propontis, 179.
Proto-Alpines, 135;
language of, 235;
physical characters of, 135.
Proto-Aryan language, 67, 233, 242;
and Alpines, 237;
Nordic origin of, 61.
Proto-Mediterranean Race, 132;
descended from the Neolithic, 149–150.
Proto-Nordics, 224, 233;
in Russia, 64, 170.
Proto-Slavic language, Aryan character of, 143.
Proto-Teutonic race, 169.
Provençal, 244;
Provençal language, 244.
Provençals, 156.
Provence, 23;
Mediterraneans in, 156.
Prussia, Spartan culture of, 161.
Prussian, Old (Borussian), language, 212, 242.
Prussians, ethnic origin of, 72.
Punic Wars, 217.
Punjab, the, 257;
entrance of Aryans into, 258;
decline of Nordics in, 261.
Puritans, 55.
Pyrenees, caverns of, 115.
Quebec Frenchmen, 81.
Race, 3, 4;
Aryan, 3;
Caucasian, 3;
Celtic, 3;
Indo-Germanic, 3;
Latin, 3;
adjustment to habitat of, 93;
characters, 13 _et seq._;
consciousness, 4, 57, 60, 90;
in Germany, 57;
in Sweden, 57;
in the United States, 86;
degeneration, 39–43, 109;
determination, 15, 19, 24, 28;
disharmonic combinations of, 14, 28, 35, 110;
distinguished from language and nationality, 34;
effect of democracy on, 5;
feeling, 222;
importance of, 98–100;
physical basis of, 13–16;
positions of the three main races in Roman times, 131;
resistance to foreign invasion, 71;
selection, 46, 50, 54, 55, 215;
versus species and subspecies, 22.
Race mixture, 18, 34, 60, 77, 85, 116, 262;
among the Gauls, 145;
among the Normans, 208;
among the Turks, 237;
among the Umbrians, 145;
and civilization, 214–216;
in North Africa, 151;
in South Africa, 80;
in the Argentine, 78;
in Brazil, 78;
in Britain, 248;
in Canada, 81;
in Europe, 261–262;
in Germany, 135;
in Greece, 161;
in Jamaica, 76;
in large cities, 92;
in Macedon, 161;
in Mexico, 76;
in the Roman Empire, 71;
in Rome, 154, 220;
in Russia, 174;
in Spain, 192;
in Switzerland, 135;
in the United States, 77, 82–94;
in Venezuela, 76;
in Tunis, 158;
of Alpines and Celts, 177;
of Alpines and Nordics, 151;
of Alpines and Mediterraneans, 151;
of Ainus and Mongols, 225;
of Belgæ and Teutonic tribes, 248;
of Celts and Mediterraneans, 177;
of Goidels and Mediterraneans, 248;
of Mediterraneans and Dravidians and Negroids, 150;
of Nordics and Negroes, 82;
of late Nordics and Paleoliths, 149;
of Slavs and Illyrians, 153, 190.
Race supplanting, 77, 46–48, 110.
Races, European distribution of during the Neolithic, 123;
in Europe, 131;
laws of distribution of, 37;
evolution of through selection, 37 _et seq._
Racial, aptitudes, 226–232;
of Alpines, 138–139, 146;
of Negroes, 77, 109;
of Normans, 207–208;
elements of the Great War, 187;
resistance of acclimated populations, 71;
types, intellectual and moral differences of, 206.
Raphael, 215.
Ravenna, surrender of, 189.
Recapitulation of development in infants, 30.
Reformation, the, 191, 210, 228;
in England, 10.
Regiments, German, composition of, 142.
Religion, 64;
nationalities founded on, 57, 58.
Renaissance, 215, 231.
Republic, a true, 7, 8.
Resurgence of types, 15;
of Alpines in Europe, 146–147, 184, 190–191, 196, 210;
of Iberians in Scotland, 249;
of Mediterraneans, 190, 196;
in England, 83, 208.
Revolution, 6;
French, 6, 16, 191, 196, 197;
German, 87.
Revolutionary Wars, 197.
Riss glaciation, 105, 133.
Riss-Würm, 105;
interglacial, 133.
Robenhausian culture, 132;
Period, 121;
Upper, 122, 265.
Rollo, 263.
Romaic language, origin of, 243.
Roman, abandonment of Britain, 200;
aristocracy, 217;
busts, 154;
church, 53, 85;
Empire, 10, 71–72, 142, 176, 179–182, 187, 217–222;
component states of, 183;
fall of, 221;
Eastern Empire, 165–166;
population of, 216, 220;
slaves in, 216;
Western Empire, re-established, 182;
ideals, 153;
occupation of Britain, effect of, ethnically, 200;
provinces, Teutonized, 191;
Republic, 71, 154, 217, 219;
State, ancient civilization of, 153, 216;
stature, 154;
stock, extinction of, 51.
Romance tongues, 61, 238, 244.
Romans, 68, 156, 174–176, 193, 194, 216–221, 246;
decline of, 217–222;
features of, 154;
in Britain, 200, 250;
in France, 63;
in Spain, 156;
a modified race in Gaul, 69;
stature of, 154.
Romansch language, 244.
Rome, 11, 52, 61, 70, 92, 130, 154, 157, 158, 165, 179, 180, 191, 195,
215–221, 245, 251;
Alpines, Nordics and Mediterraneans in, 130, 153, 154;
change of race in, 218–220;
change of religion in, 219;
early struggles in, 154;
in Dacia, 245;
language of, 61, 70;
Northern qualities of, 153–154;
race mixture in, 154, 220;
slaves in, 71, 100, 216, 218–220;
stormed by Brennus, 157.
Rough Stone Age, _see_ Paleolithic.
Round Barrows, 137–138, 163, 247, 267;
brachycephalic survivals of, 163–164.
Round skulls, absence of in Britain, 249.
_See also_ physical characters of the Alpines, Armenoids, etc.
Rumania, 59, 245;
Alpines in, 65;
Mediterraneans in, 153.
Rumanian language, 244–246;
origin of, 244–245;
distribution of, 245.
Rumanians, 21, 145;
and Christianity, 65;
descent of, 244–246;
Latin language of, 244–246.
Russia, 38, 143, 253;
Alans and Goths in, 66;
Alpines in, 44, 131, 136, 142–144, 147;
Anaryan survivals in, 235, 243;
Asiatic types in, 144;
Baltic provinces of, Nordic, 212;
blondness in, 190;
Bulgars from, 145;
burial mounds or kurgans in, 172;
changes in racial predominance in, 142–144, 147;
dolichocephaly in, 190;
early Nordics in, 124, 131, 142;
Esthonians in, 236;
Finns in, 236;
Gauls in, 174;
grasslands and steppes of, 240, 253–254, 257;
language in, 235–236, 243;
Livs in, 236;
Mongols in, 65, 142;
Muscovite expansion in, 65;
Nordic substratum in, 64, 142;
Nordics in, 170, 188, 213–214, 231;
organized by Sweden, 180;
race mixture in, 174;
races in, 142;
Saxons in, 201;
Slavs or Alpines in, 64, 131, 142;
Slavic dialects in, 143;
Slavic future of, 147;
stature in, 190;
Swedes in, 211;
Varangians in, 177;
water connections across, 170.
Russian brachycephaly, 136–137;
settlements of Siberia, 78.
Russians and Christianity, 65.
Ruthenia, 245;
Slavs in, 143.
Sacæ, 173, 214, 216, 254 (_see_ Massagetæ);
date of separation from Persia, 258;
evidence of conquests of, 261;
identified with the Wu-Suns, 260;
in India, 257–258;
language of, 259;
physical characters of, 259, 261.
Sahara, the, 33, 44;
Mediterraneans in, 151–152.
St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 196.
Sakai, 149.
_Sangre Azul_, derivation of the term, 192.
Sanskrit, 148, 243, 255, 257–258, 261;
introduction of into India, 173, 216.
_See_ Old Sanskrit.
Santa Fé Trail, 40.
Sardinia, 29;
Mediterraneans in, 152;
Mycenæan culture of, 164.
Sardinian, the, 28;
stature of, 28.
Sarmatians, 143, 245, 269, 272.
Satem group of Aryan languages, 256.
Saviour, the, blondness of, 230.
Savoy, Alpines in, 146.
Savoyard, 21, 23.
Saxon blood of American settlers, 83;
in Normandy and Scotland, 208;
Saxon type, 40.
Saxons, 69, 73, 141–142, 145, 177, 180, 195, 206;
in Britain, 248–249;
in Brittany, 251–252;
in England, 200–201;
in France, 201;
in Hungary, 201;
in Italy, 201;
in Russia, 201;
invaders, 201;
invasions of, 200–201, 252, 270;
origin of, 200;
ravage Normandy, 251–252.
Saxony, 73, 200–201.
Scandinavia, brunets in, 151;
centre of radiation of the Teutons, 168;
character of the population of, 169;
first Nordics in, 117, 124, 169;
first occupation of by human beings, 169;
introduction of bronze into, 128;
megaliths in, 155;
Mediterraneans never in, 150–151;
Neolithic culture in, 117, 122;
Nordics in, 117, 124, 188, 210.
Scandinavian blood in Normandy and Scotland, 208;
place names in Scotland, 249;
states, 4, 20, 60.
Scandinavians, 61, 68;
hairiness of, 224.
Schleswig, 58, 73.
Sclaveni, 141.
Scotch, 29;
brunet type of, 150;
red hair of, 175;
stature of, 28, 29.
Scotch borders, 40;
Highlanders, 62.
Scotch-Irish in America, 84.
Scotland, 40, 69;
Angles in, 203;
blond elements in, 63;
blonds mixed with brunets in, 202;
brunetness in, 153, 204;
Brythonic elements in, 203;
Gaelic area in, 249;
Goidelic element in, 201, 203;
Goidelic speech in, 200;
Goidels invade from Ireland, 250;
Iberian substratum in, 201;
language in, 204, 249–250;
Mediterraneans in, 153, 203;
Neanderthal type in, 107;
Nordic type in, 249;
Nordics in, 188;
Norse pirates in, 200, 203;
racial elements in, 203–204, 208;
resurgence of types in, especially the Iberian, 249;
Scandinavian place names in, 249.
Scots, 28.
Scottish Highlands, language of, 247.
Scythians, 66, 214, 257.
Selection, 37, 46–55, 215, 225;
by elimination of the unfit, 50–54;
in Colonial times, 92;
in colonies, 93;
in tenements and factories, 92;
practical measures in, 46–55;
through alcoholism, 55;
through disease, 54–55;
through social environment, 46.
Seljukian Turks, 237.
Semitic language, 239;
race, 147.
Senegambian regions, Mediterraneans in, 151.
Senlac Hill, 120.
Serbian national revival, 58.
Serbs, 53, 143;
and Christianity, 65;
in Bulgaria, 145.
Serfs and serfdom, 10.
Servile wars in Rome, 217.
Ship-building, 165, 199.
Siberia, Russian settlements of, 78.
Siberian tundras, 65.
Sicily, Alpines in, 128, 140;
Mediterraneans in, 158;
Normans in, 207.
Sidon, 126, 165.
Sikhs, 261.
Silesia, 72, 260.
Sinai Peninsula, mines of, 125.
Singalese, 258.
Siwalik Hills, fossil deposits of, 101.
Skin color and quality, 27–28.
Skull shape, 13, 15, 17, 19, 139, 226;
among immigrants, 17;
antiquity of distinction between long and round, 23, 24;
as a race character, 151;
of the Ainus, 224;
African, 23;
American Indian, 23;
Asiatic, 22;
Cro-Magnon, 110;
European, 19–21;
Neanderthal, 107;
best method of determining race, 19–24;
_see also_ Brachycephaly, Dolichocephaly, Mesaticephaly, and the
physical characters of the various races.
Slave trade, 79.
Slavery, 8–11, 42, 86.
Slaves, 9–11, 16;
in Italy, 218;
in Rome, 71, 100, 216, 218, 220;
source of, 82, 200.
Slavic Alpines in Germany, 72;
homeland, 245;
languages, 141–145, 238–237, 244–245;
Proto-Slavic, 143;
race, 64, 72;
as an Alpine race, 64, 131.
Slavs, 63, 64, 124, 172, 190;
of Alpine race, 64, 131;
area of distribution of, 143;
expansion of, 272;
in Austria, 141;
in the Balkans, 153;
eastern Europe, 65;
eastern Germany, 141–142;
Greece, 65;
Middle Ages, 65;
Poland, 142;
Russia, 214;
mixed with Illyrians, 153, 190;
northern and southern, 143.
Slovaks, 91, 143.
Social environment, 46.
Social wars in Rome, 217.
Socialism, 12, 79.
Socrates, 227.
Sogdiana, 254.
Solutrean Period, 105, 111–113;
culture of and the Brünn-Předmost race, 114, 132;
and the Cro-Magnon race, 132.
Sorb, 142.
South Africa, 79, 80;
Dutch and English in, 80.
South America, 61, 73, 75, 76, 78.
Southern States of America, 71, 99;
brunets in, 84;
Mediterranean element in, 44, 45;
Nordic type in, 83, 84;
“poor whites” of, 39, 40;
race consciousness in, 86.
Southerners, effect of climate on, 39–43.
Spain, 115, 149, 176, 202;
Alpines in, 140;
Arabic spoken in, 156;
Arabs in, 156;
aristocracy of, 192;
Basques in, 140;
blondness in, 192;
bow and arrow of the Azilians in, 115;
cause of the collapse of, 193;
caverns in, 112;
Celtic language in, 155, 234;
decline of the Nordic element in, 193;
elimination of genius producing classes in, 53;
Gauls in, 174, 192;
Gothic language in, 156;
Goths in, 192;
Latin language in, 156;
Mediterraneans in, 123, 149, 152, 155–156;
megaliths in, 155;
Moorish conquest of, 181;
Moors in, 156;
Nordics in, 155–156, 174, 192–193, 269;
Phœnician language in, 156;
Phœnicians in, 126, 156;
racial change in, 192;
Romans in, 156;
Teutons in, 180;
tin mines in, 126;
types in, 156;
Vandals in, 192;
Visigoths in, 180, 192.
Spaniards or Spanish (modern), 53, 68;
(ancient), 68;
in Mexico, 17;
and Nordics, 73;
in the Philippines, 78;
related to the Berbers, 152.
Spanish conquistadores, 76, 193;
infantry, 193;
Inquisition in selection, 53;
Spanish Main, 44;
islands and coasts of, 76;
Spanish-American War, 74.
Sparta, 160, 162.
Spartans, 160, 164;
and Dinaric race, 164;
physical character of, 164.
Specializations, racial, recent, 27, 18, 24.
Species, significance of the term, 21, 22.
Stature, 13, 28–30, 35;
affected by war, 197–198;
of the Romans, 154;
in Albania, 190;
in France, 198;
in Illyria and the Tyrol, 190;
in the Scottish Highlands, 28–29, 203;
in Sardinia, 28–29.
Sterilization of the unfit, 51, 52.
Stoicism, 221.
Stone weapons in England, 120–121.
For _Stone Ages_ _see_ Neolithic and Paleolithic.
Styria, 183;
Alpines in, 210;
Nordics in, 210.
Suevi, 156, 177, 181, 270;
in Portugal, 180, 192.
Sumer, 119, 147;
language of, 239.
Susa, 147;
language of, 239.
Swabians, 141.
Sweden, 52, 59, 176, 194, 211;
centre of Nordic purity, 168, 170;
colonizes Finland, 211;
colonizes Russia, 211;
cradle of Teutonic branch of the Nordics, 124, 177;
bronze introduced into, 137;
first Nordics in, 117;
intellectual anæmia of, 210;
Kitchen Middens in, 123;
Nordic race in, 117, 124, 135–136, 168–170, 210–211;
race consciousness in, 57;
saves Protestantism, 210;
unity of race in, 169.
Swedes, 23;
organization of Russia by, 180;
Russification of, 58.
Swiss, 135;
blondness of, 136;
Swiss Lake Dwellers, 121, 127.
Switzerland, 121, 127, 183;
Alpines in, 44, 135, 141;
Lake Dwellings in, 139;
mercenaries in, 135;
Nordics in, 135;
race mixture in, 135.
Sylla, 217.
Synthetic languages, 165, 216, 233, 237, 239–240, 243.
Syr Darya, 119.
Syria, hellenized, 220;
round skull invasion of, 140.
Syrians, 16, 91.
Taal dialect, 80.
Tamahu, blondness of, 223.
Tardenoisian Period, 115, 117, 132.
Tatars, 139, 144.
Tchouds, language of, 236.
Tennessee, 39, 40.
Terramara Period, 122, 127, 266.
Terramara settlements, bronze in, 127;
copper in, 122;
human remains in, 122.
Teutoburgiana forest, 154.
Teutonic, as a term, 231–232;
branch of the Nordic race, 20, 61, 62, 72, 124, 131, 139, 146,
168–170, 210, 211, 231, 232, 248;
expansion of, 270, 271;
invaders of Gaul, 69;
invasions, 63, 69, 179–184, 189, 194–196;
languages of, 61, 139, 249–251;
duration of Teutonic language in Gaul, 182;
Teutonic tribes mixed with the Belgæ, 248;
speech in the British Isles, 249–250;
Proto-Teutonics, 169.
Teutons, 72, 141–142, 144, 173–174, 176–177, 189, 194–196;
division of in the Great War, 184;
physical characters of, 175;
route of expansion of, 174.
Thebes, 162.
Thessaly, 245.
Thibet, 22, 134.
Thirty Years’ War, 184–187, 198.
Thrace, Nordics in, 214;
early inhabitants of, 246;
Gauls in, 225.
Thracian language, 130, 256;
origin of, 243.
Tin, 126–127.
Tin Isles of Ultima Thule, 127.
Titian, 215.
Tokharian language, 260–261.
Tools, 102–104, 112, 120–121, 123, 126, 129, 155.
Tours, battle of, 181.
Trade routes, 119, 123–125.
Trajan, 244.
Transylvania, Rumanian language in, 245;
Vlachs in, 246.
Trapping, 122.
Trinitarian faith of the Franks, 181.
Tripoli, round skull invasion of, 140.
Trojans, 159.
Troy, siege of, 159.
Tunis, Alpines in, 128, 140, 158;
bronze in, 128;
race mixture in, 158.
Turcomans, 238;
or Turkomans, 21.
Turkestan, 254, 257;
Nomads of, 259;
Tokharian language in, 261.
Turki or Turks, 100, 144–145, 166, 237, 238, 254;
language of, 237–238;
race mixture among, 237.
Tuscan language, 244.
Tyre, 126, 165.
Tyrol, the, 30, 36, 129;
Alpines in, 141, 210;
Dinaric race in, 138;
Nordics in, 200;
stature in, 190.
Tyrolese, 135;
physical character of, 190.
Tyrrhenians, 157.
Ugrian language, 243.
Ukraine, 213.
Ultima Thule, 126.
Umbrian language, 130, 234, 244.
Umbrians, 145, 157, 160, 173, 244, 269.
Unit characters, 13, 14, 30, 31;
intermixture of, 14;
unchanging, 15–18, 139.
Unitarian faith of the barbarians, 181.
United States of America, affected by immigration, 89 _et seq._;
as a European colony, racially, 83, 84;
German and Irish immigrants in, 84, 86;
Indian element in, 87;
Negroes of, 16, 40, 65, 76, 82, 85, 87, 99;
Nordic blood in the colonies, 83–85;
race consciousness in, 86;
Nordics in, 81;
in the world war, 187;
_see also_ America.
Upper Neolithic, 121.
Upper Paleolithic, 100, 105, 108, 113, 132;
close of, 115.
Upper Robenhausian, 122.
Ural mountains, 65, 213.
Ural-Altaic speech, 236.
Urmia, Lake, 253.
Ussher, Archbishop, 4.
Vagrancy, 10.
Valais, 178.
Vandal kingdom, destruction of, 181;
conquests, 223.
Vandals, 73, 142, 145, 156, 176–177, 181, 195, 223, 270;
in Africa, 180;
in Spain, 176–177, 192.
Varangians, 177, 189.
Varus, 154.
Vassalage, 9.
Vedas, 257–259.
Veddahs, 149.
Venethi, 141, 143, 245.
Veneto, 183.
Venezuela, population of, 76.
Venice, Nordic aristocracy of, 189.
Vikings, 129, 177, 206–207, 210, 211, 249, 271;
in America, 211, 249;
_see also_ Norse pirates.
Villein, 10.
Virginia, 84.
Visigoths, 156, 176, 195, 270;
in Gaul, 180;
in Spain, 180, 192;
kingdom of destroyed, 181.
Vlachs, 178, 245–246.
Volga river, 145.
Voluntary childlessness, 217.
Volunteer armies, 198.
Wahlstatt, battle of, 260.
Wales, Celtic language in, 63;
Cymric language in, 205, 248;
derivation of the name, 178;
Goidelic language in, 205;
Mediterraneans in, 63, 153, 203;
Nordics in, 203;
racial elements and survivals in, 204–205.
Wallachia, Little and Great, 246.
Wallachian, 178.
Walloons, 57, 140, 178, 195;
language of, 244.
War and racial elements, 91;
effect of on populations, 183–187, 191–193, 196–198, 216, 231;
Great World War, 73, 74, 168, 186, 187, 191, 230–232.
Wars, European, 56, 191, 198, 230–232;
losses from, 185, 196–198;
Nordic element in, 73, 74, 231;
of the Roses, 191;
Punic, 217;
Servile, 217;
Social, 217.
Wealth, privilege of, 6.
Weapons, 103, 113–115, 120–121, 126–130, 155, 159, 200.
Welsh, 62, 63, 177–178;
in Britain, 248;
Round Barrow survivals among, 164.
Wends, 72, 141–143, 236, 269, 272;
increase of in east Germany, 184.
West Indian sugar planters, 11.
West Indies, Negroes in, 76.
West Prussia, 72.
Western Empire, 179, 180, 216.
Westphalia, 26.
White Huns, 254.
White race, 79.
White Sea, 171.
Whites, 76–77;
in the Argentine, 78;
in Australia, 79;
in Brazil, 78;
in China, 78;
in the East Indies, 78;
in India, 78;
in Jamaica, 76;
in Mexico, 76;
in the Philippines, 78;
in New Zealand, 79;
_see also_ Nordics, the Nordic race, and Teutons.
Women, lighter in pigmentation than men, 26, 27;
more primitive, 27;
social status of among the races, 228.
Writing, 115, 241.
Wu-Suns, 224, 260.
Würm glaciation, 106, 133, 170, 171.
Würtemberg, Alpines in, 140–141;
loss of population in during the Thirty Years’ War, 184.
Würtembergers, 135.
Zanzibar, 82.
Zendavesta, 258.
Zendic language, 255, 259.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in
spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed.
3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The passing of the great race,: or, The racial basis of European history" ***
Copyright 2023 LibraryBlog. All rights reserved.